HUMAN PERFORMANCE

The atmosphere
The atmosphere of earth is a layer of gasses commonly know as air
that surrounds the planet. Aviation generally operated within the
troposphere.

Composition of air
Air is a mixture of gasses composed of
 78% nitrogen
 21% oxygen
 1% other (water vapor, carbon dioxide)

The composition of air doesn’t change as altitude increases

Gas laws
Boyle’s Law
The volume of a given amount of gas held at a constant temperature
varies inversely with the applied pressure when the temperature and
mass are constant

Charles’s Law
Charles's Law states that the volume of a given mass of gas varies
directly with the absolute temperature of the gas when pressure is
kept constant. The absolute temperature is temperature measured
with the Kelvin scale

Gay-Lussac’s Law
Gay Lussac's Law - states that the pressure of a given amount of gas
held at constant volume is directly proportional to the Kelvin
temperature. If you heat a gas, you give the molecules more energy,
so they move faster. This means more impacts on the walls of the
container and an increase in the pressure.

Respiratory system
 It supplies energy giving oxygen to the body and removes carbon
dioxide
 It is made up of the lungs and the muscles in the chest wall that
facilitate the action of breathing
 It detects both the need for more blood to certain parts of the
body, and the amount of carbon dioxide in the blood

Principle of diffusion
Gas moves from region of higher concentration to regions regions of
lower pressure.

Circulatory system
The heart
It is a muscle which pumps blood
Blood vessels
Tubular structures than carry blood around the body- arteries, veins,
capillaries
Blood
It is the fluid that consists of cells that are suspended in fluid called
plasma which is mostly water but also contains proteins

The functions of the cardiovascular system

1. Transport nutrients and oxygen: Delivers essential nutrients
and oxygen to tissues.
2. Remove waste: Carries waste like carbon dioxide for
excretion.
3. Regulate body temperature: Adjusts blood flow to maintain
temperature.
4. Maintain pH and fluid balance: Keeps acid-base and fluid
levels stable.
5. Protection: Transports immune cells and aids in clotting.
 6. Distribute hormones: Carries hormones to target organs for
regulation.

 The heart is a muscular organ roughly the size of a closed fist.

 As the heart contracts it pumps blood around the body. It carries
deoxygenated blood to the lungs where it loads up with oxygen
and unloads carbon dioxide a waste product of metabolism
 The heart blood and blood vessels combined are referred to as
the circulatory system.

Chambers of heart
1. Atrial Systole: The atria contract, forcing blood into the
ventricles. The atrioventricular (AV) valves are open, allowing blood
to flow from the atria to the ventricles.
2. Ventricular Systole: The ventricles contract, closing the AV
valves to prevent back-flow and pushing blood into the pulmonary
artery (to the lungs) and the aorta (to the rest of the body). The
semilunar valves open during this stage to allow blood to exit the
heart.
3. Diastole: Both the atria and ventricles relax, allowing blood to
flow into the atria from the veins. The AV valves reopen, and blood
passively fills the ventricles, preparing for the next cycle.

Hypoxia
Hypoxia is defined as a lack of oxygen in the body tissues. This can
be caused by a shortage of oxygen in the air being breathed or by a
number of physiology issues effecting blood circulatory or the
quantity of oxygen carried by hemoglobin in the blood.
The brain is effected quite early so a fake sense of security and well
being may be present. Physical movements will become clumsy, but
the pilot may not notice this.

Types of hypoxiaThe types of hypoxia include:

Hypoxic Hypoxia
Insufficient oxygen in the air or lungs leads to low oxygen levels in
the blood (e.g., high altitude).
Anemic Hypoxia
Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood due to low red blood
cells or hemoglobin (e.g., anemia).
Stagnant (Circulatory) Hypoxia
Inadequate blood flow, leading to reduced oxygen delivery to tissues
(e.g., heart failure, shock).
Histotoxic Hypoxia
Tissues cannot utilize oxygen properly, even though oxygen is
available, usually due to toxins (e.g., cyanide poisoning).

Carbon monoxide poisoning

Carbon monoxide is produced is produced during the combustion of
fuel

Symtoms
Headache dizzyness and nausea
Detariortion in vision
Impaired judjment and memory
Personality change

How to reduce the chances of hypoxia

 Staying fit and healthy
 Pressurized cabin
 Not smoking
  Ensure oxygen masked is used at higher than 10000ft

Hyperventilation
It can occur when the body over breathes mainly due to anxiety
It flushes the carbon dioxide out of the blood in turn-----------

The effects of accelerations on the circulatory system

Acceleration stress happens when rapid speed or direction changes
put forces on the body.
 +Gz (Positive G-Force): Blood moves to the lower body, reducing
brain blood flow, risking fainting.
 -Gz (Negative G-Force): Blood rushes to the head, causing vision
issues or possible brain damage.
 +Gx/-Gx (Transverse G-Force): Affects chest and back, making
breathing and movement harder.
It’s common in aviation and high-speed environments

Positive acceleration stress

- Positive acceleration stress occurs when the direction of

acceleration is along the long axis of the body from head to foot.
- From 1 g to 2 g, there is an awareness of increased pressure and a
general feeling of heaviness in the seat, hands, and feet.
- 3 and 4 g further increase this sensation, and movement of the
extremities becomes difficult; unless the trunk and head are
supported, it may be difficult to keep them erect.
- Eyesight may become limited, or there may be total "blackout."
- Unconsciousness can occur when the force exerted is from 3 to 5 g.

Negative Acceleration Stress

- Negative acceleration stress occurs when the direction of
acceleration is from feet to head.
- This causes a slight displacement of the internal organs in the
abdomen and chest and a rush of blood to the face accompanied by
the feeling of congestion.
- When the force is from 3 to 4.5 g, the eyes feel as though they are
protruding, and there is a gritty feeling under the eyelids because of
swelling in the small blood vessels.
- There may be temporary loss of vision, or all objects may appear
red; this latter condition is known as "red-out."

Hypertension (High Blood Pressure)

Hypertension, or high blood pressure, is when the force of blood
against artery walls is consistently too high. It can lead to serious
health problems, such as heart disease, stroke, and kidney damage.

There are two types:

1. Primary Hypertension: Develops gradually with no specific
cause.
2. Secondary Hypertension: Caused by an underlying condition,
such as kidney disease or hormonal disorders.

Common risk factors include obesity, smoking, lack of exercise, high

salt intake, stress, and family history. Hypertension is often called a
“silent killer” because it may not show symptoms but can still cause
damage over time.

Causes of high blood pressure

 Smoking
 Overweight
 Lack of physical activity
 Stress
 Older age
 Genetics
 Family history of high blood pressure
 Chronic kidney disease
 Sleep apnea

Coronary Hearth Disease

Coronary heart disease (CHD) occurs when the coronary arteries,
which supply blood to the heart, become narrowed or blocked due to
plaque buildup. This reduces blood flow to the heart, leading to chest
pain (angina), heart attacks, or other heart complications.
Nervous system
The nervous system controls and coordinates the body’s activities. It
consists of two main parts:

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Includes the brain and spinal cord, responsible for processing
information and sending out responses.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Comprises all nerves outside the CNS, transmitting signals between
the CNS and the rest of the body.

The nervous system regulates voluntary actions (like movement) and

involuntary actions (like breathing and heart rate), while also
processing sensory information from the environment.

Eyesight
The eye is the most important sensory organ for flying
The main component of the eye are the cornea and lens, the retina
and the optic nerve
Anatomy of eye

Cornea- transparent cap over the lens, trough which the light rays
first pass
Iris- Colored membrane between cornea and lens
Lens- It is transparent to light, but we change its shape with the
ciliary muscles surrounding it, allowing us to focus the light rays
Retina- light sensitive layer located at the back of the eye. It is the
screen onto which the lens focuses images. It contains two types of
cells: cones and rods
Cones
In the central area and are sensitive to colors and detail by the day
Rods
In the peripheral area and are sensitive to night vision and
movement
Visual field
The entire area that a person is able to see when their eyes are fixed
in one position.

Foveal vision
Vision in the center of the field of vision, where visual acuity is at its
highest.

Peripheral vision
side vision, responsible for detecting movement and objects outside
the direct line of sight. It relies on rods, which are nerve cells located
mostly outside the retina's center (macula).
- Our peripheral vision works better than our foveal vision at night
because the rods, which react best to dim light, are located in the
retina’s periphery. This is why pilots are trained to use their
peripheral vision for spotting traffic, rather than only looking straight
ahead.

Binocular vision
The blind spot is the small area on the retina of the eye where the
nerve fibers from the light sensitive cells on the retina lead into the
optic nerve.
Monocular vision
Monocular vision is vision in which each eye is used separately,
providing a limited field of view and depth perception compared to
binocular vision (using both eyes together). It allows for a wider
overall field of view but reduces depth cues, making it harder to
judge distances accurately.

Night vision
Rods take around 30 minutes to adapt fully to darkness
They will immediately lose the adaptation to bright white light and
take another 30 mins to adjust.
A good oxygen supply is also essential for good night vision, which
can begin to deteriorate at cabin altitudes higher than 4000ft

Scanning for aircraft by day

 Divide windscreen into 10 degrees imaginary sections
 Short regularly spaced movements spending a few seconds on
each section
 Scan carefully using short eye movements
 Avoid random sweeping movements
Scanning for aircraft by night
 Similar techniques to that used during the day
 As discussed earlier peripheral vision is the most sensitive at
night
 During scanning at night the pilot should scan the sections
slower

Factors affecting our vision

Flickering light
 Automatically attract the yes
 Cause of unease of discomfort
 Can also bring about epileptic fits
Glare
 Whilst flying our eyes can also be exposed to light coming from
below us after being reflected by objects or clouds

Defective vision

-Near-sightedness (Myopia)
 Focus is in front of the retina due to a strong cornea/lens or a long
eyeball. Divergent lenses correct this.
Far-sightedness (Hyperopia)
Focus is behind the retina due to a weak cornea/lens or a short
eyeball. Convergent lenses correct this.
Presbyopia
The lens loses flexibility with age, affecting focus on close objects.
Around age 45, reading glasses may be needed.

Hearing

Structure of ear
The structure of the ear is divided into 3 areas. Outer, middle and
inner ear
Outer ear
External ear- used as a megaphone to gather sound signals
Outer canal- throughout which the pressure waves pass
Ear drum- caused to vibrate in harmony with the pressure waves
Middle ear
Air filled cavity containing three small bones: malleus incus and
stapes. They are also referred to as the hammer, anvil and stirrup
respectively, and collectively known as ossicles, which are forced to
move by the vibrating eardrum, converting the pressure wave
energy into mechanical energy of motion

Inner ear
Cochlea
Converts vibrations from the ossicles into electric signals, which
then travel via the auditory nerve to the brain for interpretation.

Vestibular apparatus
Consists of the static organ and semicircular canals arranged along
the X, Y, and Z axes. These contain fluid and small hairs that convert
gravity and acceleration forces into electrical signals sent to the
brain for interpretation.

Flight related hazards to hearing

Climbing Higher
- Outside pressure decreases, making middle ear pressure higher.
- This pressure difference causes ear drum pain.
- The Eustachian tube vents air to the throat to equalize pressure.
Descending to a Lower Altitude
- Outside pressure increases, making middle ear pressure lower.
- Pressure causes the ear drum to cave in, leading to pain.
- The Eustachian tube struggles to vent air into the middle ear,
causing more pain during descent.

Hearing loss
Conductive
Occurs due to blockages in the outer ear canal (e.g., ear wax), fluid
or pressure issues in the middle ear (such as barotrauma), or
problems with the ossicle bones and joints.
Sensory or noise-induced
Involves a loss of sensitivity in the hair cells of the cochlea, often
caused by noise exposure, infections, or aging.

Presbycusis
Refers to the natural loss of hearing that occurs with aging,
particularly affecting higher frequencies.
Alcoholism or excessive use of medication
Can also contribute to hearing loss.

Equilibrium
Inner ear containing the 3 semi circular canals sense accelerations in
the 3 axis.

Motion sickness Causes

 Mismatch of balance signals from the ears and visual signals
from eyes
 Balance mechanisms of the inner ear continually being over
simulated by acceleration.
Symptoms - Discomfort, sweating, vertigo, and vomiting

Spatial disorientation
In flight, motion, speed, forces, and gravity changes can confuse the
orientation system, leading to a false perception of position and
movement. This is more common when there’s no visible horizon,
like during a dark night or in Instrument Meteorological Conditions
(IMC). Other contributing factors include malfunctioning flight
instruments, high workload, or poor Crew Resource Management
(CRM).

Types of spatial disorientation "illusions"

Somatogravic
Perceiving linear acceleration or deceleration as climbing or
descending.
Somatogyral
Failing to detect movement or perceiving it in the opposite direction
from reality.
Somatogravic illusions
Somatogravic illusions are sensory misperceptions that occur during
rapid acceleration or deceleration,
Common types include:
1. Forward Illusion: During rapid acceleration, a pilot may feel as
if they are pitching forward, leading them to mistakenly believe they
are climbing when they are actually in level flight.
2. Backward Illusion: During rapid deceleration, individuals may
feel as if they are pitching backward, causing them to believe they
are descending when they are level.
These illusions can impair a person’s ability to gauge their true
position and movement, potentially leading to disorientation and
incorrect responses to flight conditions.

Spatial disorientation
Whether avoiding or recovering from all types of spatial
disorientation and visual illusions the remedy is the same

Illusions
Physical Visual Illusion
When distant objects appear nearer due to atmospheric conditions,
such as mountains looking closer in clear, low-humidity weather. A
classic example is the bending of a stick when partially immersed in
water.
Physiological Optical Illusion
These arise from overstimulation of the brain's senses (light,
movement, color, size). Examples include geometric illusions and
impossible figures, where a two-dimensional image appears three-
dimensional.

Psychological Illusion
Occurs in the visual pathway, often due to overstimulation of specific
receptors.