Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

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Energy Strategy Reviews

journal homepage: [Link]/locate/esr

Comprehensive review of energy storage systems technologies, objectives,

challenges, and future trends
Dina A. Elalfy a , Eid Gouda a , Mohamed Fawzi Kotb a , Vladimír Bureš b, * , Bishoy E. Sedhom a
a
Electrical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Mansoura 35516, Egypt
b
Faculty of Informatics and Management, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove 50003, Czech Republic

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Energy storage is one of the hot points of research in electrical power engineering as it is essential in power
Renewable energy systems. It can improve power system stability, shorten energy generation environmental influence, enhance
Energy storage system system efficiency, and also raise renewable energy source penetrations. This paper presents a comprehensive
Power system
review of the most popular energy storage systems including electrical energy storage systems, electrochemical
Energy storage applications
Electrical vehicle
energy storage systems, mechanical energy storage systems, thermal energy storage systems, and chemical en­
Energy sustainability ergy storage systems. More than 350 recognized published papers are handled to achieve this goal, and only 272
Power system reliability selected papers are introduced in this work. A comparison between each form of energy storage systems based on
Energy storage forms capacity, lifetime, capital cost, strength, weakness, and use in renewable energy systems is presented in a tabular
Hybrid energy storage system form. Selected studies concerned with each type of energy storage system have been discussed considering
challenges, energy storage devices, limitations, contribution, and the objective of each study. The integration
between hybrid energy storage systems is also presented taking into account the most popular types. Hybrid
energy storage system challenges and solutions introduced by published research are summarized and analyzed.
A selection criteria for energy storage systems is presented to support the decision-makers in selecting the most
appropriate energy storage device for their application. For enormous scale power and highly energetic storage
applications, such as bulk energy, auxiliary, and transmission infrastructure services, pumped hydro storage and
compressed air energy storage are currently suitable. Battery, flywheel energy storage, super capacitor, and
superconducting magnetic energy storage are technically feasible for use in distribution networks. With an en­
ergy density of 620 kWh/m3, Li-ion batteries appear to be highly capable technologies for enhanced energy
storage implementation in the built environment. Nonetheless, lead-acid batteries continue to offer the finest
balance between price and performance because Li-ion batteries are still somewhat costly. The applications of
energy storage systems have been reviewed in the last section of this paper including general applications, energy
utility applications, renewable energy utilization, buildings and communities, and transportation. Finally, recent
developments in energy storage systems and some associated research avenues have been discussed. Academics
and engineers interested in energy storage strategies might refer to this review.

applied in all fields like commercial, residential, agricultural, and in­

1. Introduction dustrial [2]. Many problems are accomplished with applying the RESs,
such as intermittency, poor load following, and non-dispatchable. Using
In the past few decades, electricity production depended on fossil an energy storage system (ESS) is crucial to overcome the limitation of
fuels due to their reliability and efficiency [1]. Fossil fuels have many using renewable energy sources RESs. ESS can help in voltage regula­
effects on the environment and directly affect the economy as their tion, power quality improvement, and power variation regulation with
prices increase continuously due to their consumption which is assumed ancillary services [3]. The use of energy storage sources is of great
to double in 2050 and three times by 2100 [6]. Fig. 1 shows the current importance. Firstly, it reduces electricity use, as energy is stored during
global installed capacity of energy storage system ESS. China, Japan, off-peak times and used during on-peak times. Thus improving the ef­
and the United States are among the most used countries for energy ficiency and reliability of the system. Secondly, it reduces the amount of
storage systems. RESs are eco-friendly, easy to evolve, and can be carbon emitted. Thirdly, these systems are used to supply energy to

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (V. Bureš).

[Link]
Received 28 February 2024; Received in revised form 8 June 2024; Accepted 26 June 2024
Available online 1 July 2024
2211-467X/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license ([Link]
nc/4.0/).
D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

List of abbreviations SCs Supercapacitors

EV Electric Vehicle
ESS Energy Storage System BEV Battery Electric Vehicle
RESs Renewable Energy Sources HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle
SMES Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage PEV Plug-in hybrid Electric Vehicle
CAES Compressed Air Energy Storage FB Flow Battery
FES Flywheel Energy Storage DOD Depth of Discharge
PHES Pumped Hydro Energy Storage Li-Ion battery Lithium-ion battery
BESS Battery Energy Stotage System NiCd Nickel - cadmium battery
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage Systems NaS Sodium Sulfur battery
EESS Electeical Energy Storage System LAES Liquid Air Energy Storage
ECESS Electrochemical Energy Storage System SHSS Sensible heat storage systems
MESS Mechenical Energy Storage System LHSS Latent heat storage system
TESS Thermal Energy Storage System TCESS Thermo chemical energy storage systems
CESS Chemical Energy Storage System FC Fuel Cell

consumers in remote areas far away from the grid as well as reduce the (see Fig. 3).
intermittency of renewable energy [4,5], and [6]. Energy can be stored Figures (4-9) show the number of published papers and number of
in many forms, such as thermal, mechanical, chemical, or electro­ citations that interested in ESS technologies using the keywords (ther­
chemical energy. Besides, it can be stored in electric and magnetic fields mal energy storage system, pumped hydro energy storage, super­
resulting in many types of storing devices such as superconducting capacitors, SMES and battery) over the last 17 years. As can be observed
magnetic energy storage (SMES), flow batteries, supercapacitors, com­ in Figs. 4 and 8, there are also a lot of studies on thermal and battery
pressed air energy storage (CAES), flywheel energy storage (FES), and energy storage, which is a hot spot of ESS and suggests that the authors
pumped hydro storage (PHS) 96 % of the global amplitude of energy are more interested in these. Furthermore, the number of papers
storage capacity is shared by the PHS. Super-capacitor energy storage, reviewing ESS keeps rising each year, showing that ESS is a popular area
battery energy storage, and flywheel energy storage have the advantages of research that is receiving a lot of attention. For more clarification
of strong climbing ability, flexible power output, fast response speed, review, all figures have been merged in to one figure (Fig. 9). It can be
and strong plasticity [7]. More development is needed for electrome­ observed that the number of research in ESS technologies continues to
chanical storage coming from batteries and flywheels [8]. increase in the last 17 years.
With the rapid rising of the development of ESS and due to the In this paper, different types of energy storge are presented. Various
enormous energy storage potential, all the efforts of researchers are ESS features, advantages, and limitations are discussed. In addition to,
focusing on giving reviews on the types, characteristics, advantages, hybrid energy storage systems and some of its combinations are listed
limitations, comparison, electrical vehicle, evaluations, challenges, and here. Furthermore, several applications of ESS along with challenges
applications of ESS. Some reviews are discussed, presented and and new trends in ESS are critically reviewed.
compared with our work in a tabular form in Table 1. The rest of this paper is as follows, section 2 discusses the different
Table 1 revealed that no review had included every one of the pre­ types of ESS, their operation, characteristics, advantages, limitations
viously listed points. For this reason, this review has included new de­ and applications. Hybrid energy storage systems in addition to several
velopments in energy storage systems together with all of the previously typical HESS combinations are presented in section 3. In section 4, the
mentioned factors. Statistical analysis is done using statistical data from challenges for integrating ESS is discussed. The selection criteria for ESS
the “Web of Science”. The number of papers with the theme “Energy is listed in section 5. Furthermore, in section 6, the applications of ESS
storage” over the past 20 years (2002–2022) is shown in Fig. 2 and it is are presented. Section 7 discusses new trends in ESS. Finally, conclusion
deduced from it that ESS is a hot research field with extensive attention inferred from this review paper and recommendatios are listed in section

Fig. 1. Global scenario of energy storage adoption [7].

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Table 1
Some reviews focusing on storage energy.
Ref. Types Advantages Limitations Comparison Electrical vehicle Selecting criteria Applications Challenges

[1] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × × ×
[2] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ×
[9] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × × ×
[10] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓
[11] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ × ✓
[8] ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × ✓ ×
[12] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × × × ✓
[13] × × × ✓ × × × ✓
[14] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ × ×
[15] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ×
[16] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ✓
[17] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓ ×
[18] ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ × ✓ ✓
Our work ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Fig. 2. Number of articles and citations reviewing ESS over the last 20 years.

Fig. 3. Publications by CiteScore quartile from Scival.

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Fig. 4. Number of articles reviewing TESS over the last 17 years.

Fig. 5. Number of articles reviewing hydropower over the last 17 years.

Fig. 6. Number of articles reviewing Super capacitors over the last 17 years.

8. 1. Electric energy storage systems EESS

2. Electrochemical energy storage systems ECESS
2. Types of energy storage 3. Mechanical energy storage systems MESS
4. Thermal energy storage systems TESS
Energy storage technologies can be categorized based on the stored 5. Chemical energy storage systems CESS
energy form (as shown in Fig. 10) to Ref. [9].

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Fig. 7. Number of articles reviewing SMES over the last 17 years.

Fig. 8. Number of articles reviewing battery energy storage system BESS over the last 17 years.

Fig. 9. survey of ess growth technology over the last 17 years.

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Fig. 10. Classification of energy storage technologies.

2.1. Electric energy storage systems (EESS) will be very expensive [7].

It can be categorized to electrostatic and magnetic systems. The 2.1.2. Supercapacitors (SCs)
capacitor and the supercapacitor are electrostatic systems while the To conquer the problems mentioned above of the capacitors, the
SMESS is a magnetic system [9]. supercapacitors or ultracapacitors are patented by the Japanese com­
pany Nippon Electric Company in 1975 [20]. Compared with conven­
2.1.1. Capacitors (Cs) tional capacitors, supercapacitors have very high output power of
Two metal plates called electrodes separated by dielectric layer form (50–100 KW), high charge density, life likelihood of 12 years, 500,000
the electric capacitor. One plate is charged while the other plate is times life cycle and high self-discharge [15]. Therefore, SC are suitable
induced by an opposite sign charge [19]. The energy is stored on the for application which required instant high output power like engine
surface of the metal electrodes. This type storeenergy for extremely cranking applications of hybrid vehicles and permanent magnet syn­
short periods [12]. Fig. 11 shows a schematic diagram for a capacitor. chronous generator. SCs and Cs have identical operating principles.
Plates size the distance between plates and the dielectric material are the Despite, in SC, electrolytic physical barrier comprising of activated
factors affecting the capacitor energy capacity [14]. The capacitors are carbon is used as a dielectric which allows ionic conduction, and this
suitable for small scale power applications as they have an instant assists the SC to have large specific area and so high energy density [21].
recharge capabilities and long lift cycle. For large scale applications, it The other difference is in the electrode materials, SCs use carbon nano

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram for a capacitor [11].

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

tube electrode which provide a tiny splitting up distance and a huge

amount of charge is absorbed and hence improving the energy density
[21]. Applying the electric field, the electrolyte performs as a dielectric
and an ion absorption layer is generated on the activated carbon fibers
[21]. The charging and discharging occur on this ion absorption layer.
The schematic of supercapacitor is represented in Fig. 12. Many papers
have been published about SC applications and to upgrade its control
strategy.

2.1.3. Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES)

SMES can be made up of a superconducting coil which has no elec­
trical resistance near absolute zero temperature that can store electric
energy in the form of magnetic field created by DC current passing
through it and there is no energy loss in the coil. The second part of
Fig. 13. Superconducting magnetic energy storage [26].
SMES is cryogenically cooled refrigerator which keep the coil at a
cryogenic temperature by utilizing liquid helium or nitrogen and
older fuel vehicles and enormously reduce greenhouse gas emissions
therefore there is some energy losses (about 2–3% of energy) is lost
[18]. There are many technologies that can be utilized in EV such as SC,
related with cooling system [2]. The third part of SMES is a power
batteries, FC, or hybrid ESS [32] as shown in Fig. 14. EV can be cate­
conditioning system to convert the stored energy to an AC power [9].
gorized in to hybrid EVs (HEV), battery powered EVs (BEV), plug-in
The coils temperature must be below its critical temperature. The
hybrid EVs (PEV), photovoltaic EVs (PEV), and fuel cell EVs (FCEV)
schematic diagram of a SMES is shown in Fig. 13.
[33]. The major barriers of EVs are that the charging is not fast enough
SMES has very long lifespans (30 years), cycle life, high efficiency
and charging facilities are not highly accessible in most cities and the
(95–98 %), short time for complete discharge (less than 1 min), fast
cost is disproportionate, roughly 1/3 of the cost of EV is employed for
response speed, very low power loss, high power density, and very high
the ESS technology on the car [18]. Table .3 summeriezes the charac­
discharge rates [16,17,22,23]. During discharging, the SMES can pro­
teristics of different types of EVs.
vide huge amount of energy to the grid during a break of a second
(milliseconds) [12].
The major drawbacks of SMES units are the performance problems [Link]. Battery electric vehicle (BEV). BEV or “pure electric vehicles” as
due to the strong magnetic field, high cooling demand, high-priced raw there is no fuel tank and the electricity is totally served by the battery
materials, complex design, high capital cost ($104/kWh), high self- [34]. It is comprised of a huge rechargeable battery. This battery is
discharge rate (10–15 %/day), temperature sensitivity and pricy in charged from the grid or any external source using a charging plug [36].
operation [24,25]. BEVs charging takes roughly 6–8 h for slow charging and 20–40 min
Current curiosity in SMES is because of the capability to operate with a fast charger [37]. For the fully charged battery, BEV tracks 100
microgrids on the residential and utility scale [27]. The research fields of km–250 km distance [38]. BEVs are appropriate for short distances.
SMES are mainly focused on reducing the cost of superconducting coils Battery temperature affects the performance of the battery and life cycle
and liquid nitrogen cooling systems; and developing high-temperature [39]. The BEV storage capacity is above 100 kWh [35]. Due to this
superconducting coil (HTS) materials with lower low-temperature substantial reserve capacity, it is used for minimizing renewable energy
sensitivity (working at around 70 K) and capital cost [18,44]. SMES fluctuations and stabilizing the voltage and frequency of the grid [40].
applications include load leveling, system stability, voltage stability, The illustrative structure of BEV is presented in Fig. 15. The improved
frequency regulation, transmission capability enhancement, power version of BEV such as HEV and PHEV are discussed to increase the
quality improvement, automatic generation control, and uninterruptible covered distances.
power supplies [2,28].Accordinr to Refs. [7,9,29], and [30], Table 2 has
been derived including different characteristics of EES devices. [Link]. Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). HEV is a combination of two or
more types of energy and power sources. Power source like battery, fuel
2.1.4. Electric vehicles (EVs) cell FC, SC, internal combustion engine (ICE), and energy source like
Electric vehicles use electric energy to drive a vehicle and to operate battery, FES, or regenerative braking [34] are used for combining the
electrical appliances in the vehicle [31]. The spread of electric vehicles, profits of ICEVs and EVs [41]. Available hybrid powertrain configura­
commonly known as zero-emissions vehicles, will gradually replace tions have been described, categorized, and totally analyzed in previous
literature reviews [42–44]. Energy management strategy (EMS), which
copes with the power distribution between power sources according
their own control guidelines, has been significantly studied with
different objectives like fuel usage minimization [45,46] emission
diminishing [47], and battery lifetime [48]. The profit of HEV is that
when the primary fuel (diesel, gasoline) storage tank runs out of during
driving the ICE then the secondary source will operate as a backup
system to the driveline with its maximum range [49].

[Link]. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PEV). The PEV is a form of HEV
in which the battery is charged from an external source. PEV can run on
both battery and gasoline. These batteries can be charged at a charging
station or at home using an ordinary plug or by a regenerative braking
system [34]. For short distances, it uses battery banks and for long
distances, it utilizes gasoline power when battery power is depleted
[50]. Because of decreasing moving parts of PEV, it has lower mainte­
nance cost. The typical configuration of PEV is presented in Fig. 16.
Fig. 12. Schematic diagram of an individual cell of a SC. There are two ways of working of PEV. The first one is grid to the vehicle

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Table 2
Characteristics of different EES devices.
EESS Capacity (MW) Lifetime (Years) Capital cost (€/kWh) Strength Weakness Use in RE Systems

Capacitor 0.05 5 897 High power density Small capacity No use

Supercapacitor 0.3 20 1795 - High charge -Low voltage Wind parks
-Discharge efficiency (95 %) -High self-discharge rate
-Fast response -High capital cost
-High efficiency
-Long lifetime
SMES 0.1–10 20 8974 -High cycles of charging- discharging -High cost Wind parks
-High power density -High self-discharge rate
-Fast response -High capital cost
-High efficiency

[Link]. EVs utilization as ESS. The market for electric vehicles (EVs) is
growing quickly on a global scale. It is expected that market share will
rise significantly in next few years [52]. Globally, there were more than
5 million electric vehicles (EVs) in use in 2018. It is anticipated that this
number will increase rapidly to 44 million by 2030 [52]. The power
system has traditionally struggled to balance generation and load de­
mand; however, EV integration into the grid presents additional diffi­
culties. The growing popularity of electric vehicles (EVs) presents
substantial operational difficulties for the power grid since the patterns
of EV charging and discharging need to be carefully controlled to
maintain system stability and dependability. It is more difficult to bal­
ance the supply and demand of electricity when EV charging is dynamic
and renewable energy sources are sporadic [53]. To solve these issues,
numerous approaches and technologies are being developed, including
as vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology, smart charging infrastructure, and
sophisticated grid management systems. These technologies allow for
Fig. 14. Suitable technologies for EV [32]. bidirectional power transfer between EVs and the grid, improve grid
flexibility, and optimize EV charging and discharging patterns [54].
EV batteries have a fast reaction time, which makes them ideal for
Table 3 auxiliary functions like frequency regulation. EV batteries can play a
The characteristics of different types of EVs [34,35]. significant role in preserving grid stability and balancing the frequency
Characteristic BEV PHEV FCEV of the power system due to their quick response to variations in power
supply or demand. This increases the potential value of EVs in sustaining
Energy system -Battery -Battery -FC
-UC -ICE -Battery
the overall performance and dependability of the power grid and makes
-UC -UC them a desirable alternative for providing auxiliary services [55]. To
Energy source -Charging power -Charging power -Hydrogen fuel optimize EV integration benefits while preserving system stability,
station station effective coordination between renewable energy generation, EV
-Fuel pump
charging, and grid operations is essential. For EVs to be seamlessly in­
-Gasoline
Energy supply -Limited by battery -Limited by battery -Unlimited tegrated into the power grid, standards, incentives, and policies must be
capacity -Capacity -capacity established in close coordination with automakers, energy providers,
Carbon emissions -Zero emissions -Some emissions -Zero emissions and regulatory agencies [56]. Some work contributions with several
Price factors -Battery price -Battery price -Battery price issues using EESS are tabulated in Table 4.
-Market electricity -Market electricity -Market
-Price -Price electricity
-Gasoline price -Price
- Fuel price
2.2. Electrochemical energy storage systems (ECESS)
Advantage -Zero emissions -Less emissions -Zero emissions
-Independence on -Long-distance -High efficiency ECESS converts chemical to electrical energy and vice versa [14].
fossil fuels covered ECESS are Lead acid, Nickel, Sodium –Sulfur, Lithium batteries and flow
Disadvantage -High initial cost -Dependence on -Hydrogen fuel
battery (FB) [9]. ECESS are considered a major competitor in energy
-Battery fossil fuels storage
replacement -Higher cost -High cost of storage applications as they need very little maintenance, have high
fuel efficiency of 70–80 %, have the greatest electrical energy storage (10
Degree of -Extensive use -Being popularized -Test stage Wh/kg to 13 kW/kg) [15] and easy construction, [1]. However, there
application are some barriers high maintenance costs in large-scale facilities, their
lifetime depend on depth-of-discharge (DoD) and relative low cycling
(G2V) whereby, the battery charges from the grid to drive the vehicle times [9].
and charge the battery. The second one is the vehicle to grid (V2G) in
which the battery provides power to the grid to overcome the grid 2.2.1. Lead acid batteries
overload problem [31]. In regenerative braking mode, the traction The most heavily used rechargeable battery is the lead–acid battery
motor acts as a generator to charge the battery [51]. PEV can drive for a [80]. They are composed of lead dioxide (PbO2) as the positive electrode
proper distance, but it has some drawbacks like its initial cost is higher and lead dioxide (PbO2) as the negative electrode immersed in an
than BEV and it produces more emissions than BEV. Owing to these electrolyte mitigated solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) [81]. Lead–acid
reasons, BEV is obtaining more approval than PHEV [34]. batteries have very tiny response time, little daily self-discharge rates,
relatively high efficiencies, small capital costs, and can be stablished for

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Fig. 15. typical structure of BEV.

This storage system has many merits like there is no self-discharge, high
energy densities (150–300 Wh/L), high energy efficiency (89–92 %),
low maintenance and materials cost, non-toxic materials, and materials
can be recycled [87]. NaS batteries used for grid connected applications
like power quality enhancing and peak shaving [85]. However, the de­
merits are high operating cost (80 $/kW/year) to obtain liquid elec­
trodes, and a high temperature (574–624 K) chemical reaction is
required. So, an additional system is used which adds an extra cost and it
is suitable only for large scale power system applications [85]. The
research mainly focuses on improving the cell performance and
Fig. 16. Typical structure of PEV [31]. decreasing the high temperature operating costs [1].

the large scale applications [82]. On the other hand, they have restricted 2.2.5. Flow batteries (FBs)
life cycle, usually require a ventilation system, and charging and dis­ Flow battery consists of two liquid electrolytes which stored in two
charging process are not identical [83]. The schematic diagram for led dissolvable redox couples enclosed in external tanks to increase the
acid batteries during charging and discharging is shown in Fig. 17. energy storage capacity [88]. These electrolytes can be pumped from the
tanks to the cell stack, and they are separated by a microscopic mem­
2.2.2. Lithium-ion battery (Li-Ion battery) brane to allow a restricted ions number to pass over it. Through the
This type of battery is very appropriate for portable applications such electrolyte solutions reduction oxidation reactions, the electricity is
as laptops and mobile phones because of its low weight, good perfor­ produced [89]. The flow battery schematic diagram is shown in Fig. 21.
mance, fast response time, and high cycle effeciency. Also, It can also be Unlike the FC, the chemical reactions taking place inside the flow bat­
used to improve the performance of EVs [12]. In a Li-Ion battery, the teries are reversible. So, it can be recharged without replacing the
cathode is made of a lithium metal oxide, such as LiCoO2 and LiMO2, electroactive material. The FB’s power rating relies upon the stacks
and the anode is made of graphitic carbon as shown in Fig. 18 [82]. The number of the cell and the electrode size [15]. FB can release huge
Li-Ion battery current research spotlights on using nanoscale materials amount of energy at a high discharge rate and has a good life cycle (10,
for improving the power capability of the battery and heightening bat­ 000 full cycles during their lifetime) [90]. FBs have tiny response time,
tery specific energy by progressing advanced electrode materials and have high efficiency, and operate near to the ambient temperature [85].
electrolyte solutions [82]. Evaluation of various battery technologies’ parameters in a comparison
is presented in Table 5. In addition to, some characteristics of every type
2.2.3. Nickel - cadmium battery (NiCd) from electrochemical energy storage systems ECESS including their
These batteries are commercially used since about 1915. The two strength and weakness issues are presented in Table 6.
electrodes of these batteries are nickel hydroxide and metallic cadmium. It has been noticed from Table 7 above that there are plenty of papers
The electrolyte is made of an aqueous alkali solution as presented in that concerned with challenges and limitations of batteries (Li- io bat­
Fig. 19 [82]. NiCd batteries have low maintenance, relative high effi­ tery, Na–S battery and lead acid battery). Batteries can be used in
ciencies, and the ability to work in a wide range of low temperatures different systems as grid connected or isolated systems providing the
(from − 20 ◦ C to − 40 ◦ C). However, they can affect the environment as advantages of minimizing cost (total cost, maintenance cost or invest­
cadmium and nickel are toxic heavy metals, NiCd batteries cost is up to ment cost), preventing voltage fluctuation in LV distribution network,
10 times greater than the Li-ion batteries [85]. NiCd battery can be used maximizing PV utilization and minimizing losses. There are various
for large energy storage for renewable energy systems. The efficiency of optimization techniques that can be used for catching these benefits.
NieCd battery storage depends on the technology used during their
production [12].
2.3. Mechanical energy storage system (MESS)
2.2.4. Sodium sulfur battery (NaS)
In the NaS battery, molten sodium and molten sulfur compose the MES is one of the oldest forms of energy that used for a lot of ap­
two electrodes and uses beta alumina as the solid electrolyte. A scheme plications. It can be stored easily for long periods of time. It can be easily
of a NaS battery cell is shown below in Fig. 20 [82]. This battery can converted into and from other energy forms [15]. Three forms of MESs
supply high rated capacity than other types of batteries (up to 244.8 are drawn up, include pumped hydro storage, compressed air energy
MWh). So, it is built for high power energy storage applications [86]. storage systems that store potential energy, and flywheel energy storage
system which stores kinetic energy.

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Table 4
Challenges and limitations of EESS.
Ref Challenge ESS Isolated/Grid Limitation Contribution
Device connected

[19] Minimize operating cost (fuel + startup SMES Islanded Power quality is not Using the modified LR-PSO method on IEEE 10-unit thermal bus
cost) improved system with and without SMES
[23] Control SMES terminal voltage SMES Grid Power quality is not A new security circuit is proposed for highly inductive loads to
connected improved ensure safe operation in case of fault.
[57] Control of SC’SOC SC Isolated Cost is not considered The strategy improved the reliability of the system and reduced
Minimizing Power loss the required communication data.
[58] Control fluctuation of wind power SC BESS Grid High cost Design system composed of HESS to control wind power
connected fluctuations by using fuzzy logic control.
[59] Minimize cost SC BESS Isolated Power quality is not Design a HESS used for distributed generation system to meet the
Minimize fuel improved demand for a UK family and reduce the generator operating time.
Minimize system efficiency
[60] Using SC to control high voltage ride SC Grid The overall power Design a control system for wind turbine generator to control
through (HVRT) for wind turbine connected quality is unsatisfactory HVRT using SC.
generation system.
[61] Controlling system frequency. SC Grid Cost is not considered Using fuzzy logic control strategy for control frequency of DFIG,
connected SC and wind farm system under variable wind speed.
[62] - Control SOC of SC SC Isolated Power quality is not EMS depends on using SOC of SC and DC voltage fluctuation as a
Minimize DC voltage fluctuation improved. reference to perform a double closed loop to control SC.
[63] -Minimize DC voltage fluctuation. SC Isolated Cost is not considered Design a three-level bidirectional DC-DC converter to control the
-Control SOC of SC. SC power flow.
Using model predictive control to control the converter.
[64] Optimal design of SMES system SMES – Grid Lack of ESS control Design micro grid system with SMES integrated system of capacity
BESS connected 1.2 MW for a micro grid system
[65] Reduce system cost SMES Grid Power quality is not Using an adaptive fractional-order sliding-mode control
connected improved (AFOSMC) to improve the dynamic response of SMES against
various operating conditions
[66] Mitigate the fluctuations of PV output SMES Grid Cost and losses are not Using HESS composed of high temperature superconducting coils
during a cloud passing. BESS connected considered based superconducting magnetic energy storage (HTS SMES) and
battery for voltage control.
[44] Voltage control of DC grids connected to SMES Grid Cost is not considered Design of SMES system. control system of SMES
wind farms connected
[67] Smoothing the output of the wind farms SMES Grid losses are not taken into Improving the wind farms transient stability using a control
connected account. strategy of the SMES in parallel with voltage source inverter.
[68] Improve the grid power quality SMES Grid High system cost Adding SMES in VSC based active filter for reducing THD.
connected
[69] Control the fluctuation of frequency due SMES Isolated Losses are not Design the fuzzy PI controller for SMES.
to transient load changes. considered
[70] Compensate voltage fluctuations for a SMES Grid Neglecting losses and Using battery and SMES based dynamic voltage resistor for
grid connected hybrid renewable system BESS connected cost. compensating voltage fluctuations.
[71] Smoothing output power for DFIG and SMES Grid Battery degradation is Usin transient voltage control (TVC) method to reduce the PCC’VD
PMSG. connected not considered and enhances the overall system performance
[72] Design a multistage SMES SMES Isolated Cost is not considered. Design a multistage SMES and study the system performance with
the conventional SMES and multistage SMES.
[73] Optimization the SMES coil dimensions SMES Isolated Power quality is not Using a multi- objective function GA to minimize the coil losses.
improved
[74] - Increasing system efficiency SC BESS Isolated Battery degradation is Design a bidirectional DC_DC converter for HESS for EV and HEV.
- Minimizing cost not considered
[75] Control SOC of SC banks SC BESS Isolated Battery degradation is Design a new multi-source inverter MSI for integration SC and B
not taken into account for EV.
[76] -Control SOC of SC SC BESS Grid Power quality is not Dynamic wireless power transfer WPT system for charging EV.
-Minimize the system cost connected improved
[77] -Minimize system cost SC Li-ion Grid Optimal design of EV based HESS composed of Li-ion B and SC to
-Control SOC of SC Battery connected minimize the system cost, improve power quality, and increase the
overall efficiency.
[78] Control current and voltage of the SC BESS Isolated Cost is not considered Control strategy for EV based on HESS composed of SC and B to
system. control SOC of SC and prolong battery life.
[79] Minimize battery current ripples and SC SC li-ion Isolated Cost is not considered Implementation fuzzy logic on EV based on HESS
current fluctuation. Battery

2.3.1. Flywheel energy storage (FES) diagram of FES is presented in Fig. 22. The flywheel is kept on a low
FES was first developed by John A. Howell in 1983 for military ap­ pressure state to reduce the frictional losses [10]. FES can be used for
plications [100]. It is composed of a massive rotating cylinder which is load levelling and peak shaving and reducing the RES intermittencies by
sustained over a stator and electric motor/generator is jointed with the supplying real power to the system when necessary [102,103]. Because
flywheel. In FES, kinetic energy or rotational energy is transformed to of FES fast response, it can be used for enhancing system stability for
electrical energy by using electric generator on the discharging mode penetration RES in power systems [104]. Relied on rotational speed, the
and vice versa on the charging mode. Permanent magnet machines are FES can be classified into two categories: low-speed FES (less than 6000
commonly used for FESs because of their high efficiencies, high power rpm) and high-speed FES (about 104 − 105 rpm) [17,21]. The low speed
densities, and low rotor losses [101]. The FES capacity is proportional to FES is suitable for power reliability applications, and it has low cost.
its mass and the square of speed [9]. Its efficiency relies on the energy High speed FES is good for traction and aerospace applications and its
storage usage time. FES is not suitable for storing energy on long-term cost is five times larger than low speed FES [10]. FES has many merits
basis so, it is combined with other devices [14]. The schematic like high power and energy density, long lifetime and lower periodic

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

versa when the demand is high. The electricity is then generated from
the stored water to supply power for momentary peaks or for unpre­
dicted outages [12]. To produce a variable output power, the inlet water
flow is controlled using gates and variable-speed drives can be utilized
for regulation while charging [7]. PHES needs some conditions like,
location existence besides difference in height [7]. PHES has many ad­
vantages such as long life time (40–60 years), fast response time, low
cost, high efficiency, ability to store enormous amounts of energy, and
very low self-discharge rate [103,105]. In contrast, it has some disad­
vantages such as it needs huge water source, massive environmental
affect, and not much possible sites [103].

2.3.3. Compressed air energy storage (CAES)

CAES uses compressed and pressured air to store energy [106].
Fig. 17. Schematic diagram for lead acid batteries during charging and dis­ Compressor, underground storage unit, and turbine, are the main CAES
charging [84]. components. The air is compressed and stored at a high pressure in an
underground chamber and when needed, it expanded. The air is com­
pressed while off peak and this stored energy is used during peak time.
While peak time, the compressed air is fed to a combustion chamber
which mixed with fuel to generate electricity [10]. The schematic of
CAES plant is shown in Fig. 24. CAES and PHES are the available largest
scale energy storage systems. Compared with PHES, CAES is smaller in
size, its construction sites are more prevalent. So, it offers a large-scale
widespread storage network [107]. It is more convenient for fre­
quency regulation, energy arbitrage, and load levelling [15]. To enhance
the CAES efficiency, the released heat from the compression stage,
stored and used while expansion process and this improve the overall
system efficiency by 10 %–15 % [12]. The CAES life cycle is approxi­
mately 40 years [103]. CAES has many merits like, it can store massive
amount of energy, it has high efficiency 70 %, fast response, and low
cost. On the other hand, it has some demerits such as, the need for
enclosed storage cavern, economical for a storage period of up to one
day only and not yet completely advanced [103]. The researchers focus
Fig. .18. Li-Ion batteries cell structure [82].
on Liquid Air Energy Storage (LAES) as liquefied air is thick, so it is more
convenient for long-term storage, Advanced Adiabatic CAES and Su­
percritical Compressed Air Energy Storage [108]. Some characteristics
of different types of mechanical energy storage systems including their
strength and weakness issues are tabulized in Table 8. Also, some papers
that concerns with several issues using MESS is tabulized in Table 9.
Table 9 indicates the concerned challenges and limitations of MESS
(PHES, CAES and FES). All types can be utilized for both grid connected
and isolated systems. It can be concluded that all mentioned types can
reduce cost and control system voltage. CAES can control both active
and reactive power and the SOC. Also, PHES has the ability to smooth
fluctuations of Photovoltaic Power and improve system reliability.
Different optimization starategies have been applied to achieve these
advantages.

2.4. Thermal energy storage systems (TESS)

Heat or cold is stored in TESS for later use. These systems consist of a
Fig. 19. Nickel–Cadmium cell [82].
heat storage tank, an energy transfer media, and a control system. Heat
is stored in an insulated tank using a specific technology [12]. Utilizing
maintenance, small recharge time, temperature insensitivity, 85%–90 %
these systems reduces energy consumption and overcome the problem of
efficiency, high charging and discharging rate, large energy storage
intermittency in renewable energy systems [82]. TESS has some ad­
capacity, and clean energy. On the other hand, it has some demerits,
vantages like, clean energy source for generating electricity, reducing
small discharge time, intricate structure, mechanical stress, protection
heating or cooling energy demand for buildings, low initial cost,
anxieties because of high rotor speed and breaking likelihood, and high
reducing emissions, increasing continuity, and reducing maintenance
cost [102].
cost [85,121]. On the other hand, some concerns should be considered
such as: increasing complexity, the overall efficiency for TESS is low
2.3.2. Pump hydro energy storage (PHES)
(30–50 %), thermal losses, and the possible prescribed space [121]. A
PHES composed of two natural or manufacturing positioned/
simplified TES diagram is presented in Fig. 25. TESS is mostly utilized
designed at higher and lower heights [14]. In Fig. 23, the components of
for industrial, residential buildings for generating electricity besides
PHES is presented which involve: upper reservoir, lower reservoir,
producing water, and is often used in PV systems which guarantee col­
motor, generator and inlet valve. When the electricity demand is low,
lecting much amount of energy from the sun [10,12]. Thermal energy
the water is lifted from the inferior reservoir to the higher one and vise
can be stored in the form of latent heat, sensible heat, and reversible

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Fig. 20. Schematic diagram of NaS battery [82].

Table 6
Strength and weakness for electrochemical energy storage systems ECESS.
Storage type strength weakness Use in RE
systems

Lead-Acid -Fast reaction -Low energy density Wind parks,

battery speed -Impact on the environment PV
-Low self-
discharge rate
-High cycle
efficiency
-Low capital cost
Li-Ion -High energy -Require working temperature Wind parks
battery density -Need overcharge protection
-Fast reaction
speed
-Low self-
Fig. 21. Schematic diagram of flow battery [10]. discharge rate
-Long cycle life
-High reliability
NaS battery -High energy -High internal resistance Wind parks
Table 5 density -Sodium corrosion
Comparison between parameters for different battery technologies. -Low self- -Additional system for high
discharge rate temperature heating
Parameters Lead-Acid battery Li-Ion battery Flow battery
-Fast reaction
Efficiency 75 %–80 % 80 %–86 % 60 %–70 % speed
Energy 50 Wh/kg to 100 Wh/ 200 Wh/kg to 350 20 Wh/kg to -Nontoxic
density kg Wh/kg 70 Wh/kg materials
Power density 10 W/kg to 500 W/kg 100 W/kg to 3500 W/ n. a NiCd battery -High energy -Environmental hazards Wind parks,
kg density -Affected by memory effect PV
Life cycle 500 to 2000 1000 to 5000 cycles >10000 -Long cycle life
Calendar life 5 years–15 years 5 years–20 years 10 years–15 -High reliability
(depending on (depending on years Flow battery -Fast reaction -Environmental issues Wind parks
temperature and soc) temperature and soc speed -No large-scale application
Depth of 70 % Up to 100 % 100 % experience
discharge
Self- discharge 0.1 % per day to 0.4 % 5 % per month 0.1–0.4 %
per day per day is the most material used because of its low cost, availability, and high
Power 150 €/kW to 200 150 €/kW to 200 1000 €/kW
specific heat capacity [121]. Thermal oil and molten salt are utilized for
installation €/kW €/kW to 1500
cost €/kW high-temperature applications. Solid materials like: rocks, sands, gravel,
Energy 100 €/kWh to 250 300 €/kW to 800 300 €/kW to wood, ceramics, and concrete [123] that are used for high-temperature
installation €/kWh €/kW 500 €/kW applications although they have higher cost and lower energy density
cost than liquid materials [121]. SHSS storage efficiency is (50%–90 %)
[121].
thermochemical reactions [122].
2.4.2. Latent heat storage system (LHSS)
2.4.1. Sensible heat storage systems (SHSS) Thermal energy is stored in the form of latent heat when a substance
In SHSS, the heat is stored by increasing the medium temperature undergoes a transitional phase and its state changes from one form to
without transition its initial phase. The stored energy is proportional to another. The most famous transition state is the change of the state of
material mass, the charging/discharging temperature change, and the matter from a solid form to a liquid form [121]. Moreover, it can be
specific heat capacity [17]. SHSS is the cheapest and simplest TESS. changed from solid to liquid or liquid to gas and vice versa [4]. The used
Materials used for this system can be divided into liquid and solid. Water materials called phase change materials (PCM) [17]. Throughout the

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Table 7 Table 7 (continued )

Challenges and limitations of batteries for different systems as ESS. REF Challenge ESS Isolated/ Limitation Contribution
REF Challenge ESS Isolated/ Limitation Contribution Device Grid
Device Grid connected
connected
networks
[91] -Minimize Battery Grid Power quality Optimal using ES
cost connected issue is allocating of devices.
unsatisfactory the batteries [97] -Minimizing Battery Grid Lack of Preventing
in the total cost connected battery over and
distribution control under voltage
system with algorithm in radial LV
PV distribution
generation. network.
[92] -Minimize Lead Grid Power quality Minimizing [98] -Maximize PV Battery Grid Complex Using a
cost acid connected is not the total cost utilization connected computations combination
battery improved of the grid -Minimize of Model
connected battery Predictive
system. degradation Control (MPC)
Optimal size, strategy and
location of Benders de-
lead acid composition
battery and technique.
optimal Longer for
operation are planning
studied. distributed
[28] -Minimize Battery Grid Optimal Optimal sizing battery
battery connected charge/ a daily charge storage
maintenance discharge of /discharge of [99] -Minimize Battery Isolated Slow Using Cuckoo
cost BESS is BESS in LV system cost convergence Search
-Minimize complicated distribution algorithm for
losses network with optimal sizing
high PV of a remote
penetration is hybrid
studied. renewable
[93] -Minimize Li- io Isolated Trapping Using a energy
operational battery solver in local combination System.
and optima of self- Comparing
investment adapted the results
cost evolutionary with GA and
strategy with PSO.
Fischer–
Burmeister
algorithm to material’s phase change, the heat is stored or emanated, and the me­
minimize the dium’s temperature is constant. The material, during charging, absorbs
investment
heat and its temperature rises until its melting point [124]. At this point,
and
operational the material absorbs heat to change its phase while its temperature stops
cost for hybrid rising. LHSS charging and discharging relies upon the utilized PCM
RE system. melting and solidification [125]. PCM can be categorizes into organic
[94] -Minimize Na–S Isolated Power quality Using grey and inorganic. Paraffin, fatty acid, esters, alcohols, glycols, and eutectics
investment battery is not wolf
cost Minimize improved optimization
are deemed as organic PCM. Whilst salt hydrates, nitrate salts, carbonate
Energy error method for salts, chlorine salts, sulfate salts, fluorine salts, hydroxides, metal, al­
sizing loys, and salt eutectics are deemed as inorganic PCM [126]. LHSS has a
electrical storage efficiency of (75 %–90 %) and its capacity if 4 times larger than
energy storage
of a SНSS [127]. LHSS is more thermal behavior stable whilst charging
system in
microgrids and discharging processes than SHSS [128]. Nowadays, bio-based PCM
[95] -Minimize Battery Grid Battery Optimization is taking more interest as they are relied on renewable raw materials and
investment connected degradation is of BESS for they have lower flammability compared to paraffin [107]. LHSS
cost not different research is mainly focused on the presenting new storage media and
considered ownership
structures in a
enhancing thermodynamic properties of the existing ones [129]. A new
peer-to-peer PCM is examined that it is fatty acid derivative of vegetable and animal
energy oils [130].
sharing
community
2.4.3. Thermo chemical energy storage systems (TCESS)
[96] -Sizing and Battery Grid Power quality Using the
allocation of connected is not Non- In this type, the heat is not stored directly but utilizes a physico­
battery banks improved. Dominated chemical process [14]. The heat is consumed during charging process
-Optimal Sorting and released during discharging [12]. Absorption and adsorption of
number and Genetic energy is an example of physicochemical process [126]. Fig. 26 repre­
location of Algorithm II
switching (NSGA-II) for
sents the working principles of a TCESS. During charging, a thermo
devices optimal chemical material C absorbs energy and gets separated to 2 materials A
-Equipment design for and B. This reaction is called endothermic. While discharging, the stored
cost distributed heat is released as the materials A and B pose initial material C and this is
called exothermic [6]. The materials A and B are stored in separated

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Fig. 22. Schematic diagram of flywheel energy storage system source [102].

emission. LHSS can reduce energy loss.

2.5. Chemical energy storage systems (CESSs)

Chemical energy is put in storage in the chemical connections be­

tween atoms and molecules. This energy is released during chemical
reactions and the old chemical bonds break and new ones are developed.
And therefore the material’s composition is changed [9]. Some CESS
types are discussed below.

Table 8
Strength and weakness for mechanical energy storage systems.
Strength Weakness Use in RE
systems

Flywheel Energy -High energy -Low power density Wind parks

Storage density -High self-discharge
-Fast charging -High cost
speed -Heavy maintenance
Fig. 23. Pumped hydro storage systems [12].
-Long lifetime workload
-High cycle
rooms, so, there is no self-discharging [9]. TCESS storage efficiency is efficiency
(75%–99 %). TCESS has higher energy capacity than SHSS and LHSS and Pumped hydro -High capacity -Large unit size Wind parks,
storage -Long lifetime -High capital cost hydro
they are able to store energy for long periods with very low energy losses systems -Low maintenance -Terrain constrains electrics
[126]. The strength and weakness of TESS and their use in RES systems cost -Centralized
are presented in Table 10. Also, some papers that concerns with several compressed air -Long lifetime -High requirements for Wind parks,
issues using TESS are tabulized in Table 11. energy storage -Fast reaction speed geographical hydro
-Environmentally environment electrics
Table 11 presents challenges and limitations of TESS. All TESS can be
friendly -Low round trip
used in different systems (grid connected or isolated systems) and it cab -High capacity efficiency
be integrated with other storage devices such as BESS. All types can -Low cost -Need underground
improving the battery life cycle and reduce total system cost and CO2 cavities

Fig. .24. Schematic diagram of (CAES) Plant [10].

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Table 9
Challenges and limitations of MESS for different systems.
Ref Challenge ESS Isolated/Grid Limitation Contribution
Device connected

[109] -Minimize cost FES Isolated Power quality is not Planning ESS with studying the effects of transmission losses and increased
Minimize losses improved penetration of RE.
[110] -Control DC link voltage FES Grid connected PQ is unsatisfactory Control of FES in case of Uncertainties using tube based MPC.
Control FES speed
[111] -Minimize cost PHES Grid connected PQ is not improved Using Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO) to get the
Minimize losses optimal size of standalone system and comparing the results of this method
with GA, Simulated Annealing method (SA) and weighted sum approach
(WSA).
[112] Minimize cost CAES Isolated Computational Using modified bacteria foraging algorithm to get the optimal configuration
complexity of HES based CAES and comparing the results with differential evolution.
[113] Minimize the overall cost CAES Grid connected Power quality is not Using The Monte–Carlo simulation method to estimate the (electrical,
improved thermal, gas load, wind turbine and electricity price) uncertainties.
Considering P2G technology, along with the CAES system, reduce gas costs
and the total operating cost of EHS and reduce the amount
of electricity sold from the upstream network.
[114] Control active power, reactive CAES Grid connected Cost is not considered Implement a transient stability model of a system composed of two CAES.
power, and SOC. Studying the effects of cavern sizes on the system frequency
[115] Minimize system cost CAES Isolated Computational Using Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) to study the benefits of utilizing CAES
complexity for RES.
[116] Control system voltage PHES Isolated Cost is not considered Generating a continuous power from PHES for a hybrid system consists of
[117] Minimize cost PHES Isolated Computational mixed-integer linear programming (MILP) for short term scheduling for
complexity WTHS
[118] Smoothing Fluctuations of PHES Grid connected Cost is not considered Using fuzzy CEEMDAN algorithm to calculate the target power combined
Photovoltaic Power system composed of cascade hydro stations, PV, and PHES.
[119] -Minimize the integral of time PHES Isolated Degradation of BESS is Using coyote-optimization algorithm (COA) to control MG system
multiplied absolute error BESS not considered. containing of wind, solar, biodiesel and a storage system composed of (mini-
(ITAE). Cost is not considered. PHES and BESS) for getting a reliable system performance.
[120] Cost reduction PHES Isolated Battery degradation is Using HOMER to perform comparative analysis for nine HRES.
BESS not considered

Table 10
Strength – weakness of TESS and their use in RES systems [9].
TESS strength Weakness Use in RES system

SHSS -No toxic or expensive -Small energy density Solar panels,

materials used -High cycle efficiency geothermal
-Many available -Energy density affected
materials by the materials
-Low price
LHSS -High energy density -Differentiation of PCM Solar panels,
-Small range of volume per cycle geothermal and PV
temperature change -High demand for PCMs
TCESS -High efficiency -High manufacturing No use
Fig. 25. TES simplified diagram [82]. -High energy density cost
-Long term stable -Low efficiency
storage period -Poor heat transfer
-Low energy loss performance

2.5.1. Fuel cells FC

Fuel cells receive an inflow of fuel from an external source and
convert it into electrical output. This fuel can be (hydrogen, methanol,
or hydrazine) or it can be obtained indirectly from converting (natural
gas, ammonia, ethanol, or hydrocarbon gases) into a hydrogen. The
anode is a hollow vessel lined with a layer of porous carbon on which
hydrogen is pushed, and the cathode has the same composition as the
anode and oxygen is pushed on it, where the porous carbon allows the
contact of the anode and cathode with the electrolyte solution [68].
Hydrogen gas enters from the inlet in a very large amount and oxidation
occurs at the barrier each atom loses an electron and turns into a positive
ion. The electrolyte membrane allows the H+ to flow from anode to
cathode but does not permit the electrons flow electrons are released to
the cathode using an external circuit where oxygen from air is supplied
and reduction occurs. The unreacted oxygen is exited from the other
side. The resulting water vapor is collected and condensed and used as
Fig. 26. Working principles of a TCESS [10]. drinking water in spacecraft [34]. The cell reactions are represented
below in Fig. 27 [10].

Anode : H2 ⇒2H+ + 2e−

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Table 11
Challenges and limitations of TESS for different systems.
REF Challenge ESS Isolated/ Limitation contribution
Device Grid
connected

[131] Minimize LHSS Isolated Power Utilizing a

energy loss. quality is cascaded
not latent thermal
considered. energy storage
(CLTES) based
on a control
charging
method to
improve the
charging and
discharging
Fig. 27. The schematic diagram of the fuel cell [138].
thermal
energy. alkaline FC has an efficiency of 60 % whereas the PEMFC delivers 58 %
[132] Improve the TESS Isolated Cost is not Introduced a
and molten carbonate gives 47 %. PEMFC is ideal for transport appli­
battery life with considered. HESS
cycle. Li-ion composed of cations owing to its low operating temperature, quick start-up, and rapid
battery TEES with Li- load with low voltage and high current [137]. Most of the fuel cells
ion battery to currently in existence are in their early stages and are used in some
solve the limited applications such as aerospace and as a generation back-up in
overheating
problem and
large scale grid [105].
improve the
battery life 2.5.2. Hydrogen storage
cycle. This technology is composed of an electrolyser to transform the
[133] Thermal LHSS Isolated Power Using
electrical energy into hydrogen, a reservoir to store the produced
management Li-ion quality is Graphene
of li-ion battery not -enhanced hydrogen, and a conversion system like FC to convert the chemical en­
bettery using considered hybrid PCM ergy to an electrical form. The produced hydrogen is stored, liquified or
Graphene for solving the compressed. The chemical process of hydrogen production is shown in
-enhanced overheating Fig. 28. The major merit of hydrogen is that there is no emission of
hybrid PCM problem for li-
ion battery
harmful gases [1]. For renewable energy sources, the excess electricity is
[134] Minimize total TESS Isolated Power Comparing used for water electrolysis to split the water into its basic components
system cost quality is operation (hydrogen and oxygen) then they are stored in tanks where hydrogen
not strategies of may be consumed in one of three ways [103]. Directly as a fuel:
considered. two HTESS.
hydrogen can be transformed to electricity through a FC or combustion
The first one is
composed of engine. As a feedstock: by chemical combination of hydrogen and car­
two tank TES bon dioxide to produce synthetic natural gas (2H2 + CO2 ⇒CH4 + O2 )
and the other which can then be injected into natural gas pipelines. Blended with
consists of natural gas: hydrogen may be injected into some natural gas pipeline
packed bed
systems to supply infrastructures or end-use devices. Compared to the
TES
[135] -Minimize TESS Isolated Overall Using TES for other energy storage technology, hydrogen technology cost is very low
CO2 emission power increasing however, its efficiency is not very high So, it is suitable when the total
Minimize quality is primary amount of energy stored is more valuable than efficiency [139]. The
system cost not energy
different hydrogen storage mechanisms are as follows: liquid hydrogen
improved efficiency in
industrial storage, compressed and stored in a pressure tank, physical adsorption
aspects and as in carbon, complex compounds, and metal hydrides.A comparison of
a result
minimizing
the total cost.
[136] -Finding TESS Isolated Power Using GA-PSO
optimal sizing BESS quality is for finding the
Minimize not optimal sizing
levelized cost improved of a system
of energy. composed of
concentrated
solar power,
TES and
battery.

Cathode : 2O2 + 2H+ + 2e− ⇒H2 O

1
Overall : H2 + O2 ⇒H2 O
2
FCs are categorized based on the used electrolyte. These are: alkaline
FC, phosphoric acid FC, solid oxide FC, molten carbonate FC, proton
exchange membrane FC (PEMFC), and direct methanol FC. Among all,
Fig. 28. Scheme of chemical process of hydrogen production [103].

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

hydrogen storage capacity is presented in Fig. 29 [1]. 3. Hybrid energy storage system (HESS)

2.5.3. Ammonia storage HESS is made by integrating more than one type of energy storage
Ammonia can be easily stored in large quantities in liquid form, systems. It has a great importance, as renewable energy sources have
making it an ideal chemical store for renewable energy. The idea stems intermittent characteristics in energy production and it is difficult for a
from the fact that there is excess energy during the night and can be used single energy storage system to meet the energy requirements of a
in the production of ammonia and then stored for use when needed. particular consumer [7]. ESSs can work in either of two modes:
Storing hydrogen in large quantities is difficult and expensive, while high-power mode and high-energy mode. High-power ESSs like
ammonia is easier and cheaper to store and transport, and it can easily (flywheel ES, SMES, SCES, BESS, etc.), respond fast (few seconds to a few
be cracked to provide hydrogen gas when needed and used in fuel cells minutes) and has high power density. They can used for voltage stabi­
[140]. lization and improve the power system dynamic response. On the other
hand, they have high self-discharge rate and high cost per unit capacity
2.5.4. Biofuels so, they are not appropriate for large capacity and long-term storage
Biofuels, are a eco-friendly, locally available, sustainable, and reli­ [150]. While high-energy ESSs such as (PHS, CAES, fuel cells, BESS, etc.)
able fuel obtained from renewable sources [141]. Plants are a source of respond slowly, and they have high energy density so, they can used for
biofuels, as they work to trap sunlight in the form of chemical energy long-term energy systems. Their demerits are that they have a short
inside them through the process of photosynthesis, and this energy can cycle life, cannot be charged and discharged rapidly, and are not suitable
be used to suitable forms and used for energy needs. Biofuels provide 3 for real-time scenarios requiring dynamic compensation [151]. Both
% of the world’s transportation fuel. Biofuels are in the form of liquid or modes are used for a single HESS application. HESS may improved
gaseous fuels that are produced from biomass by chemical, thermal, or performances, enhanced efficiency, increased life expectancy, and less­
biological processes. Liquid fuels, like, ethanol, methanol, biodiesel, and ened costs [152]. HESSs can be used in several applications, such as in
gaseous fuels, like hydrogen and methane [141]. Liquid biofuels can be hybrid electric vehicles, fuel-cell-powered electric vehicles, renewable
utilized in transportation, engines, or fuel cells to generate electricity. energy supply systems utilizing battery/hydrogen combination,
The USA, Brazil, Germany, Argentina, and China are the leading coun­ grid-tied HESS in local or provincial use, and large-scale wind and solar
tries in the production of biofuels in the world, where they produced farms [151]. At present, HESS has come to be one of the hot investigated
together 80.2 % of the world biofuel production in 2018 [96]. fields all over the world. Here are several typical HESS combinations.

2.5.5. Aluminum energy storage

3.1. Super capacitors and batteries
Aluminum is inexpensive and abundant, as it is the third most
abundant element on earth. Excess electricity from renewable energy
So many papers have been published for introducing using the
sources is used to produce the first aluminum using corundum. Solid
combination of super capacitors and batteries for optimizing the per­
aluminum can be stored and transported easily and used when needed
formance of Electric Vehicle (EV). In Ref. [75] authors proposed a Muti
without safety concerns. Upon discharge, the aluminum first oxidizes,
Source Inverter for active control of energy storage systems in EV ap­
producing hydrogen, heat, and aluminum oxide. These by-products can
plications and a Space Vector Modulation technique and a deterministic
be used as sources of energy [142]. Several papers that concern with
State of Charge (SOC) controller are also introduced for control of the
several issues using chemical energy storage systems are tabulized in
switching actions and the operation of the SC bank. The convenience of
Table 12.
this configuration has checked out by MATLAB. The adaptation of the
Table 12 indicates It has been noticed challenges and limitations of
HESS containing SC and battery in the DC distribution network that can
CESS. It can be used in different systems (grid connected or isolated
restrain DC voltage flicker and enhance the system stability, is presented
systems) and cab be integrated with other storage devices such as BESS.
in Ref. [153]. In Ref. [154], authors studied the use of bidirectional
All types have the potential in minimizing cost, reducing CO2 emission,
two-quadrant frontend dc–dc converter to control the energy flow be­
increasing the battery life time, minimizing losses, improving system
tween the Lithium-Ion battery bank and super capacitor (SC) bank. This
reliability.
model offers good dynamic performance and well-organized output
voltage. Implementation of Fuzzy Logic control for EV using SC and
Li-ion battery is presented in Ref. [79].

3.2. SMES and batteries

A study in Ref. [155] proposed the using of SMES and battery storage
system to stabilize a photovoltaic based microgrid. A comparison, using
MATLAB, between the system containing the SMES-battery and the
system of battery only is carried out. The study proved that the
SMES-battery is better in dealing with the microgrid transient faults and
the it can reduce the fault current to avoid an unnecessary off-grid. In
Ref. [66], the design of high temperature superconducting with the
battery to form HESS is proposed. The paper showed that; this config­
uration can reduce the voltage fluctuation due to cloudy events and by
using low resistance of high temperature superconducting cables, the
voltage profile can be improved. Authors in Ref. [156] introduced the
design and implementation of SMES-battery hybrid energy storage sys­
tem in electric vehicle (EV). It used a novel nonlinear robust
fractional-order control of SMES-battery to optimize the power demand.
A case study is carried out to verify the effectiveness of this control
strategy in improving the battery life cycle and compared with other
Fig. 29. Comparison of hydrogen storage capacity [1]. control methods.

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

Table 12
Challenges and limitations of CESS for different systems.
REF Challenge ESS Isolated/Grid Limitation contribution
Device connected

[143] -Minimize total life cycle cost Hydrogen Isolated Power quality is not Optimal sizing of stand-alone system consists of PV, wind, and
Improve system reliability. improved. hydrogen storage.
[144] Minimize life cycle cost Hydrogen Isolated Battery degradation is Modelling and optimal design of [Link] optimization results
BESS not considered. demonstrate that HRES with BESS offers more cost effective and
reliable energy than HRES with hydrogen storage.
[145] -Minimize total net present cost TNPC FC Isolated Multi-objective design of HESS composed of PV, FC and diesel
-Minimize loss of power supply probability generator to supply power for an off-grid community.
(LPSP)
[146] Improve system reliability FC Isolated Computational Using multi objective PSO algorithm for optimal design of HRES.
-Minimize Loss of Power Supply Probability BESS complexity
(LPSP), levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)
and Net Present Value (NPV).
Minimize CO2 emissions
[147] Minimize Loss of Power Supply Probability FC Isolated Battery degradation is new real-time optimization algorithm based on Lyapunov
(LPSP) BESS not considered optimization framework and novel queueing theory is proposed
to optimal design the SMG with BSS.
[148] Cost reduction Increase lifetime FC Isolated Power quality is not experimental plat- form designed and constructed to test
BESS improved operation modes for hydrogen renewable power plants
integrating HESS
[149] Minimize net present value of the operation Hydrogen Isolated Power quality is not Techno-economic optimization for HRES for off grid applications
cost. Increase lifetime BESS improved using Linear Programming.

3.3. Flywheel and batteries 4.1. Battery degradation

In [157], authors provided a study of using a hybrid energy storage One of the main problems associated with batteries, is degradation
system combined of battery and flywheel to mitigate load fluctuations in problem. Owing to, rising in battery temperature because of the
electric ships. A typical prediction algorithm was developed for charging and discharging cycling and aging problem that affects the
demonstrate the validation of this strategy. Authors in Ref. [158] pro­ battery performance over the time. In Ref. [163], it is represented a
posed the installation of flywheel/battery HESS in a house on the island control strategy to manage a BESS in a microgrid for enhancing the ESS
in Greece for supplying the house with loads and a financial accounts are life time based on battery SOC and maximum capacity. The overall BESS
made for analysis its economic feasibility. In Ref. [159], authors rep­ life span enhanced by 57 %.
resented a residential Micro-Grid, consists of a photovoltaic plant inte­
grated with a flywheel/battery HESS. A Matlab Simulink model (for AC
4.2. Battery SOC effects on ESS
and DC bus configurations) is developed. From the results, it is showed
that the AC bus MG is the better in interfacing with the grid than the DC
Energy storage systems’ stability and performance are highly
bus MG (peak current value is reduced by 58 % and transient time is 30
affected by the SOC. Some works have been studied these goals. A piece-
% shorter).
wise linear SOC controller has been created to stop BESS depletion
before it reaches minimum levels for integrating SOC into low-inertia
3.4. Compressed air and supercapacitor
power systems’ primary frequency control [164]. Furthermore,
another research has looked into SOC balancing control in distributed
In [160], aurhors introduced a HESS composed of CAES system and
battery systems. Researchers have used multi-agent consensus theory
super capacitors SCs to improve the power quality of the power grid. A
and dynamic event triggering coordination algorithms to efficiently
control strategy is developed for the system to track the 24 h power
accomplish SOC balance while consuming less communication [165].
demand curve effectively. Authors in Ref. [161] proposed a CAES – SCs
Also, fractional-order modeling and Kalman filters improve estimation
HESS to improve the voltage stability. Also, SCs can be used as a filter to
accuracy and dependability, demonstrating decreased errors compared
smooth the power outputs.
to standard approaches under diverse working situations [166]. Accu­
rate SOC estimation is also essential for supercapacitor functioning. All
3.5. Thermal energy storage and batteries
of these investigations indicate how SOC has a major impact on energy
storage systems.
Authors in Ref. [132] introduced a HESS composed of thermal en­
ergy storage system TES with Li-ion battery to solve the overheating
problem while using Li-ion battery only and improve the battery life 4.3. ESS sizing and allocation
cycle. In Ref. [133], authors examine HESS consists of TESS and batte­
ries for heat handling battery management problem and reliability The sizing and placement of energy storage systems (ESS) are critical
improvement the battery. factors in improving grid stability and power system performance.
Numerous scholarly articles highlight the importance of the ideal ESS
4. Challenges for integrating energy storage systems placement and sizing for various power grid applications, such as
microgrids, distribution networks, generating, and transmission [167,
Reliability and sustainability are the main aspects related to inte­ 168]. Numerous crucial factors must be taken into account for Energy
grating ESSS to the modern power networks. However, this can be Storage System (ESS) sizing that is optimal. Market pricing, renewable
challenged. Hence, the next challenges should be considered for success imbalances, regulatory requirements, wind speed distribution, aggre­
integration of ESS [162]. gate load, energy balance assessment, and the internal power production
model are some of these factors [169]. An ideal ESS size that guarantees
a steady supply of energy can be achieved by carefully taking into ac­
count all of these factors [170]. An ESS that is appropriately sized and

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

distributed can save costs, improve the use of renewable energy, and 5. Choosing principles for energy storage systems
help with frequency management, all of which improve grid depend­
ability and lower operating costs [171]. To address the difficulties in ESS There are many factors for selecting the suitable energy storage de­
planning, design, and implementation, sophisticated approaches, algo­ vices such as [34,182]:
rithms, and optimization techniques are being created, opening the door
for more research and innovation in this area [172,173]. In distribution - Capacity: The system energy stored is determined based on the
networks with high Distributed Generation (DG) penetration, the capacity
placement of energy storage systems (ESSs) is critical to addressing - Power: How quickly the stored energy discharged and charged is
controlling voltage and system losses. Numerous approaches have been determined based on the power.
put out to optimize the placement and sizing of energy storage systems - Efficiency: It expresses the amount of energy lost during the storage
(ESSs) [174]. In order to identify the most efficient ESS size and location, period and during the charging/discharging cycle, as it is the ratio
these optimization procedures frequently use multi-objective functions between the energy provided to the consumer to the energy required
that take into consideration PV panel power, self-consumption schemes, for charging.
and the direction of demand growth. Distribution networks may expe­ - Storage period: Denotes how long the energy is stored.
rience better overall system efficiency, decreased losses, and improved - Charge and discharge time: Expresses the time for charging and
voltage management by carefully choosing where to install discharging.
energy-storage sensors using multi-objective optimization models and - Lifetime: Denotes the time to use energy storage equipment.
thorough sensitivity indices [175]. In order to facilitate power allocation - Cost: Depends on the storage equipment capital and operating costs
to various storage technologies inside the hybrid energy storage system and its life span.
HESS, a basic optimization approach for choosing a low-pass filter’s
cut-off frequency has been proposed in Ref. [168]. The features of Selection the superlative ESS for different applications is essential. In
storage technologies are greatly impacted by the optimal cut-off fre­ applications that require fast response such as frequency modulation,
quencies that are determined by the optimization framework. This reactive power support, smooth transmission, and power quality
highlights the significance of precise power allocation for efficient grid improvement where millisecond response time is vital. FES, SMES, SC,
support functions. and some batteries are highly recommended. Besides they have high
efficiency and long lifetime. However, they have small energy ratio. ESS
4.4. ESS financial feasibility based on energy storage with hourly level response time is needed for
energy time shift and capacity unit applications. PHES and CAES can be
Understanding the technical sides of ESS technology and its appli­ used for these applications [183]. Lead-acid batteries are used in many
cation’s economic viability is essential to assure the technology practi­ applications such as UPS, power quality and frequency regulation due to
cality. However, ESS’s economic studies were quite restricted, where their cost, reliability, and ripening of technology. In fact, the Li-ion
most of them, only the system capital cost was covered. For a compre­ battery has high efficiency and a large energy ratio, but its cost is
hensive technoeconomic analysis, should include system capital in­ high, therefore its use in power applications is limited [184]. The CESS
vestment, operational cost, maintenance cost, and degradation loss. and ECESS typically have greater efficiency but shorter response time.
Table 13 presents some of the research papers accomplished to over­ Moreover, MESS and TESS have longer discharge time and response
come challenges for integrating energy storage systems. speed. On the other hand, for the lifetime specification, the longer life
It can be conclded from Table 13 that there are various solutions to span time, the lower replacement costs [1]. Table 14 represents the
overcome challenges facing integrating energy storage devices in iso­ general characteristics for some of the above discussed ESS to help the
lated or grid connected systems. Utilization of HESS (SC + fuel cell, reader for choosing the appropriate ESS for its application [185]. pre­
SMES + battery, battery + SC, etc) and applying optimization technique sented some indicators to facilitate decision-making/design of various
for optimal allcation or sizing of each device will lead to reducing cost, storage technologies include storage capacity, maximum charge/di­
expanding ESS life time, improving efficiency and minimizing battery scharge power, depth of charge, durability, cost, maximum
degradation. self-discharge rate and storage weight.
From Tables 14 and it is apparent that the SC and SMES are conve­
nient for small scale energy storage application. Besides, CAES is
appropriate for larger scale of energy storage applications than FES. The

Table 13
Solutions for energy storage systems challenges.
Ref Challenge ESS Device Isolated/Grid Limitation Contribution
connected

[176] Minimize energy cost Battery –SC Grid connected Design of the battery degradation process based on the characterization of semi-
empirical aging modelling and performance.
Modelling of the dynamic behavior of SCs.
[177] Minimize system cost Battery Isolated Battery degradation is Four different practical case studies, i.e., an off-grid rural village, telecom
Hydrogen not included. tower, stand-alone welding shop, and a backup for lift load system are selected
storage to demonstrate the proposed sizing methodology.
[178] High cost Battery Isolated Allocation is not Using evolutionary algorithms and mixed integer linear programming for sizing
Battery degradation Hydrogen concerned a MG containing PV panels, a BSS and HSS.
storage
[179] -Reduce system cost, SMES - lead- Grid connected Battery aging is not The performance of the proposed system is applied on a residential PV system in
improve efficiency acidbattery considered case of load leveling and system efficiency.
[180] Minimize energy cost Hydrogen fuel Isolated Battery aging is not The allocation of supercapacitor enables to mitigate the draw of high power
cell taken into account consumption, to avoid all fast charge/discharge cycles and consequently to
- SC minimize the number of used batteries.
[181] -Expand ESS lifetime Li-ion Battery – Isolated The study considers the SOC of both battery and SC to ensure long lifetime.
Minimize energy cost SC

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Table 14
General technical specifications of energy storage techniques [1,10,186,187].
Energy storage system Power Rating Discharge Energy density Wh/kg Energy cost Lifetime
€/KWh Efficiency

PHSS 100–4000 MW 1 hr–24 h 0.5–1.5 50–150 70–85 %

FES 0.002–20 MW msec to 40 Min 5–130 1000–3500 90–95 %
CAES 50–300 MW 1he- 24 h 30–60 10–120 70–80 %
Ni-CD 0.001–0.1 MW 0.0003–1 h 40–60 200–1000 60–91 %
Li-ion 0.001–0.1 MW 0.0167–1 h 75–250 200–1800 85–100 %
Nas 0.5–50 MW 0.0003–2 h 150–240 200–900 85–90 %
Hydrogen 0.001–50 MW 14 hr- 24 h 800–10000 1–15 20–50 %
Supercapacitor 0.01–1 MW msec to minute 0.1–15 300–4000 90-95^
SMES 10 kW-10MW msec to seconds 0.5–5 700–7000 80–90 %

CAES and PHES are suitable for centered energy storage due to their electric power systems, i.e., generation, transmission, substations, dis­
high energy storage capacity. The battery and hydrogen energy storage tribution, and final consumers. Some of the applications of ESS include
systems are perfect for distributed energy storage. Presently batteries are transmission system congestion decreasing, storing energy during off
the commonly used due to their scalability, versatility, cost- peaks for using during on peaks, voltage and frequency control, repa­
effectiveness, and their main role in EVs. But several research projects ration for unpredictable emergencies like generation unit failure, and
are under process for increasing the efficiency of hydrogen energy providing a real-time balance between generation and load [139]. Using
storage system for making hydrogen a dated future ESS. ESSs in public utilities is a significant way to control the intermittent
nature of RE sources like wind and solar power [191]. By reducing
6. Applications of energy storage systems variations in the production of electricity, energy storage devices like
batteries and SCs can offer a reliable and high-quality power source
Energy storage is utilized for several applications like power peak [192]. By facilitating improved demand management and adjusting for
shaving, renewable energy, improved building energy systems, and fluctuations in frequency and voltage on the grid, they also contribute to
enhanced transportation. ESS can be classified based on its application lower energy costs. Authors in Ref. [193] represented some of these
[188]. applications such as increasing RE penetration, load leveling, frequency
regulation, and offering operating reserve. In Ref. [194], authors dis­
cussed some of energy storage technologies used in grids and the re­
6.1. General applications
quirements to decrease costs and enhance performance for these
technologies to expand their market penetration. Some applications of
There are many general applications for ESS such as solar water
ESS application are summerized in Table 15.
heating, solar air heating, solar cooking, solar greenhouses, space
heating and cooling in buildings, off-peak electricity storage, and waste
heat recovery [189]. Also, applications of FES are presented in
6.3. Renewable energy utilization
Ref. [190], involve uses in a variety of industries and frequency regu­
lation due to its advantages, including its high energy storage density,
The greater the use of renewable energy sources, the greater the need
quick charging and discharging times, and extended service life.
of energy storage sources to store energy in off-peak times and use it at
on-peak ones, in addition to the continuous intermittent in the renew­
6.2. Energy utilities able energy sources [7]. Authors in Ref. [197], recommended that ESS
that are scalable, resilient, and minimal maintenance, such as, FES, SC,
Energy storage posted at any of the five main subsystems in the SMES and most batteries, may be appropriate for distributed renewable

Table 15
ESS applications [195,196].
ESS Application requirements PHS CAES BESS FES SC SMES

Application Power rating Discharge durations Response

(MW) (HRs) time

Electric supply Supply system capacity 1–1000 4–6 Mins ✓ ✓

Load leveling 10–1000 2–10 Mins ✓ ✓ ✓
Peak shaving
Additional survices Load following 10–1000 2–4 Mins ✓ ✓ ✓
Spin and non spin reserves
Fast response spinning reserve 10–1000 1–2 <30 Sec ✓ ✓ ✓
Voltage and frequency 1–1000 15-30 Min Immediate ✓ ✓ ✓
regulation
Black start 100–1000 1–6 Secs ✓ ✓ ✓
Renewables integration Renewable back up 0.0001–400 2–4 Mins * * *
RE grid integration (brief 0.2–400 10-15 Sec Secs -Mins * * * * *
duration)
Fluctuation decreasing
Grid Transimission Transimission congestion 0.25–400 2–6 Mins * * *
system reassurance
Distribution Reduce outage frequency 0.002–10 4–10 Secs- Mins * *
UPS
Voltage support 10–100 >15 Min <1/4 cycle * * * * *
Customers End user Enhance power reliability 0.002–10 2-5 Min <1/4 cycle * * *
Enhance power quality 0.002–10 10-15 Sec <1/4 cycle * * * *

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

energy. Technologies that combine a solar energy source with ES are Table 16
reviewed in many papers [198,199]. [101,200] recommended that FES New trends in energy storage systems.
are favorable devices for combination with wind and PV systems unlike Topic Research directions Some published
to BESS as they are fast response. papers

Electric Vehicles Charging stations [208,209]

6.4. Buildings and communities Vehicle to grid [210,211]
Vehicle routing [212,213]
Energy storage is used to facilitate the integration of renewable en­ Location problem [214,215]
Wireless chareging [216,217]
ergy in buildings and to provide a variable load for the consumer. TESS Plug-in hybrid vehicles [218]
is a reasonably commonly used for buildings and communities to when Thermal energy Heat transfer enhancement [219,220]
connected with the heating and cooling systems. Wide research is rep­ storage Low-temperature thermal energy storage [221–223]
resented on storage materials, latest developments, conditions and Phase Change Materials [224,225]
Melting process [226,226,227]
performance, and restrictions for buildings uses [201,202], and [203].
Latent Heat (horizontal LH, cascaded LH, [228–230]
In Ref. [204], authors indicated that the use of FES in buildings with and reverse LH)
installed solar PV panels greatly lowers system costs. Zero Energy Lithium Sulfur High-performancelithium–sulfur [231–233]
Buildings (ZEBs) has gained a lot of attention over the past decade. TESS Batteries batteries [234]
is a appealing option for the ZEBs improvement by decreasing the en­ Accelerating electrochemical reactions [235]
Alleviating the self-discharge [236,237]
ergy utilization of the buildings, enhancing system efficiency, and Solid-state lithium-sulfur batteries
lowering the peak load [123]. Methane C O2 methanation [238,239]
Production Low-Temperature Methanation [240,241]
6.5. Transportation Hydrogen Storage Solid state hydrogen [238,242,243]
Liquid organic hydrogen [244,245]
Dehydrogenation [246,247]
There are many requests for ESS that used in EVs such as, high power Adding graphene on the hydrogen [248–250]
density, fast discharge, specifically when accelerating, extreme effi­ storage
ciency, easy control and regenerative braking capacity [7]. The highly Geothermal Heat Modelling [251]
used primary ESS in EVs are batteries. On the other hand, SC has high Pumps Performance Optimization [252,253]
Hybrid system based geothermal energy [254–256]
power densities than battery. So, a combination between Battery and SC Lithium-ion High performance of lithium-ion [257,258,
for EVs can improve the performance for EVs, aircraft, and ships [188]. batteries batteries 258–261]
FES has also been applied for extended time in transportation systems Microgrids MG integrating EV [262]
[101]. It can deal well with unpredictable power consumption as it has Management of ESS in MGs [263]
MG with hydrogen energy storage [264]
high power density and it can be used as the main source of energy for
Frequency control of standalone MG [265–267]
propulsion [200]. Various constrains occur when using Li-ion batteries Optimal scheduling of MGs based ESS [268,269]
for transportation. in Ref. [205], recommended some methods for Supercapacitors High-performance electrode material for [270–272]
enhancing Li-ion batteries for EVs such as the use of organic instead of SC
inorganic ones.
chemical, electrical, and electrochemical ones. In order to improve
6.6. Applications of hybrid energy storage systems
performance, increase life expectancy, and save costs, HESS is created by
combining multiple ESS types. Different HESS combinations are
The ability of hybrid energy storage systems (HESS) to integrate
available.
multiple storage technologies and provide high-energy and high-power
The energy storage technology is covered in this review. The use of
densities makes them useful in a variety of sectors [30]. When it comes
ESS is crucial for improving system stability, boosting penetration of
to electric vehicles, HESS is essential because it supplies the power and
renewable energy, and conserving energy. Electricity storage systems
energy density required for performance and acceleration, going beyond
come in a variety of forms, such as mechanical, chemical, electrical, and
what can be achieved with one storage technology alone. Furthermore,
electrochemical ones. In order to improve performance, increase life
by facilitating a more sustainable energy ecology, HESS plays a key role
expectancy, and save costs, HESS is created by combining multiple ESS
in improving the efficiency and stability of electrical grids with a high
types. Different HESS combinations are available.
penetration of renewable energy sources [206].
Hybrid electric vehicles, fuel cell-powered electric vehicles, grid-tied
Batteries-Supercapacitor HESS is being more widely used in domains
HESS, large-scale wind and solar farms, and several other applications
such as microgrids, smart grids, energy systems, and renewable energy
are just a few of the many uses for HESSs. This article discusses several
integration [207]. This is because of its effectiveness in efficiently con­
challenges to integrating energy-storage systems, including battery
trolling power and energy. Additionally, in order to meet decarbon­
deterioration, inefficient energy operation, ESS sizing and allocation,
ization regulations and run on sustainable electrical energy, the marine
and financial feasibility. It is essential to choose the ESS that is most
industry is increasingly using Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) in
practical for each application. FES, SMES, SC, and certain batteries are
hybrid propulsion vessels.
strongly advised for applications requiring quick response, such as fre­
quency modulation, reactive power support, seamless transmission, and
7. New trends in energy storage systems
power quality enhancement. On the other hand, hourly level response
time applications like capacity unit and energy time shift can make use
There are many trends in ESS. Top topics of storage energy are
of PHES and CAES. Additionally, new developments in energy storage
electric vehicles, thermal energy storage, lithium sulfur batteries,
systems (ESS) such as geothermal heat pumps, microgrids, SCs, methane
methane production, hydrogen storage, geothermal heat pumps,
generation, thermal energy storage, lithium sulfur batteries, electric
lithium-ion batteries, microgrids and supercapacitors. Some of research
vehicles, and hydrogen storage are covered in this [Link] to
directions of each topic and some published papers are also listed in
ESS’s high prominence as a study area, there are numerous search di­
Table 16. The energy storage technology is well covered in this review.
rections listed for each topic.
The use of ESS is crucial for improving system stability, boosting
penetration of renewable energy, and conserving energy. Electricity
storage systems come in a variety of forms, such as mechanical,

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D.A. Elalfy et al. Energy Strategy Reviews 54 (2024) 101482

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