KENYATTAUNIVERSITY

DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING

IN COLLABORATION WITH

DEPARTMENT: HISTORY ARCHAEOLOGY AND POLITICAL STUDIES

UNIT CODE & NAME AHT 401 – THEMES IN THE HORN OF

AFRICA

WRITTEN BY: EDITED BY:

COURSE AUTHOR’S NAME

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Copyright © Kenyatta University, 2009

All Rights Reserved
Published By:
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY PRESS

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 Table of Contents
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................ 1
COURSE OUTLINE ...................................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 6
COURSE OBJECTIVES ................................................................................................................ 6
LECTURER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.0 MAPPING AND PROFILING THE PEOPLE; PRE- COLONIAL AND COLONIAL
HISTORIES .................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Lecture Objectives................................................................................................................. 7
1.3 Mapping the Horn of Africa ................................................................................................. 7
Ethiopia.................................................................................................................................... 7
Somalia .................................................................................................................................... 8
The Republic of Djibouti ......................................................................................................... 8
Eritrea ...................................................................................................................................... 9
1.4 The context of the conflict in the HOA ............................................................................... 10
1.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.6 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 12
1.7 Lecture Activities ................................................................................................................ 12
1.8 Self-Test Question ............................................................................................................... 12
1.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................................... 12
LECTURE TWO .......................................................................................................................... 13
2.0 SIGNIFICANCE OF HOA REGION TO WORLD POLITICS ............................................ 13
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Lecture objectives ............................................................................................................... 13
2.3 Reason why the horn of Africa is very crucial .................................................................... 13
2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 16
2.5 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Lecture Activities ...................................................................................................................... 16
Self-Test Questions ................................................................................................................... 16
2.8 Further Reading ................................................................................................................... 16

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LECTURE THREE ....................................................................................................................... 18
EMERGENCE OF HUMAN INSECURITY AND THE CRISIS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA 18
3.0 BORDER AND ETHNIC CONFLICT .................................................................................. 18
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 18
3.2 Objectives ........................................................................................................................ 18
3.3 Ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa ................................................................................ 18
3.3.1 Causes of ethnic conflicts in the HOA ......................................................................... 18
3.3.2 Impacts of ethnic conflicts in the HOA ........................................................................ 19
3.4 Border Disputes in the HOA ............................................................................................... 19
3.4.1 Historical context of border disputes in the HOA ........................................................ 19
3.4.2 Border battles in the HOA ............................................................................................ 20
3.4.3 Impacts of border disputes in the HOA ........................................................................ 20
3.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 20
3.6 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 20
3.7 Activities ............................................................................................................................. 21
3.8 Self Test............................................................................................................................... 21
3.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................................... 21
LECTURE FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 22
4.0 PIRACY AND TERRORISM IN THE HORN OF AFRICA ................................................ 22
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22
4.2 Lecture Objectives............................................................................................................... 22
4.3 Definition of piracy and terrorism ....................................................................................... 22
4.4 Causes of piracy and terrorism in the HOA ........................................................................ 22
4.5 Impacts of piracy and terrorism in the HOA ....................................................................... 25
4.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 26
4.7 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 26
4.8 Activities.......................................................................................................................... 26
4.9 Self Test............................................................................................................................... 26
Further Reading ......................................................................................................................... 26
LECTURE FIVE ........................................................................................................................... 27
5.0 PROLIFERATION OF SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS ..................................... 27

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 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 27
5.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 28
5.3 Small Arms and Light Weapons and Their Sources in the HOA........................................ 28
5.4 Reason for the proliferation of SALWs in the HOA ........................................................... 29
5.5 Impacts of the proliferation of SALWs in the HOA. .......................................................... 29
5.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 29
5.7 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 29
5.8 Activities ............................................................................................................................. 29
5.9 Self-Test .............................................................................................................................. 30
5.10 Further Reading ................................................................................................................. 30
LECTURE SIX ............................................................................................................................. 30
6.0 FOOD INSECURITY IN THE HORN OF AFRICA ............................................................. 30
6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 30
6.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 30
6.3 Defining food security ......................................................................................................... 31
6.4 Causes of food insecurity in the HOA ................................................................................ 31
6.5 Impacts of food insecurity in the HOA ............................................................................... 31
6.6 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 31
6.7 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 32
6.8 Activities ............................................................................................................................. 32
6.9 Self-Test .............................................................................................................................. 32
6.10 Further Reading ................................................................................................................. 32
LECTURE SEVEN ....................................................................................................................... 33
7.0 RESOURCE BASED CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA ......................................... 33
7.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 33
7.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 33
7.3 Resource Scarcity and Conflicts in the HOA ..................................................................... 33
7.4 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 34
7.5 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 34
7.6 Activities ............................................................................................................................. 35
7.7 Self-Test .............................................................................................................................. 35

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 7.8 Further Reading ................................................................................................................... 35
LECTURE EIGHT........................................................................................................................ 35
8.0 HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION, GENDER, CHILDREN AND YOUTH ISSUES IN THE
HORN OF AFRICA ..................................................................................................................... 35
8.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 35
8.2 Objective ............................................................................................................................. 36
8.3 introduction to human rights ............................................................................................... 36
8.4 Violation of human rights ................................................................................................... 36
8.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 36
8.6 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 36
8.7 Activities ............................................................................................................................. 37
8.8 Self-Test .............................................................................................................................. 37
8.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................................... 37
LECTURER NINE ....................................................................................................................... 37
9.0 THE PETRO DOLLAR CRISIS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA ............................................ 37
9.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 37
9.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................ 38
9.3 Actors in the petro dollar crisis in the HOA........................................................................ 38
9.4 The impacts of petro dollar crisis in the HOA .................................................................... 38
9.5 Summary ............................................................................................................................. 39
9.6 Note ..................................................................................................................................... 39
9.7 Activities ............................................................................................................................. 39
9.8 Self-Test .............................................................................................................................. 39
9.9 Further Reading ................................................................................................................... 39
LECTURE TEN ............................................................................................................................ 40
10.0 POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE HOA ................................... 40
10.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 40
10.2 Objective ........................................................................................................................... 41
10.3 International and interstate relations in the HOA.............................................................. 41
10.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 41
10.5 Note ................................................................................................................................... 42

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 10.6 Activities ........................................................................................................................... 42
10.7 Self-Test ............................................................................................................................ 42
10.8 Further Reading ................................................................................................................. 42
LECTURE ELEVEN ................................................................................................................. 43
11. 0 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND
PEACE IN HORN OF AFRICA................................................................................................... 43
11.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 43
11.2 Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 43
11.2 Initiatives towards regional integration in the Horn of Africa .......................................... 43
11.3 Challenges to regional integration and cooption in the HOA ........................................... 43
11.4 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 43
11.5 Note ................................................................................................................................... 44
11.6 Activities ........................................................................................................................... 44
11.7 Self-Test ............................................................................................................................ 44
11.8 Further Reading ................................................................................................................. 44
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 45

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 COURSE OUTLINE

INTRODUCTION
This course introduces the students to the major issues that have been of great significance to the
history of the HOA. The Horn of Africa is home to diverse and dynamic communities of people
who live within and across national borders in some of the richest and harshest physical terrains
in the world. Their histories are interconnected, as are their cultural traditions. The course offers a
historical exploration of the crises afflicting the horn and interrogates continuity and change under
new political leadership at the national and sub national level across the region. The course is
divided into three section. The first section deals with the geographical description and the
mapping of the origin and conflict in the HOA. In the second part, the course give a systematic
description of the challenges and problems facing the HOA with close reference to the security
related issues. The last section of this course examines the prospects of sustainable peace and
development in the region.

COURSE OBJECTIVES
By the end of this module, learners should be able to

• Give a profile of the people in the horn of africa

• Explain the Significance of HOA region to world politics
• Discuss the Emergence of human insecurity in the horn of africa
• Discuss the crisis in the HOA
• Give the Challenges and prospects of sustainable development and peace in HOA

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 LECTURER ONE

1.0 MAPPING AND PROFILING THE PEOPLE; PRE- COLONIAL AND

COLONIAL HISTORIES
1.1 Introduction
The horn of Africa consist of the countries that lie eastern most extension of African land. These
countries include Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, Djibouti and Sudan and south Sudan. Some scholars
also include Kenya and Uganda on the belief that their cultures have been linked throughout their
long history. In this way broadly defined the horn of africa includes all of kenya, Somalia,
Djibouti, Eritrea Ethiopia and the larger sudan however, in the narrow sense some scholars have
only considered the horn of africa as region comprising of the area populated by the Somali
people including Somalia, Djibouti and northern part of kenya and the Ogden part of Ethiopia. To
these scholars, the former countries constitute the greater HOA.

1.2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of this lecture, learners should be able to discuss the historical factors that have
exacerbated the ongoing humanitarian conflict in the horn of Africa

1.3 Mapping the Horn of Africa

Ethiopia
This is the largest and the most varied of the countries in the HOA. It is twice the size of Somali
and it covers about 1.259K Sq KM. Ethiopia borders Kenya, Somalia and Djibouti. Ethiopia is
one of the poorest countries in the world. The population of the country is over 94.1 million with
majority being the youths who have for a long time remained an explosive force for war. With the
exception of the permanent snow covered peaks, Ethiopia boasts of every climatological
conditions found in Africa. The world’s most extensive fault and the R. valley all cut across the
centre of Ethiopia. Mountains dot very part of the country but to the east of the rift valley is a
lower and more level area called the Somali plateau, which slopes, from the arid semi desert area
called Ogaden.

The Blue Nile River, the most vital in Ethiopia is also a source of LakeTana and provided 2/3 of
the water of the Nile below Khartoum. Other rivers such as the Juba and the Shebellee are of
great significance to Somalia. While these rivers are not navigable, they offer a potential for a
great deal of hydroelectric power, which is yet to be exploited.

Roads in Ethiopia have not provided a sustainable impetus to the sustainable economic
development but one railroadlinks AddisAbaba with the port of Djibouti. Natural features do not
define most of the boundaries between Ethiopia and her neighbors. Some scholars call these
artificial borders. For instance, the border between Ethiopia and Djibouti was determined and
created by the Franco-Italian agreement of 1935. The border with Kenyawas determined byGreat

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Britain and Ethiopia prior to Kenya’s independence in 1963. The border with Sudan was
determined in 1902 and is not a matter of today’s dispute. The treat signed by GreatBritain,Italy
and Ethiopia have been at the centre of today’s conflict between Somalia and Ethiopia. Somalia
does not recognize these artificial borders created after the various treaties. In fact, one of the
primary roots of conflicts in the HOA is borders

Somalia
Somalia is bordered by Kenya, Ethiopia, Djibouti the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean. The
country covers a surface area of 637,540 sq KM with a long costal line of 2960 KMs, whichhas
rarely been exploited. Fishing is one of the major important economic activities in Somalia. The
country is semi-arid with a number of plateaus and plains, few mountains and no permanent rivers
called the Guan (Burnt land). The presence of the rains has brought many pastoralists into the
plains to the west for pasture but in the arid areas of the south and east conflict over pasture are
order of the day. The western area calledHaud with its rich pastures extends into Ethiopia’s Ogaden
Province which a centre of constant conflicts.

The only permanent rivers in Somalis are juba and Shebelle and when they dried in 1980
agriculture was disrupted. Furthermore, since the two rivers originate from Ethiopia, they have
become a weapon by the Ethiopians who often divert the waters to avoid reaching Somalis’
farmlands. Comparing it with Ethiopia, Somali is poor and only 15% of Somali land is arable.
About 60% of the population is nomadic, 15% are farmers and therest are urbanites. There are
three ports alongSomali’s coastline. Berbera on the Gulf of Aden, Mogadishu and kisimayu on the
Indian Ocean. Berbera was built by the Soviet Union and is military port facility currently
extended to support the interest of the USA. Somali borders are all controversial since the country
does not recognize the treaties that established these borders. Accordingly, after the creation of the
greater Somali movement, the flag that came out have a five-pointed star as its main design. Each
star apart of Somali people. Of these, two represent British and Italian Somaliland, which became
Somalia and the other three points, represents the lost territories that are outside the border of
Somalia. These include most parts of Djibouti, the northern part of Kenya and the Ogaden region
of Ethiopia. Somalia has often times attempted to gain these areas and the major conflicts have
emerged in the HOA.

The Republic of Djibouti

Djibouti is the former French territory of the Afar and Issas. It is a country between volcanic rocks
and is bordered by Somalia and Ethiopia but both countries seek to deny each other of Djibouti
resulting to various conflicts. The country has rich harbors on the gulf of Tadjoura and it
dominates the Bab el Mandeb which control access to the Suez canal; whose port is the best on
the on the entire of HOA since it can handle up to 12 ships (ocean ) type at once. Scholars refersthis
region as a valley of hell or a country whose landscape is a nightmare. All the countries on the
HOA especillay Ethiopia and Somalia are also scenes of nightmares. Little agriculture strives and
the grazing areas for nomads are few in the country. 90% of the population isilliterate and about
85% are jobless thus Djibouti survives on French’s contributions.
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Djibouti is strategic for both Somali and Ethiopia since half of the pollution of its population are
Somali. Besides this feeling of nationalism, ownership of the port of Djibouti is controversialsince
the both could be both a large economic asset for the extremely poor Somalis and another strong
anti-Ethiopian weapon. Ethiopia’sinterest lies on the economic stimulus of the port and the 40%
population that is Ethiopian (Afar).

France granted Djibouti independence in 1977 and she still has a number of sustained strategic
interest in the red sea and the Indian Ocean. It is for this interest that France protects Djibouti
from Ethiopians and Somalis. It thus has a French military and a number of administrators.

Eritrea
Eritrea is bordered by Sudan, Ethiopia, Djibouti and the Red sea. The country covers a surface
area of 117, 600 sq KMs and has a coastline of 2234 KM. the country has a population of
6.333 million people. Climatically, the county is hot and dry desert along the red sea coast strip
and cooler and wetter on the central highlands. Towards the wet hill and low lands, the nation is
semi raid. . Only 6.8% of the land is arable. TheDubbi and Nabro ate the major historical volcanoes
in Eritrea. Eritrea has a strategic geopolitical position along the world’s busiest shipping lane. This
is because it retained the entire coastline of Ethiopia along the red sea after its successful break
from Ethiopia in 1993.

Eritrea is a former Italian colony and it gained her independence in 1941. However, in 1952, the
country became an Ethiopian province. Following the thirty-year war, Eritrea became free from
Ethiopia in 1991 and officially declared independence in 1993. Since then, one president under
authoritarian regimes has ruled Eritrea. In 1998, a border dispute erupted between Eritrea and
Ethiopia that ended in 200 under the UN intervention. With this, in 2003, the Eritrean-Ethiopian
boundary commission was established to delimit the border disputes between the two nations. In
2007, the body demarcated a border between Ethiopia and Eritrea based on colonial treaties of
1900. 1902 and 1908. In this demarcation, the town of Badme was given to Eritrea but Ethiopia
has still maintained her trop sin the region. Ethiopia has not accepted the demarcation and neither
of the two countries have had a peaceful dialogue toresolve theconflict.

Majority of the people who inhabit the HOA comprise a number of religions, races languages and
ethnic groupings that have a long history of conflict with each other andamongst themselves. In
nutshell, their living conditions are brutish andwars coupled with disease, malnutrition andfamine.
Many inhabitants havealso become pawns to outside power intent of exploiting the few resources
found in the horn of Africa. Many rely on aid and are therefore prone to political and economic
machination.

The conflicts in the horn of Africa are varied. For example, haslarge population of Christians
andMuslims but many others follow other religions such as pagan, falsha Jews etc. The Christians
and Muslims are the most affected with religious wars. Somalia on the other hand has complicated
history, culture language and religion. While divisions are not asgreat as in Ethiopia, many factors

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such as clan rivalries, economic pressure and political stress divide Somalia. Djibouti on her own
part is an intertying area because it is a conflict scene between Ethiopia and Somalia and national
lacking identity.

1.4The context of the conflict in the HOA

In any given society,those who had preceded them often resist migration of new people into an
any area. In most cases, the land is limited and barely does it support the early inhabitants. Owners
of the and are often aware of the threat posed by the immigrants and they have a choice of either
resisting, accommodating or migrating to another area where they can seize the land from a
weaker power. Both sides also are ware that theirstruggles are not just competition but a matter of
life and death. These issues have historically generated bloody wars in the HOA especially in
Eritrea, Sudan Somalia and the Ogaden. For instance, the numerous waves of migrations in to the
region has resulted into unprecedented conflicts within Ethiopia.

Boundaries have also played an important role in the conflict in the horn of Africa. For instance
the conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea because both nations claim ownership of the AKSUM.
Ethiopia claim that Aksum is its earliest kingdom while Eritrea claimthat theland called Aksumwas
originally her own. For the Ethiopians, Eritrea is part of their land. On their part, Eritrea ugues that
it is not until recently that Ethiopians conqured tier land andthosetheyexisted as distinct entity
independent of Ethiopia.

Slaveryhaalso been a major historical determination in the HOA. One of the factors that links the
countries in the HOA is slavery that was initiated by the Arabic merchants. Conquers of the region
always enslaved parts of the conquredpopulation andslaves were sold to other countries in the
Middle East and Saudi Arabia. For the amhara community, these slaves were used for framing,
household works and other duties. High-ranking army or governmental officials owned large
numbers of slaves. Castration was regarded favorite form of slavery for the blacks in order to
produce eunuchs to care for the family.

Slave ownership was not limited to the Arabic speaking people but also Christians owned slaved
and claimed that slavery was justified in the bible. The early Ethiopia legal code Fetha Nagast
provided for the treatment of slaves and prohibited the enslavement of Christians. Although Haile
Selassie abolished slavery in 1942, holding slaves of other religions and races has had serious
historical ramification for the HOA

The signing of the controversial treaties has also played a major role in exacerbating theconflicts
in the HOA. Ahistorical eventhas seen hostility between one country in the region balding to
constant and persistent full brown wars. For instance, Kenya and Ethiopia have always fought over
their boundary with Kenyans in the northern region having to constantly moving their animals out
of what Ethiopians call their soil. The boundary was drawn without the participation of Kenyans.
It was drawn out of the concession between Ethiopia and Great Britain. The porosity of these

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boundaries is largely due to the manner in which they were arbitrary drawn. May borders divide
people of similar language, clans culture etc.

The 1974 coup in Ethiopia which succeed because of the division in the military in terms of
ethnicity, ranks and religious affiliation hasalso played a big role in motivating people of Somalia,
sudan and Eritrea to Eritrea to fall back to military take over rather than dialogue to solve their
issues. People from the military often head the military government andin ostcases, the bloody
take over r complicates the control of the people. This in turn causesresentments anda viciouscycle
ofcivilian and military suspicion often ending in conflict concessions. The case is most witnesses
in situations where the concernedpeople are from different religions, ethnicity and races. For
instance in 1974, the Muslims joined the streets to voice their oppression by the
Christiangovernment

Besides having a spillover effects, the cup also saw the realignments and suspicion in the
neighboring nations when the Muslims in Saudi Arabia and Kuwait begun sending aid to Eritreans
to protect them against the Ethiopians. The US alsosent aid to Ethiopians but were drained when
the cost of running the war became too high. Somalia alsoreceived financial support from the
soviet government. The Ethiopian government for offering training facilities to the Anti-Sudanese
Nimey rebel also angered Sudan. For this reason,Sudan begin supporting all those who were
fightingagainst Ethiopia. Megistu in 1970-77 considered nimeiry (Sudan rebels) Ethiopia’s worst
enemy and to counter them Sudan pressured Ethiopian rebels to unite against their government
(Ethiopian). The unity was reached during the Khartoum agreement of 1977 and 1978, which
formed the joined command against Ethiopia. Today Sudan supports Eritreans and the Anti-derg
of Ethiopia in the conflict in the HOA while Ethiopia is supporting the Sudanese anti-
nimeiryagainst theirSudangovernment.

The Soviet Union has been supporting Ethiopia has Eritrea agisnts each other. Cubahas been
supporting Ethiopia in their attempt to seize Eritrea. Ethiopia rebels who are not satisfied with the
political conditions in Ethiopia today support Eritreans. However, there are divisions in these
rebels and foreign aid is becoming minimal. Moreover, cub and soviet have now joinedEthiopia
in denying Eritrea independence. It is unclear whether Eritrea is to give up thewar or
whetherEthiopia will accept a compromise to Eritrea. Coupled with the coup, there are regional
revolts that put one rebel agent the other on various fronts egg mole based- Christian , rural verse
urban.

1.5 Summary
From the foregoing discussion, we recognized the idea that the HOA comprise of countries such
as Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Djibouti, larger Sudan and Eritrea, all of which are located at the
easternmost part of African land. These countries are among the world’s poorest nations. The
region is characterized by conflicts and wars majority emanating from the artificial
boundariesdrawndoing the colonial periods, migrationpattern in the region, historical signing of
controversial treaties, 1974 Ethiopian coup and external forces.

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1.6 Note
➢ As much as the HOA is made up of Kenya, Sudan, Eritrea, Somalia, Djibouti and Ethiopia,
the latter four are very important in the issues witnessed in the region.

1.7Lecture Activities
• Discussions
• Note taking
• Question and answer sessions

1.8Self-Test Question
Discuss the historical factors that have exacerbated the ongoing humanitarian conflict in the horn
of Africa

1.9Further Reading

Apsel, J. (2009). The complexity of destruction in Darfur: Historical processes and regional
dynamics. Human Rights Review, 10(2), 239-259.

Cliffe, L. (1999). Regional dimensions of conflict in the Horn of Africa. Third World Quarterly,
20(1), 89-111.

Iyob, R. (2000). The Ethiopian–Eritrean conflict: diasporic vs. hegemonic states in the Horn of
Africa, 1991–2000. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 38(4), 659-682.

Lewis, I. M. (1983). Nationalism &self determination in the Horn of Africa (No. 18). Evergreen
Book Distribution.

Lewis, I. M. (2002). A Modern History of the Somali: nation and state in the Horn of Africa. James
Currey Publishers.

Markakis, J. (1994). Ethnic Conflict and the State in the Horn of Africa. Ethnicity and Conflict in
the Horn of Africa. London: James Currey, 217-38.

Ottaway, M. (1982). Soviet and American influence in the Horn of Africa. Praeger Publishers.
Thompson, V., &Adloff, R. (1968). Djibouti and the Horn of Africa. Stanford University Press.

Zewde, B. (2001). A history of modern Ethiopia, 1855-1991. James Currey Publishers.

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 LECTURE TWO

2.0 SIGNIFICANCE OF HOA REGION TO WORLD POLITICS

2.1 Introduction
In this section we will discuss the significance of the HOA to will politics. It is important to note
that the HOA is a strategically important region in Africa due to its proximity to the Persian
gulf and the fact that it forms the a check point of the sea lanes that pass through the red
sea and the Suez canal. It is a term also given to the to the nearest corner of africa that cuts into
the Indian ocean. The horn likewise shapes the southern portion of the red sea , the gulf of Aden
and the very important babel mandeb (gate of sorrow) which controls) access to the red sea and
the Suez canal.

2.1 Lecture objectives

By the end of the lecture, learners should be able to;

➢ Discuss the significance of the HOA in the world politics

2.3 Reason why the horn of Africa is very crucial

Scholars have cited several reasons why the horn of Africa is very crucial to the world politics. To
begin with, the HOA is a critical geopolitical area due to its proximity to the red sea, the
Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. The HOA is a scene of conflicts related to these waters
and piracy has become a common feature on the region.

More over the HOA is a region where super powers have increasingly invested theirresources
and prestige and therefore it has the potential of breeding new conflicts out of the tangled
conflict of the past. The HOA has ironical occurrences. While its political contradictions, long
bloody wars have been meted on thousands of people who have died, lostproperty or displaced.
This has in most cases been occasioned by the artificial and imaginary borders haphazardly drawn
by the colonial powers. The borders many of them incomprehensible of the nomadic people
inhabiting the region have made many of them wonder and search for security. They were
not involved when the borders were drawn but they have eventually became the centre of
the conflict based on ethnic, religious and cultural issues a key factor that led to the creation
of regional bodies like OAU, IGAD, to resolve the crisis.

The complex representation of the religious interest in the region by the soviet, Arabs, and
the Israelites have also seen Christians and Muslims engaging in bloody wars supported by
the USA and other western powers whose interest is to siphon resources from the region.

Another major factor lies in the presence of Ethiopia a country that remains the symbol of
African pride. Ethiopia was never colonized and scholars have used it to explain the might
of Africa.

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The horn is a beautiful and often harsh land there are lush jungles, steep , rugged , often
inaccessible plateaus and mountains , hot humid coastal plains , incredible volcanic deserts still
live with volcanic activities, hot fusty and dry grass lands and excepting Ethiopia ,little arable
land. The land is 750 000 squaremiles and its hostility only allows a small amount of rainfall both
for the nomadic ethnic groups and the farmer to settle to practice their activities. The erraticism
of rainfall has been a constant theme in the HOA as droughts have been occurring in great
frequency. Drought combine with increasing population and wider conflicts to impose heavy
burdens in the inhabitation of the HOA.

The horn has been also a cross road between Africa and the Middle East. The coastal low
lands provides ports, which supports a vibrant trade, and the same ports have provided
access to the HOA invaders.

The large mountains have also played a role in explaining the crisis in the HOA. The mountainous
Ethiopia has for instance divided and localized the large populations of Ethiopia into distinct
highly independent ethnic groups the isolation of Ethiopia ironically contributed to its non-
colonization. This also explains why the pull of separatism is so strong in Ethiopia and perhaps
why the central government must often use so much force to impose control.

The Houthis’ recent acts of piracy in the Bab el Mandeb Strait along with Iran’s threats to
close off the Strait of Hormuz and to disturb navigation in the Red Sea illustrate the vital
importance of these sea lanes for global trade in general and energy supplies in particular
and why they are often taken hostage in international strategic manoeuvring.

The turn of events in the Horn of Africa has direct consequences for the safety and future
of all seaports on the Red Sea as well as on the national security of the Arabian Gulf and
must be considered a test balloon for the power struggle at international and regional
levels.

Within the context of the new geopolitical conditions in which the Saudi-led Arab coalition plays
the role of the main lever behind forming alliances and increasing resistance to non-Arab
political interests keen on infiltrating the region and threatening Arab economic interests and
security, Ethiopian and Eritrean interests take a different and surprising dimension.

The Horn of Africa enjoys an excellent strategic location south-west of the Red Sea and the Gulf
of Aden. It refers to four countries — Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia and Djibouti — but, in its wider
political and economic context, the term also includes Sudan, South Sudan, Kenya and Uganda.

The strategic importance of this East African region comes from it being the source of the
Nile and a gate to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden. Its location on one side of some of the
world’s major trade sea lanes and land routes gives it vital importance. Its importance
increases because of its proximity to the oil-rich Arabian Peninsula.

14
The area has always been a magnet for international powers because of the sea traffic
going by, major ports in the area, tremendous nearby riches, weapons trading, crossing
points for people and merchandise and the dangers of piracy.

The international importance of the Horn of Africa was boosted after the first war on Iraq
and foreign intervention in Somalia. Now, with the war in Yemen, the international and
regional competition for control over the Horn of Africa is at its fiercest.

Besides positioning for control of the major ports in the area, there are the Chinese
competing with the West in Djibouti, the Turks claiming a foothold in Somalia and the
Saudis and Emiratis marking their presence in Assab on Eritrea’s southern Red Sea coast
as well as in surrounding islands and inland in Somalia.

The strategic importance of the Horn of Africa contrasts sharply with its tragic economic
conditions. During the past two decades, the region has seen horrible human tragedies because of
famines and wars. The world still remembers the tragic famines in Ethiopia and Eritrea and how
these two countries depended for a long time on foreign aid. It must also not be forgotten that the
1998 war between these belligerent sister countries caused the death of about 100,000 people and
ended any contact between them.

Ethiopia in recent years has been achieving respectable economic growth. Regional tensions,
however, with Eritrea and Egypt because of Ethiopia’s Grand Renaissance Dam project
increased until the beginning of 2018.

One can say that a serious regional crisis in the Horn of Africa was averted with the advent of a
new young, wise and realistic leadership in Ethiopia in April. Abiy Ahmed is the first Muslim
prime minister in a country with a Christian majority. He belongs to the Oromo tribes, the largest
tribal group in Ethiopia, who had led the anti-government protests for the past three years.

Contrary to expectations, the power transition in Ethiopia was peaceful and ushered in a new era.
The deep state that former Prime Minister Meles Zenawi was assumed to have left in place
turned out to be weaker than thought or perhaps was weakened by the massive campaign of
changes in the military and security leaderships.

Last June however, there was an assassination attempt on Ahmed. Mounting tensions with the
Tigrayans might lead them to look for foreign allies to bring Ahmed’s regime down or start anti-
government discussions with other minorities in Ethiopia who fear the Omoros’ monopoly on
power.

To counter the delicate situation inside Ethiopia and to protect his own internal position, Ahmed
looked for foreign partners. The United Arab Emirates played an important role, brokering a
historic peace agreement between Ethiopia and Eritrea. A breakthrough was made in the crisis
between Ethiopia and Egypt and tripartite talks with Sudan about sharing the Nile waters
resumed.

15
These developments might be part of a comprehensive security system extending from the
Arabian Sea to the Suez Canal. Let’s not forget that Ethiopia and Eritrea had a role in the war in
Yemen. Their coordination efforts with the Arab coalition will affect its outcome.

Another unexpected consequence was freeing Ethiopia from its dependence on Djibouti Port by
switching its maritime traffic to the Eritrean ports of Assab and Massawa. Somalia might
become interested in this regional detente and end the cycle of violence and destruction gripping
it.

In the wider political, economic and security contexts, there is a race between promises of
development and openness on the shores of the Red Sea thanks to Saudi Crown Prince
Mohammed bin Salman bin Abdulaziz’s NEOM project and Iranian Major-General Qassem
Soleimani’s threats to consider the Red Sea a war zone because of the United States’ presence in
the region.

2.4 Summary
The horn of Africa is very significant to the world politics due to its strategic location in the red
desert, Persian Gulf and Indian oceans. Moreover, the region is a home to Ethiopia, whichwe
regarded as the pride of Africa; furthermore, HOA iscrossroad between Africa and Middle East.
The investments by the superpowers in the region aos places the region in a very crucial position
in the world politics. The conflicts generated from the artificial and imaginary borders has led to
conflicts tht have seen the formation of bodies like IGAD and OAU to solve the crisis. With
this,therefore the HOA remains a very crucial region in the world politics.

2.5 Note
➢ Ethiopia as a pride of Africa, gives Africans reasons to explain that they were capable of
ruling themselves, and develop a distinct civilization based on indigenous belief system.

Lecture Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

Self-Test Questions
Assess the importance of the Horn of Africa to world history

2.8 Further Reading

Bell, J. B. (1973). The Horn of Africa: strategic magnet in the seventies (No. 21). New York:
Published by Crane, Russak [for] National Strategy Information Center.

16
Brandt, S. A. (1986). The Upper Pleistocene and early Holocene prehistory of the Horn of
Africa. African Archaeological Review, 4(1), 41-82.

Clark, J. D. (1954). The prehistoric cultures of the Horn of Africa.

Lyons, R. (1978). The USSR, china and the horn of Africa. Review of African Political
Economy, 5(12), 5-30.

Woodward, P. (1996). The Horn of Africa: state politics and international relations (Vol. 6).
British Academic Press.

17
 LECTURE THREE

EMERGENCE OF HUMAN INSECURITY ANDTHE CRISIS IN THE

HORN OF AFRICA

3.0 BORDER AND ETHNIC CONFLICT

3.1 Introduction
Most of the wars that are waged in the HOA can be seen from there ethnic and border angle.
These wars have involve people in the same country fighting among themselves or fighting with
their neighbors especially in search of resources or for various religious reason. Issues of race
have also come into play especially between Arabized communities andAfricans majorly the sole
aim is to attain self-identity and attachment to a certain people within a certain territory.

3.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, the learners should be able to;

• Explain the major cause of ethnic and border conflicts in the HOA.
• Discuss the impacts of Ethic and Borders conflicts in the HOA.
• Suggest solutions to the border and ethnic conflicts in the horn of Africa.

3.3 Ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa

As explained in the introduction section of this lecture, conflicts in the HOA involves people
fighting each other or amongthemselves either within the nation or with their neighbors with each
party aiming to maintain distinct identity. Let us then discuss ethnic conflicts in the HOA before
we proceed to border disputes.

3.3.1 Causes of ethnic conflicts in the HOA

Many of the conflicts dubbed ethnic in the HOA involves disagreements over resources. For
instance, pastoralist in Kenya, Sudan, Somalia and Ethiopia areoften fighting over grazing land
and water for their animal. There are also cases of boundary issues. The boundaries in
Africaweredrawn arbitrary and people of similar activities, language and economic classes were
divided creating suspicion as they claim particularboundaries. This has been the case in Ethiopia
where Somalis have been fighting the Tigreans over the claim of ownership of boundaries in
Elwak. InEritrea, the case has been more complicated withEthiopia having similar ethnic groups
live in Eritrea. This has seen wars that are ethnically instituted degenerate to tribal wars.

Through the most economically deprived yet strategically located, the HOA remain the most
affected by ethnic related conflicts. This has been due to the various issues, the history of
colonialism; resource scarcity and competition spill over cross border when kin groups

18
havesupported those affected. . Changes in the political orders have also seen suspicion as people
of diverse ethnic groups feel sidelined. For instance, ethio-eritrea wars, the eritro-Djobouti war.

In the HOA over 19 coups have been recorded since 1960s 15 of which have been in Sudan. The
conflict in Sudan and southSudanis largely caused by resource competition and political
differences. However, ethnic and race diversities have played role in the escalation of theconflict.
The poor southernersengaged thenortherners who they suspected of amassing more wealth
thattheybelieve to be theirs originally and these saw the creation of a new nation, southSudan.
However, been after succeedingfromthe largerSudan, south Sudan is still in a state of fragility with
ethnic politics and conflicts furling the current crisis in the region. Warring faction normallylook
for allays in the neighboring nations. For instance, the conflict between the Degodia and Garre in
the northern part of Kenya has always seen Degodia from Ethiopia supporting their kins in Kenya.
Additionally, these wars have been based on culture and this have been the case in Ethiopia and
Sudan.

3.3.2 Impacts of ethnic conflicts in the HOA

Many of these conflicts are so violent that they have resulted into deaths, displacement and
destruction of property. There has been cases of breakdown of law and order coupled with
destruction of infrastructure and economy. The ethnic conflicts have led to the deficiency in efforts
for national building and escalated balkanization of people. There are also increased proliferation
of small arms and light weapons that have always been used in these wars.

3.4 Border Disputes in the HOA

Border disputes refers to those conflicts related to communal, national or regional boundaries. The
major pint of concern that normally lead to these disputes is the question on how were these borders
availed and who created them?

3.4.1 Historical context of border disputes in the HOA

In the Horn of Africa, border disputesare caused by competition of resources, religious factors,
and marginalization of the people, disregard of boundaries, territorial invasions, self-identity and
sovereignty as well as colonial legacy. However many if these disputes are based on expansionist
tendencies. These were initiated by Menelik II and perfected by HaileSelassie. In this way, the
history of border disputes in the HOA is based on the legacy of the two individuals. Menelik II
expandedEthiopia by conqueringneighboring land and eventually created a newcapital Addis
Ababa (new flower). He used Ethiopian lands to secure his hold into power by rewarding his
forces with it. He claimed land on the Eritrean side and conquered Havas. Such conquering came
with various economic gains;coffee, gold, ivory and slaves which were sold to obtain weapons.

When Ethiopians defeated Italian in the battle of Adowa they also concluded that theyhad to
acquire colonies in africa the entered into treaties with the governments that controlled
neighboringterritories , [Link], , Britain , Egypt and Germans. Lines were drawnun-surveyed
and the territories they went through unexplored.

19
The first to claim was Italy in 1896. This gave Italy great control over Eritrea and this has
remained a conflicted issue with Eritreaarguing that is they were part of Ethiopia Menelik II
would not have accepted to relinquish it to Italy. In 1897 and 1902, Menelik II also signed treaties
with the British, which defined the borders with British Somaliland and Sudan. In 1897 and 1908,
he signed treaties with Italy clearly defining part of the border between Ethiopia and Italian
Somaliland. The areas gained by Ethiopia had not normally been under Ethiopian control. All
treaties were indeed vague and subject to varying interpretations since future negotiationswere
always accompaniedby payment to Menelik II. Differing treaty interpretation laid the basis for
conflict in the HOA

3.4.2 Border battles in the HOA

Various battles over borders have been recorded in the HOA. Such include ItaliansSomaliland
expansion into Ethiopian territory normallyreferred to as the battle at Wal Wal. In this battle, Haile
Selassiewas aided by the Britain. Another battle is the border conflictsbetween Kenya’s northern
frontier district and Ogaden in Ethiopia. In the shifta,Menace Somaliwas supported by the Soviet
Union while EthiopiasupportedKenya. Somali land was claiming ¼ of the Kenyanland. Moreover,
Djibouti and Ethiopia have had disputes over access to harbors. Somali is in greatdemand for the
Ogaden region of Ethiopia whileEthiopia andEritrea are fighting over the Aksum. However, as
much as this battle are over national boundaries, the y have witnessed eternal support and fuelling
thus becoming ideological wars based on communism and capitalist ideas.

3.4.3 Impacts of border disputes in the HOA

Border disputes in the HOA has devastatingeffects on the populationaswell as the region in
general. Therehas been great cases of human rights violation whit the women and children being
themost affected. Cases of forced enslavement have also been reported with cxhldrte being used
as soldiers. The disputes have further led to loss of life through mass murder and genocides.
Propertyworth, millions of money has been destructed with many becoming IDPS and refugees.
The individual rights of association has been violated with mistrust and hostility being witnessed
among the Christian and Muslim groups.

3.5 Summary
The HOA has witnessed ethnic and border conflicts who causes can be traced from the colonial
legacies, and the acts of Menelik II. However, other causes include competition over resources,
marginalization of some ethnic groups, power struggles, and prolonged desperation disregard of
borders and disagreements over possession or control of land between states. These conflicts are
often violent resulting to loss of life through genocides,vilationof human rights, property
destruction, displacement and the creation of refugees and IDP, mistrust among communities and
heightened human insecurity in the HOA.

3.6 Note
➢ Most of the ethnic and Border conflicts in the HOA are elite driven.

20
3.7 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

3.8 Self Test

Examine the various disputes related to boundaries in the HOA and their impacts on sustainable
development in the region.

3.9 Further Reading

Cliffe, L. (1999). Regional dimensions of conflict in the Horn of Africa. Third World Quarterly,
20(1), 89-111.

Fukui, K. (1994). Ethnicity & conflict in the Horn of Africa. James Currey.

Iyob, R. (2000). The Ethiopian–Eritrean conflict: diasporic vs. hegemonic states in the Horn of
Africa, 1991–2000. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 38(4), 659-682.

Kapil, R. L. (1966). On the conflict potential of inherited boundaries in Africa. World Politics,
18(04), 656-673.

Kornprobst, M. (2002). The management of border disputes in African regional sub-systems:

comparing West Africa and the Horn of Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies,
40(03), 369-393.

Mbembé, J. A., &Rendall, S. (2000). At the edge of the world: Boundaries, territoriality, and
sovereignty in Africa. Public culture, 12(1), 259-284.

Mburu, N. (2003). Delimitation of the Elastic Ilemi Triangle: Pastoral conflicts and official
indifference in the Horn of Africa. African Studies Quarterly, 6(4), 15-37.

Swain, A. (1997). Ethiopia, the Sudan, and Egypt: The Nile River Dispute. The Journal of Modern
African Studies, 35(04), 675-694.

21
 LECTURE FOUR

4.0 PIRACY AND TERRORISM IN THE HORN OF AFRICA

4.1 Introduction
In this lecture, we discuss the crisis of piracy and terrorism that has remained persistent in the
HOA for a long time. We proceed to defining piracy and terrorism, their causes and impacts in
the HOA.

4.2 Lecture Objectives

By the end of the lecture, the learners should be able to

➢ Define the term piracy and terrorism

➢ Explain the major causes of piracy and terrorism in the HOA
➢ Discuss the impacts of piracy and Terrorism in the HOA.

4.3 Definition of piracy and terrorism

Piracy can be defined from two perspective depending on the discipline under study. In one end,
piracy can be regarded as infringing of other people’s copyrights. However, here we define Piracy
as a criminal act that involves theft or robbery at the sea or water bodies.

On the other hand, there is no universally accepted definition terrorism. However, terrorism
encompasses the act of using violence to achieve political aims. These can include the non-state
actor’s aggression against individuals or state.

The two (piracy and Terrorisms) include a criminal act for private ends. Acts of piracy include
abduction, kidnaps denial to basic rights, forced intoacts of humiliation and robbery. Terrorism
on the other hand can be political terrorism, nonpolitical terrorisms quasi terrorism and limited
political terrorism.

4.4 Causes of piracy and terrorism in the HOA

In the horn of Africa, the most affected nation with piracy and terrorism is Somalia. This is
because of the non-existence of the national government, poverty, disillusionment, religious
extremism and existence of militia and criminal gangs.

Moreove Somali is strategically located to the Suez Canal and Gulf of Aden (water bodies) thus
attracting many pirates.

For a longtime, there has been political instability in Somalia due to the failure of the government.
Warlords has also become the order of the day with some economic tycoons using piracy as mean
of achieving their desired ends. Socially, Somalis is marred with food insecurity, drought,
illegal fishing unemployment and high illiteracy levels leading to the use of piracy as an
alternative mean to livelihood. Kidnappers earn a lot of money from the lump sums.

22
In the recent past terror has exacerbated in the HOA with nation such Kenya and Somalis being
major victims. Indeed the northern part of Kenya and Somaliland has witnessed several cases of
terror attacks with counties such as Garrisa, Mandera, Lamu,and Mombasabeing hit most. This is
attributed to the presence of terror groups such as alshaabab in Somalia. More over the porous and
poorly guarded bordersaccelerate the movement ofterrorists in an out ide the counties coupled with
SALWs. There is also the super power involvement in this events leadingto more crisis than
solutions. Globalization and religious fundamentalism and radicalization have also been linked to
piracy and terrorism in the HOA

The collapse of the Somali state and the chaos that has ensued created the environment for piracy and
terrorism to flourish in combination. He also notes how the failure to restore a functioning central
government has allowed both to become dangerous threats not only to the people of Somalia but the
entire world.

Piracy around Somalia started in the 1980s but accelerated after the fall of the Somalian
government in the early 1990s. Originally the pirates claimed they were aiming to stop the rampant
illegal fishing and dumping of toxic waste that continues to this day off the Somali coast.4 After
the fall of the Somali government, piracy started to flourish especially when shipping companies
started paying ransoms, initially in the tens of thousands of dollars range, rising to hundreds of
thousands, and which now amount to millions. The pirates are young Somalis from poor
communities in mainly the Puntland region so far. The majority of attacks have occurred off the
Puntland region of Somalia, near the town of Eyl and in the Mudug region.

The Gulf of Aden is a transit point for the 20,000 ships a year that use the Suez Canal.5 According
to the International Maritime Bureau 2008 Annual Report,6 more than 111 ships have been
attacked in 2008 as compared to 44 in 2007. 92 of the attacks were in the Gulf of Aden with 19
attacks off Somalia. There were 42 successful hijacks in 2008 as compared to 13 in 2007. As of
31 December 2008, there were 13 vessels with 242 crew members being held hostage for ransom
on the East Coast of Somalia. Ransom demanded ranges from US$500,000 to US$2,000,000 and
have escalated towards the end of 2008. Most captured ships are not released for less than
US$10,000. So far ransoms that have been accrued have amounted to between US$18 million to
US$30 million in 2008, according to a report by Chatham House in October.7 Kenya’s foreign
minister has, however, put a higher amount to the ransoms paid and claims that more than US$150
million in ransoms have been paid in 2008.8 The ransoms are usually negotiated directly between
the ship owner and the pirates, but sometimes a middle man is used.

As the pirates become more successful and more profitable, it attracted the attention of Somali
clan warlords. Apparently, the pirates are able to operate across clan lines for mutual benefit and
have opened new, lucrative, multi-clan franchises. Officials have been reported to be complicit as
well and as such it may not be the case that the authorities in Puntland want to stop the piracy.
There are reports of nefarious relationships between fishing companies, private security

23
contractors and Somali government officials. Although the jails are full of criminals, there seems
to be a lack of will to prosecute, or the inability to fully house all the criminals in their jails. Many
people are now flocking to these pirate havens to be recruited and to participate in piracy which
may overwhelm the ability of the local jurisdiction to cope and respond.9

Islamists have also been reported to help with bases from which the pirates operate and arms are
reportedly being smuggled from Eritrea.10 However, it is unlikely that the terrorist group Al-
Shabab is involved as they have said that ships belonging to Muslim countries should not be seized
after pirates hijacked the Saudi supertanker, the Sirius Star. Islamist leaders have also stressed that
piracy is a capital offence under Islam and condemned the surge in piracy in Somalia’s waters.

One of the consequences of piracy is the increase in insurance rates for the shipping industry and
the need to purchase additional insurance to cover the risk associated with transiting a piracy
prone region. For example, insurance companies now offer “kidnap for ransom” policies to ships
that move through the Suez Canal. One insurance company, the U.K. based Hiscox, prices the
policy at US$15,000 per trip through the Gulf of Aden and it is reported that business is
humming.19 Also, because of the danger posed to shipping transiting the Gulf of Aden,
insurance premiums have risen tenfold. For example, insurance companies have increased
premiums for sending a cargo shipment through the Gulf of Aden to about US$9,000 from
US$900 a year ago.20

As ships try to circumvent the Gulf of Aden by travelling south around the Cape of Good Hope,
there is an increase in travel time with its attendant costs. This detour will add 4,000 km, or 12 to
15 days, to a tanker’s trip, at a cost of between US$20,000 to US$30,000 a day.21 A.P. Moeller-
Maersk A/S, one of the world’s largest ocean-shipping lines, and other companies have said they
will re-route some of their vessels around the southern tip of Africa instead of traversing the gulf,
despite the added distance, time, and fuel costs. This is because tankers are considered more
vulnerable with their low hulls and slower speeds.22 Taiwan shipping company, TMT,
meanwhile has also said that it would be re-routing 20 oil tankers via the Cape of Good Hope.
TMT’s fleet is regularly employed to ferry crude oil supplies to consumers in Europe and the
United States.23 Following the hijack of the MV Sirius Star, Odfjell SE, a major Norwegian
shipping group, announced on 18 November that it has ordered its tankers, numbering about 90,
to sail around Africa rather than to use the Suez Canal.24 Already, the number of ships transiting
the Suez Canal in January has fallen by 22% compared to the same month in 2008 and represents
the lowest level passing through the waterway in five years.25To be sure, the reduction in the
number of ships transiting the Suez Canal is not solely the consequence of rampant piracy off the
coast of Somalia but also due to the aggressive capacity cutting measures taken by ocean carriers
to reverse losses as carriers will save on canal fees by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope.

According to the final report of the experts group convened in November 2008 by U.N. Special
Representative to Somalia Ahmedou Ould-Abdallah, "poverty, lack of employment,
environmental hardship, pitifully low incomes, reduction of pastoralist and maritime resources
due to drought and illegal fishing and a volatile security and political situation all contribute to
the rise and continuance of piracy in Somalia."19 While the profitability of piracy appears to be

24
the primary motivating factor for most pirates, other observers argue that since conditions in
Somalia make survival difficult for many and prosperity elusive for most, the relative risk of
engagement in piracy seems diminished. 20

Somali pirates interviewed by international media sources frequently link their piracy activities
to trends such as illegal fishing and dumping in Somali waters that have emerged as the
country has lost its ability to patrol its waters over time.21 While these explanations may
mask the opportunistic piracy of some, reports suggest that illegal fishing and dumping have
disrupted Somalia's coastal economy. For example, a July 2005 report from the United Kingdom
Department for International Development (DFID) estimated that Somalis lost $100 million to
illegal tuna and shrimp fishing in the country's exclusive economic zone in 2003-2004.22

The international Contact Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia (CGPCS) (see "Contact
Group on Piracy off the Coast of Somalia") stated at its inaugural meeting that "piracy is
symptomatic of the overall situation in Somalia including the prevalence of illegal fishing and
toxic waste dumping off the coast of Somalia, which adversely affects the Somali economy and
marine environment."23 The CGPCS also reaffirmed "its respect for Somalia's sovereignty,
territorial integrity, and sovereign rights over natural resources" and underscored that the group's
participants "ensure that their flagged vessels respect these rights."

Paradoxically, the regional fishing industry reportedly has been damaged significantly by the
threat of piracy. According to some reports, tuna catches in the Indian Ocean fell 30% in 2008, in
part because of fishing vessels' fears of piracy. This has had a major impact on countries like the
Seychelles, which rely on the fishing industry for up to 40% of their earnings.24

The use of force by international naval patrols to apprehend or kill pirate suspects has raised the
prospect that revenge may become a motivating factor for pirates whose associates are killed or

--8--

captured. The April 14, 2009, attack on the U.S.-flagged MV Liberty Sun allegedly was carried
out with the intention of damaging or sinking the ship and injuring or killing its crew in
retaliation for the deaths of three Somali pirates during U.S. military efforts to secure the release
of the detained captain of the MV Maersk Alabama days earlier (see "Threats to U.S. Flagged
Vessels and the MV Maersk Alabama Incident" below).

4.5 Impacts of piracy and terrorism in the HOA

Piracy and terrorism have had a number of impacts in the horn. At this point, it is important for
us to look at the impacts of piracy and terrorism in the HOA. Piracy and terrorism has led to loss
of live by innocent civilians, destruction of property, as it was the case with the wet gate attack,
Garrisa attack among others. It has also led to economic decline resulting to extreme poverty and
underdevelopment in the HOA. One of the major impacts of terrorism is the IDP and refugeecrisis
25
in the HOA with Kenya Hosting one of the lasts refugee camps in the world Kakuma and Dadaab.
It has created mistrust among religious groups with many associatingIslam to terror. Piracy has
also affected maritime international trade with cargo ships forced to navigatearoundAfrica to avoid
pirate prone region shutsincreasingthe sailing cost and insurance costs.

4.6 Summary
Piracy and terrorism is one of the major crisis in the horn of Africa. However, Somali is the most
affected nation with piracy due to its proximity to the water bodies, poverty, government failure
and existent of warlords. Also high illiteracy levels in the region gives room for terrorism and
piracy. The impacts of piracy andterrorism are not only felt in the HOA but in the
neighboringregion especiallyin terms of refugee and IDP crisis and high cost of maritime trade.

4.7 Note
Terrorism can de on air, land or water bodies thus Piracy is a case of terrorism that takes place in
water

4.8 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

4.9 Self Test

Piracy and terrorism is the mother of all conflicts in the HOA s today. Discuss

Further Reading

Chalk, P. (2010). Piracy off the horn of Africa: scope, dimensions, causes and responses. The
Brown Journal of World Affairs, 16(2), 89-108.

Daniels, C. L. (2012). Somali piracy and terrorism in the Horn of Africa (Vol. 1). Scarecrow
Press.

Lennox, P. (2008). Contemporary piracy off the Horn of Africa. Canadian Defence& Foreign
Affairs Institute.

Murphy, M. N. (2011). Somalia, the new Barbary? Piracy and Islam in the Horn of Africa. New
York, NY: C. Hurst & Co. Publishers Ltd.

Onuoha, F. (2009). Sea piracy and maritime security in the Horn of Africa: The Somali coast and
Gulf of Aden in perspective. African Security Studies, 18(3), 31-44.

Weir, G. E. (2009). Fish, family, and profit: Piracy and the Horn of Africa. Naval War College
Review, 62(3), 15.

26
 LECTURE FIVE

5.0 PROLIFERATION OF SMALL ARMS AND LIGHT WEAPONS

5.1 Introduction
As discussed from the previous sections of this module, the horn of Africa is a region marked by
constant conflicts and wars. These are fought using various weapons and arms. In this lecture,
we discuss the proliferation of SALWs.

27
5.2 Objectives
By the end of this module, the learner should be able to;

➢ Give the various SALWs found in the HOA

➢ Identify the sources of these SALWs in the HOA
➢ Discuss the impacts of the proliferation of SALWs in the HOA

5.3 Small Arms and Light Weapons and Their Sources in the HOA
Small arms refers to the weapons are portable and are small sized. On the other hands, light
weapons are named in accordance to their weight and their principal mobility. SALWs include all
arms and more socially, those that can be used inter changeably or by one person without the aid
of another. They can be extended to include hand held calibers such ash and guns, pistols, machine
guns, grenades, missiles, land mines, grenade launchers, rocket propelled grenades among others.

Weapons are used day by day by individuals living in conflict-laden zones. Most of these weapons
are obtainedfrom war tonenationssuch as Somali, Burundi, centralAfrica republic among others.
Additionally internationalcompanies like the Norocho in chin and Izmash in the Soviet Union are
the major sources of these SALWs to the HOA. In addition, corrupt police officers are the sources
of these SALWs. However, it is important to note that although foreignnations are involved in the
supply of these SALWs, mosttrafficking and smuggling is done by the local people either
voluntarily or involuntary. Moreover, animals are used to transport SALWs

Despite independence that came with the high prospects for development, the African continent had
experienced inter and intra state conflicts with devastating consequences.

These protracted conflicts have been fuelled and sustained by the production, sale and distribution of
Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs), with very strong internal and external linkages. This chapter
explores the context of SALWs in terms of how they manifest and impact on state fragility and the
management of armed conflict in the continent.

In response to the challenge posed by arms proliferation in the continent, the African Union (AU),
launched a robust regional programme on silencing the guns by 2020 under its agenda 2063.
Unfortunately, the spate of violent conflicts and organized crimes that continue to hold the continent
siege, presents a bleak future for the continent.

Apart from this continental initiative, country level efforts have been made within the continent to also
address this security challenge, with little successes recorded, particularly within countries that are
plagued by protracted violent conflicts, insurgency and other forms of organized crimes. The chapter
argues that the clandestine nature of the activities of illicit arms traders in the continent, coupled with
the role of local manufacturers, represents a major impediment to development on many fronts, due
to a thriving arms economy that feeds the interests of mercenaries, warlords and armed groups.

28
5.4 Reason for the proliferation of SALWs in the HOA
The multiplication and proliferation of SALWs in the horn of Africa is driven by corruption
among police officer and border gaurs, poverty, poor governance hostility and mistrust
among communities, border disputes and ethnic clashes. These factors create a good and
favorable climate, which enhance the acquisition, keeping and usage ofweapons thus becoming a
breeding zone for SALWs.

Moreover, these arms are easily accessible due to influx of people from other countries.

In addition, the availability of the youths who are ready for war due to joblessness increase
these arms.

Warlords also play a role in increasing the circulation of these arms. Finally, the escalation of
armed groups such as janja weed and alshaabab increase the circulation of SALWs in the HOA.

The superpowers have also played role in the circulation of SALWs in the HOA trough
arming conflicting factions in the HOA.

5.5 Impacts of the proliferation of SALWs in the HOA.

The circulation of small arms and light weapons in the HOA has led to massive and far-reaching
consequences, which include state of anarchy as in the case of Somalia, increases militias such as
alshaabab, mass killingand suffering. Others include refugee problems; economic decline
increased piracy and terrorism, insecurity and forced recruitment of people to terror groups.

5.6 Summary
Small arms and light weapons have been used as tools for fighting in the HOA for a long time.
Their increased circulation has led to an escalation in the crisis in the HOA with each party ready
to defend itself in case of an attack. This has led to far reaching ramification have led to massive
killingsand suffering. The international bodies and superpower also plays role in the
circulationtheseweapons with an intent of siphoning resources from the HOA in pretext of
peacekeeping missions.

5.7 Note
, SALWs have precipitated the crisis in the horn of Africa. Theyact like a force and stimulus to
waging wars agisnts each other.

5.8 Activities
➢ Discussions

29
 ➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

5.9 Self-Test
Examine the impacts of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons to governance of states
in the HOA.

5.10 Further Reading

Eavis, P. (2002). SALW in the Horn of Africa and the Great Lakes Region: Challenges and ways
forward. The Brown Journal of World Affairs, 9(1), 251-260.

Muggah, R., & Berman, E. (2001). Humanitarianism under threat: the humanitarian impacts of
small arms and light weapons. Small Arms Survey.

Onuoha, F. (2009). Sea piracy and maritime security in the Horn of Africa: The Somali coast and
Gulf of Aden in perspective. African Security Studies, 18(3), 31-44.

Stemmet, A. (2001). Regulating small arms and light weapons: the african experience. African
Security Studies, 10(3), 90-98.

Thusi, T. (2003). Assessing small arms control initiatives in East Africa: the Nairobi Declaration.
African Security Studies, 12(2), 17-26.

LECTURE SIX

6.0 FOOD INSECURITY IN THE HORN OF AFRICA

6.1 Introduction
Food security is one of the major and basic human rights that each human beings is entitled to.
Lack of foodsecurity takes way the individual dignity of person. For this reason, several
conferences have been held byinternational organizations such as UNO taking a leading role in
tackling this issue. In this lecture, our focus is on the crisis of food insecurity in the horn of Africa,
its causes and impacts.

6.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, learners should be able to;

➢ Explain the causes and impacts of food insecurity in the HOA

➢ Suggest ways to curb food insecurity in the HOA

30
6.3 Defining foodsecurity
Food security refers to a situation where all people at all times have access to sufficient, safe and
nutritious food to maintain health and active life. In this regard food safety entails all people at all
having both physical, economic, and social access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet
their dietary need . However, this has not been the case in the horn of Africa. Over 12 million
people live under food shortage with Kenya, Ethiopia and Somalis being the most affected. We
therefore proceed to discuss the causes of food insecurity in the horn of Africa

6.4 Causes of food insecurity in the HOA

Consecutive drought issues have been oneofthemajor causes and consequences of the crisis in the
HOA, leading to a compelling humanitarian crisis. Various interrelated issues such as inadequate
arable land, climate change leading to short and unreliable rains and hot climate, cause food
shortages.

The conflict in the region has seen waves ofmigrations where concerned parties leave their lands
toengage in war. With this, these parties have been unable to come up with clean,practical and
reliable agricultural policies people have not been educated on appropriatefarming
practicesespecially for the precarious weather conditions. With civil unrest and conflicts, a lot of
moneyis channeled to military and not agricultural production. The growing populations
haveexerted pressures on the fewexistingresources leading to environmentaldegradation and thus
low agricultural production overgrazing and deforestation has led to serious soil erosions. There
are also natural causes such as pest’sinfections and periodic flooding which destroy livelihood and
farmlands. Other causes include the few incentives for agricultural production and lack of
diversification of agriculture. Some resources such as river juba and Shebelleare not fully
exploited and thereexist weak regional insititutions anddonorcoordination and very little local
participation in cases of food and aid provisions. Moreover HIV/AIDS aid is reducing the
productive labour in the region while illiteracy amongwomen hasincreased birth rates thus
population pressure.

6.5 Impacts of food insecurity in the HOA

The major impacts of food insecurity in the horn of Africa is hanger and poverty. This has led to
the overdependence on foreignaid. Additionally other have sought for rural urban migration to
look for jobs tosustain themselves. With this, weaker economies are witnessed in the horn of Africa
leading to more conflicts andwars over the little that is available. Others have run way from their
motherland to other nations to avoid starvation. This has led to a refugee crisis in the HOA.

6.6Summary
The horn of Africaconstitute oneof the poorest region in the world. Apart from war and conflict,
the region is faced with heightened food insecurity with over 12 million people living under
starvation. The major causes of the situation include civil wars, unreliable climate patterns, little
arable land, poor agricultural education, population pressure and over and the HIV/AIDS menace.

31
Starvation has led to extreme poverty, deaths, overdependence on foreign aid and migration to
other region leading to refugee crisis.

6.7 Note
Hunger,poverty anddiseasesare interlinkedwith each contributing to the occurrenceof the other
two. Thus, starvation in the HORN of Africa is a three in one crisis, which needs serious address.

6.8 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

6.9 Self-Test
✓ How can the people in the HOA achieve long lasting food security?
✓ Examine the impacts of food (in)security in the HOA

6.10 Further Reading

Broad, K., &Agrawala, S. (2000). The Ethiopia food crisis--uses and limits of climate forecasts.
Science, 289(5485), 1693-1694.

Haile, M. (2005). Weather patterns, food security and humanitarian response in sub-Saharan
Africa. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences,
360(1463), 2169-2182.

Little, P. D., Teka, T., &Azeze, A. (2001). Cross-border livestock trade and food security in the
Horn of Africa: An overview. Addis Ababa: Broadening Access to Markets and Input
Systems-Collaborative Research Support Program (BASIS-CRSP) and Organization for
Social Science Research in Eastern and Southern Africa (OSSREA).

Molvaer, R. K. (1991). Environmentally induced conflicts? A discussion based on studies from

the Horn of Africa. Security Dialogue, 22(2), 175-188.

Nicholson, S. E. (2014). A detailed look at the recent drought situation in the Greater Horn of
Africa. Journal of Arid Environments, 103, 71-79.

Rempel, H. (1985). The food situation in the horn of Africa.

32
 LECTURE SEVEN

7.0 RESOURCE BASED CONFLICT IN THE HORN OF AFRICA

7.1 Introduction
A resource refers to the supplyofsomething that country or organization has and use especillay to
increase their wealth. The Horn of Africa is a region that is endowed with natural resources such
as natural harbors, land, minerals and physical features. In this lecture, we will discuss resources
as source of conflict in the HOA.

7.2 Objectives
➢ By the end of this lecture, the learners should be able to explain the relationship between
the resources and the crisis in the HOA.

7.3 Resource Scarcity and Conflicts in the HOA

Resource scarcity andcompetition has been the major cause of conflict in the horn of Africa
countries are competing over decliningresources. Thishas led to increased social hostility inter

33
communal fights and social and political break down. Resource scarcity and competing in the
HOA is cause by populationpressure, andenvironmental [Link] resources that have
been fought for include gazing lands, land itself,water,water oil and salt links

Grazinglands have been a constant source of conflictsamong pastoralist in the HOA leading to
massive population movements insuch for better pasture and water resources. This, movement
have led to inter communal war and internal conflicts among pastoral communities. Land is a very
emotive aspect in the HOA. For instance, the Somali in Somalia are fighting with the Ethiopians
over the Ogaden. The same case has beenwitnessed between the Somali and the people of the
Northern part of Kenya with Somalis arguing the region is part of Somali that was only taken away
with the creation of colonial boundaries. On their other hand, the Ethiopians are in constant fifths
with the Eritreans over the Aksum and Badme. This has led to destruction of property and constant
wars with Eritreans being determined to get back their land. Further Djibouti and Eritrea are
fighting over Lasdomenia, whichwas given to Eritrea during the Franco-Italian treaty.

Fighting over rivers has been also a major source of conflict in the HOA. Rivers such as Juba and
Shebelle are very importantto Somalia. While these riversare notnavigable, they provide a
potential forhydroelectric power that has not been exploited yet. Theserivers if they dry disrupts
the agricultural life in Somali. Ethiopia diverts waters from these rivers thus preventing water
from reaching Somalifarmlands leading to conflicts between the two nations. Conflicts have also
been prevalenceto areas lacking natural resources and are neglect by the state.

In this resource based conflicts externalforces have played a bigrole infuelingthecrisis. For
instance,Francehas itsowninterest in Eritrea and Indian oceans. On the other hands, USA and
Soviet Union have always supported the warringparties in the Horn ofAfrica through arms and
military aid. As these conflicts intensify, the external forces comes in and siphoned resources from
the horn of africa, in thisway, conflicts is seen as the only cheap way through which these
eternalcountries can get the natural resources in the HOA. The oil factor in Somali has had
ramification effects on the population wit superpowers launchingmilitaryoperations that have
displaced people.

7.4 Summary
Resources are the major causes of the conflict in the horn of Africa. Whether ethnic, border related
or political based, all conflicts in the horn of Africa, have resource-based origin. Land,grazing
land, pastures and waters have been fought for by the communities in the horn. However, eternal
countries have sought to make conflicts an endemic thing in the HOA to enable them siphon natural
resourcessuch as oil with easy.

7.5 Note
➢ Major conflicts in the HOA are based on scarcity and Competition over resources

34
7.6 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

7.7 Self-Test
The current crisis and conflict in the HOA is resource based. Discuss

7.8 Further Reading

Baechler, G., Spillmann, K. R., &Sulimann, M. (2002). Transformation of resource conflicts:

Approach and instruments. Peter Lang.

Fukui, K. (1994). Ethnicity & conflict in the Horn of Africa. James Currey.

Meier, P., Bond, D., & Bond, J. (2007). Environmental influences on pastoral conflict in the Horn
of Africa. Political Geography, 26(6), 716-735.

Mkutu, K. (2001). Pastoralism and conflict in the Horn of Africa. Saferworld. Organisation.

Molvaer, R. K. (1991). Environmentally induced conflicts? A discussion based on studies from t

he Horn of Africa. Security Dialogue, 22(2), 175-188.

LECTURE EIGHT

8.0 HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATION, GENDER, CHILDREN AND YOUTH

ISSUES IN THE HORN OF AFRICA

8.1 Introduction
The crisis in the horn of Africahas hadfar-reachingconsequences. Among the effects of the crisis
in the HOA is the f gross violation of human rights. In this lecture, we will discuss the violation of
human rights in the HOA.

35
8.2 Objective
By the end of this lecturer, the learners should be able to discuss the gender dimension of human
rights violation in the HOA

8.3 introduction to human rights

Human rights are universal basic entitlements that each individual is entitled to by the virtue that
he or she is a human being. Such include right to life, own property, identity, freedom of
association, movement, speech among others. It is the responsibility of the state to ensure that
individual human rights are safeguarded to ensure a heath welfare in the society. On the other
hand, the citizens have the responsibility to ensure that they do not violate each other’s rights.

8.4 Violation of human rights

In times of crisis some of the basic entitlementsare taken away thus reducing the dignity of
humanity. Scholars have revealed that in times of crisis women, and children are the ones who
suffer mosttsthey fall victims of human rights violation as compared to tier men counterparts.

Gender based violence becomes the order of theday in times of attacks and wars with the opposing
parties raping each other’s women and girls as a form of revenge. Some women who flee the crises
areas are forced to enter prostitution while others are forced into early marriages. The sexual
assaults inflicted on these women and girls leads to tram and psychological depression that affects
their social life for a long time if not for ever. The children are denied their right to education as
school are destroyed or becausetheymovement from oneplace to another seeking for safety. Other
children are forced to become child solders. The right to association is limited due to mistrusts
between communities and religious groups. Mass killing and genocides violates the right to life.
Other rights such as speech, movement and nationality at time are violated because of people
becoming refugees in new countries. The right to liberty and equality before law also suffer a blow.
Detentions without trail then sets in others areassassinatedwhile other are sent to exile. The judicial
and penal system in the horn of Africa are harsh due to the corrupt police and brutal security
officers.

The elders are the only involve d in the peace initiative and majorly men. This leaves out the youth
and women thus gender exclusion are rampart in the HOA. The youth further have been used a
rebels and militia due to their joblessness state. In this way, their hopeless state is exploited and
take advantage of by few elites who want to meet their own interests.

8.5 Summary
Major rights violated in the horn of Africa include right to life, own property, liberty, equality,
freedom of speech, movement, association, right to health and education. The above it due to mass
killings, destruction of property, migrations and corrupt police and penal systems.

8.6 Note
• Human rights violation is both a crisis and a consequence of a crisis in the HOA

36
 • In times of crisis women and children suffer twice because of their gender.

8.7 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

8.8 Self-Test
Discuss the gender dimension of Human rights violation in the Horn of Africa

8.9 Further Reading

Fernandez, B. (2010). Cheap and disposable? The impact of the global economic crisis on the
migration of Ethiopian women domestic workers to the Gulf. Gender & Development,
18(2), 249-262.

Kipuri, N., &Ridgewell, A. (2008). A double bind: the exclusion of pastoralist women in the East
and Horn of Africa (Vol. 12). Minority Rights Group International.

Kumssa, A., & Jones, J. F. (2014). Human security issues of Somali Refugees and the host
community in Northeastern Kenya. Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies, 12(1), 27-46.

Oloka-Onyango, J. (1995). Plight of the Larger Half: Human Rights, Gender Violence and the
Legal Status of Refugee and Internally Displaced Women in Africa, The. Denv. J. Int'l L.
&Pol'y, 24, 349.

Pittaway, E., Muli, C., &Shteir, S. (2009). “I have a voice—hear me!” Findings of an Australian
study examining the resettlement and integration experience of refugees and migrants from
the Horn of Africa in Australia. Refuge: Canada's Journal on Refugees, 26(2).

LECTURER NINE

9.0 THE PETRO DOLLAR CRISIS IN THE HORN OF AFRICA

9.1 Introduction
The region in the HOA is endowedwith enormous natural resources such as gold, coal, natural gas
and petroleum. The HOA is believed to be the region with onof the largest oil deposits in the
world. Accordingly, companies from other nations especially Asia and Europe are hunting the oil
in the region. From oil, the countries in the region are expected to have high levels of investment

37
in the world. However, in the HOA, these countries have been thrown into conflicts based on oil
as resource. In this lecture, we will discuss the causes of the petro dollars crisis and the impacts it
has had in the HOA.

9.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecturer, the learner should be able to discuss the politics of petrodollar in the
HOA.

9.3 Actors in the petro dollar crisis in the HOA

Superpowers have been fighting over fuel in the HOA. they have been funding countries
especiallyDjibouti, Somalia and sudan in the name of providing humanitarian aid yet in the real
sense they are in search for possibilities prospects of exploiting the rich fuel deposits in Djibouti
and Somalia. These superpowers include the Soviet Union, USA Cubans France, Britons, and
now china.

The countries in the HOA are surrounded by deep seas where oil prospecting has been going on.
Thanks for Somalia are launched in one side asAmericanslaunch and exploit oil. TheHOA is at the
cross road between Africa and Middle East where rich deposits of oil are to be found. America
itself has presented said Barre as dictatorial and warrant of arrest has been put over him. In the
name of fighting dictatorship, genocides have been witnessed in the Somaliaand Darfur and during
this time the superpower were siphoning resources in the region.

The oil resources in the HOA are not yet fully exploited such as in northern part of Kenya.
Thisexplains the current scramble for the HOA. The colonizationhas been baptized the fight
against terrorism (inEthiopia and Somalia) and thesearch for peace and reconciliation.
Superpowers have sent money andweapons to ensure that fighting goes on in Somali as big
companies exploit oil resources. Bush used terrorism to fight Iraq so did his son use the same to
pacify and justify the invasion of Somalia by Ethiopia.

America is worried of the current Chinese interest in the HOA. With this, they in 20002 set an
African military command to monitor al-Qaida.

9.4 The impacts of petro dollar crisis in the HOA

Oil prospecting and exploitation has resulted into serious environmental degradation whichhas led
to famine, massive economic and socialdislocations and wide spread resource based conflicts. It
has led to internal and external conflicts. Temperatures have also increased and rainfall decreased.
The loss of vegetationanddeforestation has led to agricultural [Link]
of the ozonelayer by the ommision of Ozone depletingsubstances has led to global climate change.
There have been power shortagesaffecting economies of the region especially in kenya and
Ethiopia.

38
9.5 Summary
The oil crisis in the HOA begun with the currency of oil being a dollar. In this way,
thesuperpowersare seen to be the major beneficiaries of the resources as compared to the host
nations in the HOA. Superpowers have used conflicts as tool to exploit oil in the HOA. This has
had negative environmental, Economic, Social, Political And Humanitarian Impacts In TheHOA.

9.6 Note
Africa in general has the world’s threelargest oil Reserves afterMiddle East andLatin America. It
paces 8% of the world’s oil.

9.7 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

9.8 Self-Test
With examples,discuss the politics of the petro dollar in the HOA.

9.9 Further Reading

Abir, M. (1974). Oil, power and politics: conflict in Arabia, the Red Sea and the Gulf.
Routledge.

Anderson, D. M., & Browne, A. J. (2011). The politics of oil in eastern Africa. Journal of Eastern
African Studies, 5(2), 369-410.

Arbetman-Rabinowitz, M., & Johnson, K. (2008). Power Distribution and Oil in the Sudan: Will
the Comprehensive Peace Agreement Turn the Oil Curse into a Blessing?.International
Interactions, 34(4), 382-401.

Atarodi, A. (2010). Yemen in Crisis: Consequences for the Horn of Africa. Försvarsanalys,
Totalförsvaretsforskningsinstitut (FOI).

Carmody, P. (2009). Cruciform sovereignty, matrix governance and the scramble for Africa's oil:
Insights from Chad and Sudan. Political Geography, 28(6), 353-361.

Johannes, E. M., Zulu, L. C., &Kalipeni, E. (2015). Oil discovery in Turkana County, Kenya: a
source of conflict or development?.African Geographical Review, 34(2), 142-164.

Johannes, E. M., Zulu, L. C., &Kalipeni, E. (2015). Oil discovery in Turkana County, Kenya: a
source of conflict or development?.African Geographical Review, 34(2), 142-164.

Klare, M., &Volman, D. (2006). America, China & the scramble for Africa's oil. Review of
African political economy, 33(108), 297-309.

39
 LECTURE TEN

10.0 POLITICS AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN THE HOA

10.1 Introduction
As discussed from the previous sections of this, module, the HOA is a region that is endowed with
various resources that have not invited the interests of the localpeople but also other external forces

40
andsuperpowers. The conflictsand Crisis in the HOA is en to spill over to other nations and the
actors are seen to be both local and international. With this in mind, in this lecture we discuss the
politics andinternational relation sin the Horn of Africa.

10.2 Objective
By the end of this lecture learners hold be able to explain how politics and international relations
have exacerbated theconflict in the horn of Africa.

10.3 International and interstate relations in the HOA

The HOA especially Ethiopia, Somalia and Sudan are centers where Africa’s tragedy is played
out in violent manner. Although the conflict in this region is principally domestic issues of
ethnicity, history and tradition, they have been exacerbated by international actors how have
intents in Africa and the Middle East.

It is important to recognize that the politics within the HOA are marred with corruption, ethnicity,
and greed for power, political completion and visionless leaders who lack the ability and will to
bring sustainable development in the region. There is inadequate development policies with many
nations relying on foreign aid yet the region is endowed with numerous natural resources many of
which have not been exploited. Politics in the HOA is that of exclusion, clientelism and recycling
of elites. There is centralization of power with many countries operating under dictatorialregimes.
The military and the judiciary are manipulatedthus justice if or those who are in power. Rebel
groups are used by warlords and politicians to achieve their economic and political ends.

The involvement of the superpowers in the region has even made the situation worse. For instance,
French has been assisting Sudan to fight the southern Sudaneserebels from central Africa and
giving them diplomatic support. Additionally French blocked the expulsion of Sudan from IMF
and gave direct assistance to Sudan. All these are due to Sudan’s oil deposits and its strategic
location in central Africa. USA haslabeled Sudan a terrorist and has moved to strengthen
themilitary capability of neighboring nation such as Eritrea and Ethiopia. This move has put USA
and France in a collision.

Development in the HOA has been influenced by events in the little states ofeastern coast of the
red seas, Middle East and the gold region. These states have a common connection to the countries
in the HOA. Israel and Iran are the major actors in the issues in the HOA while Egypt and Saudi
play significant roles. Iran, Iraq and Libya andYemen havemaintained political interest in the
region withIran becoming a close ally of Sudan against the [Link] this, regional realignment
is witnessed in the region depending on the super power that is supporting the countries in the
HOA.

10.4 Summary
The politics and relations in the HOA although based on domestic issues,are structured by
international actors. Theinvolvement of the international superpowers in the name of

41
militarysupport, humanitarian aid and development has divided the region into several factions.
The leaders in the region are doing more to please the international actors and community at the
expense of the local people. As such, the politics in the region are marked with dictatorship,
patronage and clientelism as well as exclusions of the minority. This has shaped the way in which
these relations relate to one another as well as with other nation outside the HOA.

10.5 Note
The politics and relations in the HOA is an external construction.

10.6 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

10.7 Self-Test
Discuss how politics has exacerbated the crisis in the HOA

10.8 Further Reading

Harbeson, J. W. (1978). Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: the Afar of
the Awash valley. African Affairs, 77(309), 479-498.

Lewis, I. M. (1983). Nationalism &self determination in the Horn of Africa (No. 18). Evergreen
Book Distribution.

Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: a study of pastoralism and politics among the
northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. James Currey Publishers.

Ottaway, M. (1982). Soviet and American influence in the Horn of Africa. Praeger Publishers.

Tronvoll, K. (2009). War & the politics of identity in Ethiopia: making enemies & allies in the
Horn of Africa. James Currey Limited.

Woodward, P. (1996). The Horn of Africa: state politics and international relations (Vol. 6).
British Academic Press.

42
 LECTURE ELEVEN

11. 0 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF SUSTAINABLE

DEVELOPMENT AND PEACE IN HORN OF AFRICA
11.1 Introduction
Throughout this module, we have discussed the crisis in the HOA countries. The discussion
revealed that these nations face common problems. The current situation in the HOA need to
overcome internal structural and institutional challenge to sustainable peace development
before they can proceed a viable economic and political integration. In this lecture, we discuss
the prospects and challenges to regional integration in the Horn of Africa.

11.2 Objectives
By the end of this lecture, the learners should be able to discuss the initiatives towards and
challenges towards regional integration and cooperation.

11.2 Initiatives towards regional integration in the Horn of Africa

The conflict Laden region of the HOA has made several strides towards regional integration and
cooperation. There has been the establishment of regional bodies with an aim of combating the
crisis in the HOA as well as promote regional economic apoliticalintegration. There major
regional initiatives include the formation of intergovernmental authority for development (IGAD),
common market for eastern and SothernAfrica (COMESA) and new partnership for
Africandevelopment (NEPAD).

IGAD was formed to combat famine, ecological degradation and poverty. It hasa membership of
seven nations. Its primary goals is to achieve regionalcooperation and economic cooperation.
COMESA has a membership of 20 nations with an aim for regional economic integration. On its
part, NEPAD calls for peace security,democracy, economic and political cooperation
andgovernance in the horn of Africa. It is also important to note that these nations shave tried to
cooperate in terror fighting.

11.3 Challenges to regionalintegration and cooption in the HOA

Despite the efforts that has been made by the HOA nations to achieve regional cooperation and
integration, there are several challenges that hashindered the success. Such include civil and
political conflicts,land andborderconflict bothinter and intra state levels, lack of democratic
governance within individual states leading to instability,poverty and destitute. Terror has been
also another challenge with other nations such as Somalia seen to be the havens and propagators
of terrorism.

11.4 Summary
There has been initiatives to attain regional cooperation and integration in the HOA. This has been
witnessedthrough the formation of regional bodies with aim of combatingthe crisis in the region.

43
However, individual crisis in each nations, and terrorism in the region have been an obstacle to
these integration.

11.5 Note
The prospects for economic cooperation, peace and development in the Horn of Africa is still gloomy

11.6 Activities
➢ Discussions
➢ Note taking
➢ Question and answer sessions

11.7 Self-Test
Explain the attempts at sustainable development and regional integration by IGAD in the HOA

11.8 Further Reading

Adedeji, A. (2002, March). History and prospects for regional integration in Africa. In Third
Meeting of the African Development Forum, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (pp. 3-8).

Adetula, V. A. (2004, May). regional integration in Africa: prospect for closer cooperation
between West, East and Southern Africa. In IDASA/FREDSKORPSET Meeting
(Johannesburg).

Bryden, M. (2004). State-within-a-failed-state: Somaliland and the challenge of international

recognition. In States-Within-States (pp. 167-188). Palgrave Macmillan US.

Buthelezi, S. (2006). Regional integration in Africa: prospects and challenges for the 21st
century (Vol. 1). IkhweziAfrika Pub.
Doornbos, M., Cliffe, L., Ahmed, A. G. M., & Markakis, J. (1992). Beyond conflict in the Horn:
prospects for peace, recovery and development in Ethiopia, Somalia and the Sudan.
James CurreyLtd..

Mulugeta, A. (2008). Promises and challenges of a sub-regional force for the horn of Africa.
International Peacekeeping, 15(2), 171-184.

Tekle, A. (1994). Eritrea and Ethiopia: from conflict to cooperation. The Red Sea Press.

44
REFERENCES

Abir, M. (1974). Oil, power and politics: conflict in Arabia, the Red Sea and the Gulf.
Routledge.

Adedeji, A. (2002, March). History and prospects for regional integration in Africa. In Third
Meeting of the African Development Forum, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (pp. 3-8).

Adetula, V. A. (2004, May). regional integration in Africa: prospect for closer cooperation
between West, East and Southern Africa. In IDASA/FREDSKORPSET Meeting
(Johannesburg).

Anderson, D. M., & Browne, A. J. (2011). The politics of oil in eastern Africa. Journal of Eastern
African Studies, 5(2), 369-410.

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