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CSS Variables and Styles Overview

The document contains CSS styles and JavaScript code related to the layout and design of a webpage, specifically for a Wikipedia article on JavaScript. It defines various CSS variables for colors, font sizes, and other styling properties. Additionally, it includes metadata and configuration settings for the page's functionality and user preferences.

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lokeshrajputt43

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

21 views255 pages

CSS Variables and Styles Overview

Uploaded by

lokeshrajputt43

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

element.

style {
}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
.vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref--excluded, .vector-feature-
custom-font-size-clientpref-0 {

1. --font-size-medium: 0.875rem;
2. --line-height-medium: 1.5714285;

}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
:root, .skin-invert, .notheme, .ve-ui-overlay, .oo-ui-popupWidget-popup {

1. --color-base: #202122;
2. --color-base--hover: #404244;
3. --color-emphasized: #000;
4. --color-subtle: #54595d;
5. --color-placeholder: #72777d;
6. --color-disabled: #72777d;
7. --color-inverted: #fff;
8. --color-inverted-fixed: #fff;
9. --color-progressive: #36c;
10. --color-progressive--hover: #447ff5;
11. --color-progressive--active: #2a4b8d;
12. --color-progressive--focus: #36c;
13. --color-destructive: #d73333;
14. --color-destructive--hover: #ff4242;
15. --color-destructive--active: #b32424;
16. --color-destructive--focus: #36c;
17. --color-visited: #6b4ba1;
18. --color-destructive--visited: #a55858;
19. --color-error: #d73333;
20. --color-warning: #edab00;
21. --color-success: #14866d;
22. --color-notice: #202122;
23. --color-content-added: #36c;
24. --color-content-removed: #a66200;
25. --color-base--subtle: #72777d;
26. --color-link-red: #d73333;
27. --color-link-red--hover: #ff4242;
28. --color-link-red--active: #b32424;
29. --color-link-red--focus: #36c;
30. --color-link-red--visited: #a55858;
31. --filter-invert-icon: 0;
32. --filter-invert-primary-button-icon: 1;
33. --box-shadow-color-base: #000;
34. --box-shadow-color-progressive--active: #2a4b8d;
35. --box-shadow-color-progressive--focus: #36c;
36. --box-shadow-color-progressive-selected: #36c;
37. --box-shadow-color-progressive-selected--hover: #447ff5;
38. --box-shadow-color-progressive-selected--active: #2a4b8d;
39. --box-shadow-color-destructive--focus: #36c;
40. --box-shadow-color-inverted: #fff;
41. --box-shadow-color-transparent: transparent;
42. --background-color-interactive: #eaecf0;
43. --background-color-interactive-subtle: #f8f9fa;
44. --background-color-disabled: #c8ccd1;
45. --background-color-disabled-subtle: #eaecf0;
46. --background-color-progressive: #36c;
47. --background-color-progressive--hover: #447ff5;
48. --background-color-progressive--active: #2a4b8d;
49. --background-color-progressive--focus: #36c;
50. --background-color-progressive-subtle: #eaf3ff;

Show All Properties (66 more)

}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
html, body {

1. font-family: sans-serif;

}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
html {

1. font-size: 100%;

}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
html, body {

1. height: 100%;

}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
html {

1. touch-action: manipulation;

}
[Link]?la…ctor-2022:1
html {

1. scroll-padding-top: 75px;

}
html[Attributes Style] {
1. -webkit-locale: "en";
2. direction: ltr;

}
user agent stylesheet
[dir="ltr" i] {

1. unicode-bidi: isolate;

}
user agent stylesheet
:root {

1. view-transition-name: root;

}
user agent stylesheet
html {

1. display: block;

}
margin
‒

‒
border
‒

‒
padding
‒

‒
918.400×742.400
‒

‒
‒

Console
Issues
top
<html class="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-
page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-
disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-
feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-
custom-font-size-clientpref-0 vector-feature-appearance-disabled vector-feature-appearance-pinned-
clientpref-0 vector-feature-night-mode-disabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available
vector-animations-ready ve-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"><head>

<title>JavaScript - Wikipedia</title>

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content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-0 vector-feature-appearance-disabled
vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-0 vector-feature-night-mode-disabled skin-theme-
clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var
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dRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":
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baseDescriptions":
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ample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":100000,"wgULSCurrentAutonym":"English","wgCentralAuthMobi
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CompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,

"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q2005","wgCheckUserClientHintsHea
dersJsApi":
["architecture","bitness","brands","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],
"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStruc
turedTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE
={"[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]
yles":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","user":"ready","[Link]
":"loading","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]
[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","skins
.[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","ext.w
[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready",

"[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready","[Link]":"ready"};RLPAG
EMODULES=["[Link]-
enhancements","[Link]","[Link]","site","[Link]","[Link]
lapsible","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","ext.
[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]
ar","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]
[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]
Logging","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]","[Link]
aigns","[Link]","[Link]-
2022","[Link]","[Link]"];</script>

}];});});</script>

<link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/[Link]?lang=en&modules=[Link]

%[Link]%2Cicons%[Link]%2CwikimediaBadges%[Link]
%[Link]%[Link]
%[Link]%[Link]%[Link]%2Cstyles
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lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script>

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tooltipTail{transform:rotate(-45deg);transform-origin:100% 100%;bottom:0;left:15px}.rt-tooltip-
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settingsLink{background-image:url(data:image/svg+xml,%3C%3Fxml%20version%3D
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[Link]-numberInput{width:150px}.[Link]-
[Link]-tooltipsForCommentsField{margin-top:1.64285714em}.rt-
disabledHelp{border-collapse:collapse}.rt-disabledHelp td{padding:0}.[Link]-
disabledNote{vertical-align:bottom;padding-left:0.36em;font-weight:bold}@keyframes rt-fade-in-
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rt-fade-in-down{0%{opacity:0;transform:translate(0,-20px) }100%
{opacity:1;transform:translate(0,0) }}@keyframes rt-fade-out-down{0%
{opacity:1;transform:translate(0,0) }100%{opacity:0;transform:translate(0,20px) }}@keyframes rt-
fade-out-up{0%{opacity:1;transform:translate(0,0) }100%{opacity:0;transform:translate(0,-
20px) }}.rt-fade-in-up{animation:rt-fade-in-up 0.2s ease forwards }.rt-fade-in-down{animation:rt-
fade-in-down 0.2s ease forwards }.rt-fade-out-down{animation:rt-fade-out-down 0.2s ease
forwards }.rt-fade-out-up{animation:rt-fade-out-up 0.2s ease forwards }

.mw-collapsible-toggle{float:right;-moz-user-select:none;-webkit-user-select:none;-ms-user-
select:none;user-select:none}.mw-collapsible-toggle-default{-webkit-appearance:none;-moz-
appearance:none;appearance:none;background:none;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font:inherit}.mw
-collapsible-toggle-default .mw-collapsible-text{color:var(--color-progressive,#36c)}.mw-underline-
always .mw-collapsible-toggle-default .mw-collapsible-text{text-decoration:underline}.mw-underline-
never .mw-collapsible-toggle-default .mw-collapsible-text{text-decoration:none}.mw-collapsible-
toggle-default:hover .mw-collapsible-text{text-decoration:underline}.mw-collapsible-toggle-
default:active .mw-collapsible-text{color:#faa700}.mw-collapsible-toggle-
default::before{content:'['}.mw-collapsible-toggle-default::after{content:']'}.mw-customtoggle,.mw-
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collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-rtl caption .mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-rtl .mw-content-ltr
caption .mw-collapsible-toggle,.mw-content-ltr .mw-content-rtl caption .mw-collapsible-
toggle{float:none}

@media screen {
.toctoggle{-moz-user-select:none;-webkit-user-select:none;-ms-user-select:none;user-
select:none;font-size:94%}}

@keyframes centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{0%{opacity:0;transform:translateY(-20px)}100%
{opacity:1;transform:translateY(0)}}.centralAuthPPersonalAnimation{animation-
duration:1s;animation-fill-mode:both;animation-name:centralAuthPPersonalAnimation}

.mw-diff-popup .oo-ui-clippableElement-clippable p{margin:0;white-space:nowrap}

#mw-teleport-target{position:absolute;z-index:450}

#vector-appearance form{font-size:0.875rem;padding:6px 0}

.uls-menu{border-radius:2px; font-size:medium}.uls-search,.uls-language-settings-close-
block{border-top-right-radius:2px;border-top-left-radius:2px}.uls-language-list{border-bottom-right-
radius:2px;border-bottom-left-radius:2px}.[Link]::before,.[Link]::after{border-
top:10px solid transparent;border-bottom:10px solid transparent;display:inline-block;
top:17px;position:absolute;content:''}.[Link]-right::before{ border-left:10px solid
#c8ccd1; right:-11px}.[Link]-right::after{ border-left:10px solid #fff; right:-
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[Link]-left::after{ border-right:10px solid #fff; left:-10px}.uls-ui-languages
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wrapper{position:relative;padding-left:40px;margin-top:5px;margin-bottom:5px}.uls-icon-
back{background:transparent url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/resources/images/back-
[Link]?c9c25) no-repeat scroll center center;background-
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languagefilter,.skin-vector .uls-lcd-region-title{color:#54595d}.skin-vector .uls-
filtersuggestion{color:#72777d}

@media print{#centralNotice{display:none}}.cn-closeButton{display:inline-
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#uls-settings-block{background-color:#fcfcfc}#[Link]-settings-block--vector-
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[Link]::before,#[Link]-settings-block--vector-
[Link]::after{content:none}#[Link]-settings-block--
with-add-languages{background-color:#f8f9fa;border-top:1px solid #c8ccd1}#[Link]-
settings-block--vector-2022 > [Link]-add-languages-button{background:transparent
url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/resources/images/[Link]?3165e) no-repeat left
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[Link]-language-settings-button{background:transparent
url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/resources/images/[Link]?ce0b4) no-repeat
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button:hover{color:#202122}#uls-settings-block:not(.uls-settings-block--vector-2022) >
[Link]-settings-block{background-image:url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/
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[Link]-settings-block{background-image:url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/
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state{padding:28px}.uls-empty-state .uls-empty-state__header,.uls-empty-state .uls-empty-
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0}.empty-language-selector__language-settings-button{margin:12px}.[Link]-language-actions-
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language-actions-dialog .uls-language-actions-title .uls-language-actions-close{min-
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url(/w/extensions/UniversalLanguageSelector/resources/images/[Link]?279af) no-
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[Link]-ui-widget{margin:0;padding:12px 8px;display:block}.[Link]-language-actions-
dialog .uls-language-action-items .[Link]-ui-widget .oo-ui-buttonElement-
button{padding-left:36px}.mw-interlanguage-selector-disabled #p-lang-btn-sticky-
header{display:none}</style><style>

.mw-message-box{background-color:var(--background-color-notice-subtle,#eaecf0);color:var(--color-
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word;overflow:hidden; }.mw-message-box > :only-child{margin:0}.mw-message-box
h2{color:inherit;display:block;border:0;font-size:1em;font-weight:bold}.mw-message-box .mw-
logevent-loglines li{font-size:90%}.mw-message-box-error{background-color:var(--background-color-
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border-color-warning,#a66200)}.mw-message-box-success{background-color:var(--background-color-
success-subtle,#d5fdf4);border-color:var(--border-color-success,#096450)}

.mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand{ min-width:20px;min-
height:20px;width:1.25rem;height:1.25rem;min-width:12px;min-
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(-webkit-mask-image:none) or (mask-image:none){.mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand{ -webkit-mask-
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((-webkit-mask-image:none) or (mask-image:none)){.mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand{background-
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button:not(.cdx-button--weight-quiet):disabled .mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand,.cdx-button--weight-
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[Link]-button--action-destructive .mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand{filter:invert(var(--filter-invert-
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wikimedia-expand{ -webkit-mask-image:url("data:image/svg+xml;utf8,<svg
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((-webkit-mask-image:none) or (mask-image:none)){.mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand{background-
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(-webkit-mask-image:none) or (mask-image:none){.mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand{ -webkit-mask-
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repeat;mask-repeat:no-repeat;-webkit-mask-position:center;mask-position:center; }}.vector-popup-
notification{font-size:0.875rem}.vector-popup-notification p{margin:0}.vector-popup-notification
p:last-child{padding-bottom:0} .vector-sticky-header-container{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;right:0;z-
index:3;transition:transform 250ms linear;display:none;transform:translateY(-
100%);opacity:0}.vector-sticky-header{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:space-
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family:'Linux Libertine','Georgia','Times','Source Serif Pro',serif;font-size:1.5em;text-
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buttons{font-size:0.875em}.vector-sticky-header-icons,.vector-sticky-header-buttons{column-
gap:8px}.vector-sticky-header .vector-search-box{display:none}.[Link]-header-
search-toggled .vector-sticky-header-search-toggle,.[Link]-header-search-
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toggled .vector-search-box{display:block;margin-left:4px}.[Link]-header-search-
toggled .vector-search-box-show-thumbnail{margin-left:-9px}.[Link]-header-
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container{display:flex}.[Link]-sticky-header-enabled .vector-sticky-header-visible .vector-
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enabled .vector-sticky-pinned-container{top:calc(3.125rem + 24px);max-height:calc(100vh -
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[Link]-sticky-header-enabled .charts-stickyhead th{ top:3.125rem !important}}

.mw-mmv-overlay{position:fixed;top:0;left:0;right:0;bottom:0;z-index:1000;background-
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height:16px;width:1rem;height:1rem;display:inline-block;vertical-align:text-bottom}@supports not
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1

History

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creation_at_Netscape">

1.1

Creation at Netscape

</div>

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</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Adoption_by_Microsoft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adoption_by_Microsoft">

1.2

Adoption by Microsoft

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</a>

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</ul>

</li>

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toc-list-item-active">

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<div class="vector-toc-text">
1.3

The rise of JScript

</div>

</a>

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</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Growth_and_standardization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-

2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_and_standardization">

1.4

Growth and standardization

</div>

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</ul>

</li>

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reaching_maturity">

1.5

Reaching maturity

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Reaching_maturity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>
</ul>

</li>

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trademark">

2

Trademark

</div>

</a>

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</ul>

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Website_client-side_usage">

3

Website client-side usage

</div>

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_scripted_behavior">

<div class="vector-toc-text">
3.1

Examples of scripted behavior

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Examples_of_scripted_behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

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2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Libraries_and_frameworks">

3.2

Libraries and frameworks

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Libraries_and_frameworks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_usage">

4

Other usage

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Other_usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution">

5

Execution

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<li id="toc-JavaScript_engine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#JavaScript_engine">

5.1

JavaScript engine

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-JavaScript_engine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Runtime_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Runtime_system">

<div class="vector-toc-text">
5.2

Runtime system

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Runtime_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features">

6

Features

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<li id="toc-Imperative_and_structured" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-

toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperative_and_structured">

6.1

Imperative and structured

</div>
</a>

<ul id="toc-Imperative_and_structured-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Weakly_typed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weakly_typed">

6.2

Weakly typed

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Weakly_typed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Dynamic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dynamic">

6.3

Dynamic

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Dynamic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Typing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Typing">

6.3.1

Typing

</div>
</a>

<ul id="toc-Typing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Run-time_evaluation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Run-time_evaluation">

6.3.2

Run-time evaluation

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Run-time_evaluation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Object-orientation_(prototype-based)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-

toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Object-orientation_(prototype-based)">

6.4

Object-orientation (prototype-based)

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Object-orientation_(prototype-based)-sublist" class="vector-toc-

list">

<li id="toc-Prototypes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-

3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prototypes">

6.4.1

Prototypes

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Prototypes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Functions_as_object_constructors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-

level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions_as_object_constructors">

6.4.2

Functions as object constructors

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Functions_as_object_constructors-sublist" class="vector-toc-

list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Functions_as_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions_as_methods">

6.4.3

Functions as methods

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Functions_as_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>
</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Functional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional">

6.5

Functional

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Functional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Lexical_closure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-

level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_closure">

6.5.1

Lexical closure

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Lexical_closure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Anonymous_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anonymous_function">

6.5.2

Anonymous function

</div>

</a>
<ul id="toc-Anonymous_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Delegative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delegative">

6.6

Delegative

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Delegative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Functions_as_roles_(Traits_and_Mixins)" class="vector-

toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functions_as_roles_(Traits_and_Mixins)">

6.6.1

Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins)

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Functions_as_roles_(Traits_and_Mixins)-sublist" class="vector-

toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Object_composition_and_inheritance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-

toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Object_composition_and_inheritance">

<div class="vector-toc-text">
6.6.2

Object composition and inheritance

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Object_composition_and_inheritance-sublist" class="vector-toc-

list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous">

6.7

Miscellaneous

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Zero-based_numbering" class="vector-toc-list-item

vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zero-based_numbering">

6.7.1

Zero-based numbering

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Zero-based_numbering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>
<li id="toc-Variadic_functions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variadic_functions">

6.7.2

Variadic functions

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Variadic_functions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Array_and_object_literals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Array_and_object_literals">

6.7.3

Array and object literals

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Array_and_object_literals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Regular_expressions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regular_expressions">

6.7.4

Regular expressions

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Regular_expressions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Promises_and_Async/await" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-

3">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Promises_and_Async/await">

6.7.5

Promises and Async/await

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Promises_and_Async/await-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Promises" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Promises">

[Link]

Promises

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Promises-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Async/await" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Async/await">

[Link]

Async/await

</div>

</a>
<ul id="toc-Async/await-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Vendor-specific_extensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-

2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vendor-specific_extensions">

6.8

Vendor-specific extensions

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Vendor-specific_extensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax">

7

Syntax

</div>

</a>

<button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--

weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle" aria-expanded="false">

Toggle Syntax subsection

</button>

<ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Simple_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simple_examples">

7.1

Simple examples

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Simple_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-More_advanced_example" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#More_advanced_example">

7.2

More advanced example

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-More_advanced_example-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Security">

<div class="vector-toc-text">
8

Security

</div>

</a>

<button aria-controls="toc-Security-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--

weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle" aria-expanded="false">

Toggle Security subsection

</button>

<ul id="toc-Security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Cross-site_scripting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-

2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross-site_scripting">

8.1

Cross-site scripting

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Cross-site_scripting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Cross-site_request_forgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-

2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cross-site_request_forgery">

8.2

Cross-site request forgery

</div>

</a>
<ul id="toc-Cross-site_request_forgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Misplaced_trust_in_the_client" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-

level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misplaced_trust_in_the_client">

8.3

Misplaced trust in the client

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Misplaced_trust_in_the_client-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Misplaced_trust_in_developers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-

level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misplaced_trust_in_developers">

8.4

Misplaced trust in developers

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Misplaced_trust_in_developers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Browser_and_plugin_coding_errors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-

toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Browser_and_plugin_coding_errors">

<div class="vector-toc-text">
8.5

Browser and plugin coding errors

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Browser_and_plugin_coding_errors-sublist" class="vector-toc-

list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Sandbox_implementation_errors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-

level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sandbox_implementation_errors">

8.6

Sandbox implementation errors

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Sandbox_implementation_errors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Hardware_vulnerabilities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hardware_vulnerabilities">

8.7

Hardware vulnerabilities

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Hardware_vulnerabilities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>
</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Development_tools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_tools">

9

Development tools

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Development_tools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Related_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_technologies">

10

Related technologies

</div>

</a>

<button aria-controls="toc-Related_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button

cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle" aria-expanded="false">

Toggle Related technologies subsection

</button>

<ul id="toc-Related_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

<li id="toc-Java" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Java">

<div class="vector-toc-text">
10.1

Java

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Java-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-JSON" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#JSON">

10.2

JSON

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-JSON-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Transpilers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transpilers">

10.3

Transpilers

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Transpilers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-WebAssembly" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2">

10.4

WebAssembly

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-WebAssembly-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References">

11

References

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources">

12

Sources

</div>

</a>
<ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading">

13

Further reading

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

<li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1">

<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links">

14

External links

</div>

</a>

<ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list">

</ul>

</li>

</ul>

</div></div>

</div>

</div>
</nav>

<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-

heading">JavaScript</h1>

<div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang">

<input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-

event-name="[Link]-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-
selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 109 languages">

<label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-

button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-
button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-109" aria-hidden="true">

109 languages

</label>

<li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a

href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Ænglisc</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%AA" title=" ‫جافا‬
‫ – سكريبت‬Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<العربية‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Aragonese" lang="an"
hreflang="an" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Asturian" lang="ast"
hreflang="ast" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Azerbaijani" lang="az"
hreflang="az" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%AA" title="‫ – جاوااسکریپت‬South Azerbaijani" lang="azb"
hreflang="azb" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<تۆرکجه‬/span></a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA
%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F" title="জাভাস্ক্রিপ্ট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn"
class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
title="JavaScript – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語
/ Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Belarusian" lang="be"
hreflang="be" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
[Link]/wiki/JavaScript" title="JavaScript – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)"
lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская
(тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Bulgarian" lang="bg"
hreflang="bg" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="Javascript – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
German" lang="de" hreflang="de"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%AA" title="
‫ – جاوااسکریپت‬Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<فارسی‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak"
hreflang="hak" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%90%EB%B0%94%EC%8A%A4%ED%81%AC%EB%A6%BD%ED%8A%B8" title="자바스크립트 – Korean"
lang="ko" hreflang="ko" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%D5%A1%D5%8D%D5%AF%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%BF" title=" ՋավաՍկրիպտ –
Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D
%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="जावास्क्रिप्ट –
Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Ido"
lang="io" hreflang="io" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Indonesian" lang="id"
hreflang="id" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he"
class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<עברית‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Latin"
lang="la" hreflang="la" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca
Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Lombard" lang="lmo"
hreflang="lmo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Hungarian" lang="hu"
hreflang="hu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Macedonian" lang="mk"
hreflang="mk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AA
%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="ജാവാസ്ക്രിപ്റ്റ് –
Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" class="interlanguage-link-
target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA
%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="जावास्क्रिप्ट – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A7_%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%AA" title=" ‫جافا‬
‫ – سكريبت‬Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<مصرى‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%AA" title="‫ – جاوااسکریپت‬Mazanderani" lang="mzn"
hreflang="mzn" class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<ماِزرونی‬/span></a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript
– Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-
ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Mongolian" lang="mn"
hreflang="mn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Burmese" lang="my"
hreflang="my" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D
%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="जाभास्क्रिप्ट –
Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" class="interlanguage-link-
target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja"
class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-
frr mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Northern
Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk
bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%AA%E0%AD%8D
%E0%AC%9F" title="ଜାଭାସ୍କ୍ରିପ୍ଟ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%A9%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%B9" title="‫ – جاوا سکرپٹ‬Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb"
class="interlanguage-link-target">‫<پنجابی‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" class="interlanguage-link-target">ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏ
သာႏ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km"
class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-pwn mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Paiwan" lang="pwn" hreflang="pwn"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Pinayuanan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Portuguese" lang="pt"
hreflang="pt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa"
hreflang="kaa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Romanian" lang="ro"
hreflang="ro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Quechua" lang="qu"
hreflang="qu" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха
тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%81%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BD
%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="ජාවා උපදේශාවලිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si"
class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
title="JavaScript – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" class="interlanguage-link-
target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-
item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Slovak" lang="sk"
hreflang="sk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%A4%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%BE%D8%AA" title="‫ – جاڤاسکریپت‬Central
Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<کوردی‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski /
српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Sundanese" lang="su"
hreflang="su" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
title="JavaScript – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="Javascript –
Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF
%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81"
title="யாவாக்கிறிட்டு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" class="interlanguage-link-
target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Kabyle" lang="kab"
hreflang="kab" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-
link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D
%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%81"
title="జావాస్క్రిప్టు – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" class="interlanguage-link-
target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Tetum" lang="tet" hreflang="tet"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Tetun</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link]
%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="จาวา
สคริปต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" class="interlanguage-link-
target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk"
class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkmençe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link
interwiki-bug mw-list-item"><a href="[Link] title="JavaScript –
Buginese" lang="bug" hreflang="bug" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa
Ugi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Ukrainian" lang="uk"
hreflang="uk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D8%B3%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%B9" title=" ‫جاوا‬
‫ – اسکرپٹ‬Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" class="interlanguage-link-target">
‫<اردو‬/span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Venetian" lang="vec"
hreflang="vec" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vèneto</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Vietnamese" lang="vi"
hreflang="vi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="[Link]
[Link]/wiki/%E7%88%AA%E5%93%87%E6%89%8B%E7%A8%BF%E8%AA%9E"
title="爪哇手稿語 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" class="interlanguage-link-target">
文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Wu" lang="wuu"
hreflang="wuu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Cantonese" lang="yue"
hreflang="yue" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Samogitian" lang="sgs"
hreflang="sgs" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li
class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a
href="[Link] title="JavaScript – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh"
class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li>

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class="flaggedrevs_short_details" style="display:none">This is the <a
href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted
revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="[Link]
title=Special:Log&type=review&page=JavaScript">reviewed</a> on 18 April
2024.</div>

</div>

</div></div>

<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div

class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile
noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">High-level programming language</div>

<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1033289096">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-

style:italic}.mw-parser-output [Link]{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-
output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-
0.5em}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with
<a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java
(programming language)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese
script</a>, or <a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a>.</div>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">".js" redirects here. For the Microsoft dialect
used in Internet Explorer, see <a href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a>.</div>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">For the uses of JavaScript on
Wikipedia, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_JavaScript" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject
JavaScript">Wikipedia:WikiProject JavaScript</a>.</div>

<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-

output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-
parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-
output .[Link],.mw-parser-output .[Link] dl,.mw-parser-output .[Link] ol,.mw-parser-
output .[Link] ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-
output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-
output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-
output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-
output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist
li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-
output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-
output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-
output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-
output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-
output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-
output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd
dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-
child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-
child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-
child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-
child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-
parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:"
"counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist
dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:"
("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1218072481">.mw-
parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-
width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-
output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-
size:100%}[Link]-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-header,[Link]-minerva .mw-parser-
output .infobox-subheader,[Link]-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-above,[Link]-
minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-title,[Link]-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-
image,[Link]-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data,[Link]-minerva .mw-parser-output
.infobox-below{text-align:center}[Link]-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-
data div{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){[Link]-
theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data div{background:#1f1f23!
important;color:#f8f9fa}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title
summary">JavaScript</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:JavaScript_code.png" class="mw-file-description"><img
src="//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/JavaScript_code.png/300px-
JavaScript_code.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element"
srcset="//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/JavaScript_code.png/450px-
JavaScript_code.png 1.5x,
//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/JavaScript_code.png/600px-
JavaScript_code.png 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="587"></a><div
class="infobox-caption">Screenshot of JavaScript source code</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming
paradigm">Paradigm</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Multi-paradigm" class="mw-
redirect" title="Multi-paradigm">Multi-paradigm</a>: <a href="/wiki/Event-driven_programming"
title="Event-driven programming">event-driven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming"
title="Functional programming">functional</a>, <a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming"
title="Imperative programming">imperative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Procedural_programming"
title="Procedural programming">procedural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"
title="Object-oriented programming">object-oriented</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row"
class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Software_design" title="Software
design">Designed by</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich"
title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> of <a href="/wiki/Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a>
initially; others have also contributed to the <a href="/wiki/ECMAScript"
title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> standard</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-
label">First appeared</th><td class="infobox-data">December 4, 1995; 28 years ago (1995-12-04)<a href="#cite_note-press_release-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><td
colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1218072481"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"
style="white-space: nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle" title="Software release
life cycle">Stable release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">ECMAScript
2023<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-d7f43e85b8900d2d29227ac1622064499af14a0f-
v11-2">[2]</a> <a
href="[Link] title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img
alt="Edit this on Wikidata"
src="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link]/10px-
OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link]" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-
file-element" srcset="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-
[Link]/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link] 1.5x,
//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link]/20px-
OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link] 2x" data-file-width="20"
data-file-height="20"></a>

/ June 2023; 12 months ago

(June 2023)</div></td></tr><tr><th
scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space: nowrap;"><a
href="/wiki/Software_release_life_cycle#Beta" title="Software release life cycle">Preview
release</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="margin:0px;">ECMAScript 2025<a href="#cite_note-wikidata-6351048ad5638805e5935d8ba81b639a34072b65-
v11-3">[3]</a> <a
href="[Link] title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img
alt="Edit this on Wikidata"
src="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link]/10px-
OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link]" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-
file-element" srcset="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-
[Link]/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link] 1.5x,
//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link]/20px-
OOjs_UI_icon_edit-[Link] 2x" data-file-width="20"
data-file-height="20"></a>

/ 27 March 2024; 2 months ago

(27 March 2024)</div></td></tr><tr
style="display:none"><td colspan="2">

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type

system">Typing discipline</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_typing"
class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">Dynamic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weak_typing" class="mw-
redirect" title="Weak typing">weak</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duck_typing" title="Duck
typing">duck</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a
href="/wiki/Filename_extension" title="Filename extension">Filename extensions</a></th><td
class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist">

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-

data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
[Link]/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/">ecma-
international.org/publications-and-standards/standards/ecma-262/
</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:
#eee;">Major <a href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming
language implementation">implementations</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-
data"><a href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a>, <a
href="/wiki/JavaScriptCore" class="mw-redirect" title="JavaScriptCore">JavaScriptCore</a>, <a
href="/wiki/SpiderMonkey_(JavaScript_engine)" class="mw-redirect" title="SpiderMonkey
(JavaScript engine)">SpiderMonkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chakra_(JScript_engine)" title="Chakra
(JScript engine)">Chakra</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header"
style="background-color: #eee;">Influenced by</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-
data"><a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming
language)">Java</a>,<a href="#cite_note-
looklikejava-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-
origin-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme
(programming language)">Scheme</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Self_(programming_language)" title="Self
(programming language)">Self</a>,<a href="#cite_note-
7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/AWK" title="AWK">AWK</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/HyperTalk"
title="HyperTalk">HyperTalk</a><a href="#cite_note-
9">[9]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:
#eee;">Influenced</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a
href="/wiki/ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/ArkTS"
title="ArkTS">ArkTS</a>, <a href="/wiki/AssemblyScript"
title="AssemblyScript">AssemblyScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/CoffeeScript"
title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dart_(programming_language)" title="Dart
(programming language)">Dart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haxe" title="Haxe">Haxe</a>, <a href="/wiki/JS
%2B%2B" title="JS++">JS++</a>, <a href="/wiki/Opa_(programming_language)" title="Opa
(programming language)">Opa</a>, <a href="/wiki/TypeScript"
title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below hlist"
style="border-top: 1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 3px;">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-

[Link]" class="mw-file-description"><img alt=""
src="//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/[Link]/
[Link]" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-
file-element" srcset="//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-
[Link]/[Link] 1.5x,
//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/[Link]/32px-
[Link] 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400"></a>
<a href="[Link] class="extiw"
title="wikibooks:JavaScript">JavaScript</a> at Wikibooks</li></ul>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

JavaScript (<span class="IPA nopopups

noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈdʒɑːvəskrɪpt/</a>), often abbreviated as JS, is a <a
href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming language">programming language</a> and
core technology of <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">the Web</a>,
alongside <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> and <a href="/wiki/CSS"
title="CSS">CSS</a>. 99% of <a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">websites</a> use JavaScript
on the <a href="/wiki/Client_(computing)" title="Client (computing)">client</a> side for <a
href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web page">webpage</a> behavior.<a href="#cite_note-deployedstats-10">[10]</a>

<a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web browsers</a> have a dedicated <a

href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a> that executes the
client <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">code</a>. These engines are also utilized in
some <a href="/wiki/Server_(computing)" title="Server (computing)">servers</a> and a variety of <a
href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application software">apps</a>. The most popular <a
href="/wiki/Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a> for non-browser usage is
<a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a>.

JavaScript is a <a href="/wiki/High-level_programming_language" title="High-level

programming language">high-level</a>, often <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-
in-time compilation">just-in-time compiled</a> language that conforms to the <a
href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> standard.<a href="#cite_note-tc39-11">[11]</a> It has <a
href="/wiki/Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">dynamic typing</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based programming">prototype-
based</a> <a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_programming" title="Object-oriented
programming">object-orientation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/First-class_function" title="First-class
function">first-class functions</a>. It is <a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming
paradigm">multi-paradigm</a>, supporting <a href="/wiki/Event-driven_programming" title="Event-
driven programming">event-driven</a>, <a href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional
programming">functional</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Imperative_programming" title="Imperative
programming">imperative</a> <a href="/wiki/Programming_paradigm" title="Programming
paradigm">programming styles</a>. It has <a href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface"
class="mw-redirect" title="Application programming interface">application programming
interfaces</a> (APIs) for working with text, dates, <a href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular
expression">regular expressions</a>, standard <a href="/wiki/Data_structure" title="Data
structure">data structures</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Document_Object_Model" title="Document
Object Model">Document Object Model</a> (DOM).

The ECMAScript standard does not include any <a href="/wiki/Input/output"

title="Input/output">input/output</a> (I/O), such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_network"
title="Computer network">networking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data
storage">storage</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer
graphics">graphics</a> facilities. In practice, the web browser or other runtime system provides
JavaScript APIs for I/O.

Although <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming

language)">Java</a> and JavaScript are similar in name, <a
href="/wiki/Syntax_(programming_languages)" title="Syntax (programming languages)">syntax</a>,
and respective <a href="/wiki/Standard_library" title="Standard library">standard libraries</a>, the
two languages are distinct and differ greatly in design.

<h2>History</h2>

<h3>Creation at Netscape</h3>

The first popular <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browser</a> with a <a
href="/wiki/Graphical_user_interface" title="Graphical user interface">graphical user interface</a>,
<a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a>, was released in
1993. Accessible to non-technical people, it played a prominent role in the rapid growth of the early
<a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The lead developers of Mosaic then
founded the <a href="/wiki/Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> corporation, which released a
more polished browser, <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape Navigator">Netscape
Navigator</a>, in 1994. This quickly became the most-used.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>
During these formative years of the Web, <a href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web page">web
pages</a> could only be static, lacking the capability for dynamic behavior after the page was loaded
in the browser. There was a desire in the flourishing web development scene to remove this
limitation, so in 1995, Netscape decided to add a <a href="/wiki/Programming_language"
title="Programming language">programming language</a> to Navigator. They pursued two routes to
achieve this: collaborating with <a href="/wiki/Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun
Microsystems</a> to embed the <a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java
(programming language)">Java</a> language, while also hiring <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich"
title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> to embed the <a
href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming
language)">Scheme</a> language.<a
href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a>

The goal was a "language for the masses",<sup id="cite_ref-EichVideo_14-0"

class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EichVideo-14">[14]</a> "to help nonprogrammers
create dynamic, interactive <a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">Web sites</a>".<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Netscape management
soon decided that the best option was for Eich to devise a new language, with syntax similar to Java
and less like Scheme or other extant <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting
language">scripting languages</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-looklikejava-5">[5]</a><a
href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a> Although the new language and its <a
href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a>
implementation were called LiveScript when first shipped as part of a Navigator <a
href="/wiki/Beta_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta software">beta</a> in September 1995,
the name was changed to JavaScript for the official release in December.<a href="#cite_note-origin-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-press_release-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-techvision-16">[16]</a>

The choice of the JavaScript name has caused confusion, implying that it is directly related to
Java. At the time, the <a href="/wiki/Dot-com_bubble" title="Dot-com bubble">dot-com boom</a>
had begun and Java was a popular new language, so Eich considered the JavaScript name a
marketing ploy by Netscape.<a
href="#cite_note-EichVideo-14">[14]</a>

<h3>Adoption by Microsoft</h3>

<a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> debuted <a

href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a> in 1995, leading to a
<a href="/wiki/Browser_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser war">browser war</a> with
Netscape. On the JavaScript front, Microsoft created its own <a
href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreter</a> called <a
href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-sjsch5-17">[17]</a>

Microsoft first released JScript in 1996, alongside initial support for <a href="/wiki/CSS"
title="CSS">CSS</a> and extensions to <a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>. Each of these
<a href="/wiki/Implementation" title="Implementation">implementations</a> was noticeably
different from their counterparts in <a href="/wiki/Netscape_Navigator" title="Netscape
Navigator">Netscape Navigator</a>.<a
href="#cite_note-O'Reilly-2001-18">[18]</a><a
href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> These differences made it difficult for developers to make
their websites work well in both browsers, leading to widespread use of "best viewed in Netscape"
and "best viewed in Internet Explorer" logos for several years.<a href="#cite_note-O'Reilly-2001-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

<h3>The rise of JScript</h3>

<blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style="">

<a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> later said of this period:

"It's still kind of a <a href="/wiki/Sidekick" title="Sidekick">sidekick</a> language. It's considered
slow or annoying. People do <a href="/wiki/Pop-up_ad" title="Pop-up ad">pop-ups</a> or those
scrolling messages in the old <a href="/wiki/Status_bar" title="Status bar">status bar</a> at the
bottom of your old <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">browser</a>."<a href="#cite_note-EichVideo-14">[14]</a>

</blockquote>

</div>
In November 1996, <a href="/wiki/Netscape" title="Netscape">Netscape</a> submitted
JavaScript to <a href="/wiki/Ecma_International" title="Ecma International">Ecma International</a>,
as the starting point for a standard specification that all browser vendors could conform to. This led
to the official release of the first <a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a>
language specification in June 1997.

The standards process continued for a few years, with the release of ECMAScript 2 in June
1998 and ECMAScript 3 in December 1999. Work on ECMAScript 4 began in 2000.<a href="#cite_note-sjsch5-17">[17]</a>

However, the effort to fully standardize the language was undermined by <a
href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> gaining an increasingly dominant position in
the browser market. By the early 2000s, <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet
Explorer">Internet Explorer</a>'s market share reached 95%.<a href="#cite_note-[Link]-
21">[21]</a> This meant that <a href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a> became the
de facto standard for <a href="/wiki/Client-side_scripting" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-side
scripting">client-side scripting</a> on the Web.

Microsoft initially participated in the standards process and implemented some proposals in
its JScript language, but eventually it stopped collaborating on ECMA work. Thus ECMAScript 4 was
mothballed.

<h3>Growth and

standardization</h3>

During the period of <a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet

Explorer</a> dominance in the early 2000s, client-side scripting was stagnant. This started to change
in 2004, when the successor of Netscape, <a href="/wiki/Mozilla" title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a>,
released the <a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a> browser. Firefox was well received by
many, taking significant market share from Internet Explorer.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a>

In 2005, Mozilla joined ECMA International, and work started on the <a
href="/wiki/ECMAScript_for_XML" title="ECMAScript for XML">ECMAScript for XML</a> (E4X)
standard. This led to Mozilla working jointly with <a href="/wiki/Macromedia"
title="Macromedia">Macromedia</a> (later acquired by <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Systems" class="mw-
redirect" title="Adobe Systems">Adobe Systems</a>), who were implementing E4X in their
ActionScript 3 language, which was based on an ECMAScript 4 draft. The goal became standardizing
ActionScript 3 as the new ECMAScript 4. To this end, Adobe Systems released the <a
href="/wiki/Tamarin_(software)" title="Tamarin (software)">Tamarin</a> implementation as an <a
href="/wiki/Open-source_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-source model">open source</a>
project. However, Tamarin and ActionScript 3 were too different from established client-side
scripting, and without cooperation from <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>,
ECMAScript 4 never reached fruition.

Meanwhile, very important developments were occurring in open-source communities not

affiliated with ECMA work. In 2005, <a href="/wiki/Jesse_James_Garrett" title="Jesse James
Garrett">Jesse James Garrett</a> released a white paper in which he coined the term <a
href="/wiki/Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">Ajax</a> and described a set of
technologies, of which JavaScript was the backbone, to create <a href="/wiki/Web_application"
title="Web application">web applications</a> where data can be loaded in the background, avoiding
the need for full page reloads. This sparked a renaissance period of JavaScript, spearheaded by open-
source libraries and the communities that formed around them. Many new libraries were created,
including <a href="/wiki/JQuery" title="JQuery">jQuery</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Prototype_JavaScript_Framework" title="Prototype JavaScript
Framework">Prototype</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dojo_Toolkit" title="Dojo Toolkit">Dojo Toolkit</a>, and
<a href="/wiki/MooTools" title="MooTools">MooTools</a>.

<a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> debuted its <a

href="/wiki/Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Chrome</a> browser in 2008, with the <a
href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a> JavaScript engine that
was faster than its competition.<a href="#cite_note-
23">[23]</a><a
href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> The key innovation was <a href="/wiki/Just-in-
time_compilation" title="Just-in-time compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> (JIT),<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> so other browser
vendors needed to overhaul their engines for JIT.<a
href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

In July 2008, these disparate parties came together for a conference in <a href="/wiki/Oslo"
title="Oslo">Oslo</a>. This led to the eventual agreement in early 2009 to combine all relevant work
and drive the language forward. The result was the ECMAScript 5 standard, released in December
2009.

<h3>Reaching maturity</h3>

Ambitious work on the language continued for several years, culminating in an extensive
collection of additions and refinements being formalized with the publication of <a
href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> 6 in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>

The creation of <a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a> in 2009 by <a

href="/wiki/Ryan_Dahl" title="Ryan Dahl">Ryan Dahl</a> sparked a significant increase in the usage
of JavaScript outside of web browsers. Node combines the <a href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)"
title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a> engine, an <a href="/wiki/Event_loop" title="Event
loop">event loop</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">I/O</a> <a
href="/wiki/Application_programming_interface" class="mw-redirect" title="Application
programming interface">APIs</a>, thereby providing a stand-alone JavaScript runtime system.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-b3-29">[29]</a> As of 2018, Node had been used
by millions of developers,<a
href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Npm_(software)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Npm (software)">npm</a> had the most modules of any <a href="/wiki/Package_manager"
title="Package manager">package manager</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a>
The ECMAScript draft specification is currently maintained openly on <a href="/wiki/GitHub"
title="GitHub">GitHub</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-branscombe-32">[32]</a> and editions are produced via regular annual
snapshots.<a href="#cite_note-branscombe-
32">[32]</a> Potential revisions to the language are vetted through a comprehensive
proposal process.<a
href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-
34">[34]</a> Now, instead of edition numbers, developers check the status of upcoming
features individually.<a href="#cite_note-
branscombe-32">[32]</a>

The current JavaScript ecosystem has many <a href="/wiki/List_of_JavaScript_libraries"

title="List of JavaScript libraries">libraries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_framework" title="Web
framework">frameworks</a>, established programming practices, and substantial usage of
JavaScript outside of web browsers. Plus, with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Single-page_application"
title="Single-page application">single-page applications</a> and other JavaScript-heavy websites,
several <a href="/wiki/Source-to-source_compiler" title="Source-to-source
compiler">transpilers</a> have been created to aid the development process.<a href="#cite_note-transpilers-35">[35]</a>

<h2>Trademark</h2>

"JavaScript" is a <a href="/wiki/Trademark" title="Trademark">trademark</a> of <a

href="/wiki/Oracle_Corporation" title="Oracle Corporation">Oracle Corporation</a> in the United
States.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The trademark was
originally issued to <a href="/wiki/Sun_Microsystems" title="Sun Microsystems">Sun
Microsystems</a> on 6 May 1997, and was transferred to Oracle when they acquired Sun in
2009.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

<h2>Website client-side

usage</h2>

JavaScript is the dominant <a href="/wiki/Client-side" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-

side">client-side</a> <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting language">scripting
language</a> of the Web, with 99% of all <a href="/wiki/Website" title="Website">websites</a>
using it for this purpose.<a
href="#cite_note-deployedstats-10">[10]</a> Scripts are embedded in or included from <a
href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a> documents and interact with the <a
href="/wiki/Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">DOM</a>.

All major <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a> have a

built-in <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a> that
executes the <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">code</a> on the user's device.

<h3>Examples of scripted
behavior</h3>

<ul><li>Loading new <a href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web page">web page</a> content without

reloading the page, via <a href="/wiki/Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">Ajax</a> or
a <a href="/wiki/WebSocket" title="WebSocket">WebSocket</a>. For example, <a
href="/wiki/User_(computing)" title="User (computing)">users</a> of <a href="/wiki/Social_media"
title="Social media">social media</a> can send and receive messages without leaving the current
page.</li>

<li>Web page animations, such as fading objects in and out, resizing, and moving them.</li>

<li>Playing <a href="/wiki/Browser_game" title="Browser game">browser games</a>.</li>

<li>Controlling the <a href="/wiki/Media_player_software" title="Media player

software">playback</a> of <a href="/wiki/Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming
media</a>.</li>

<li>Generating <a href="/wiki/Pop-up_ad" title="Pop-up ad">pop-up ads</a> or alert boxes.</li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Data_validation" title="Data validation">Validating</a> input values of a <a

href="/wiki/Form_(HTML)" class="mw-redirect" title="Form (HTML)">web form</a> before the data
is sent to a <a href="/wiki/Web_server" title="Web server">web server</a>.</li>

<li>Logging data about the user's behavior then sending it to a server. The website owner can use
this data for <a href="/wiki/Web_analytics" title="Web analytics">analytics</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Ad_tracking" title="Ad tracking">ad tracking</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Personalization"
title="Personalization">personalization</a>.</li>

<li>Redirecting a user to another page.</li>

<li>Storing and retrieving data on the user's device, via the <a href="/wiki/Web_storage" title="Web
storage">storage</a> or <a href="/wiki/Indexed_Database_API" title="Indexed Database
API">IndexedDB</a> standards.</li></ul>

<h3>Libraries and

frameworks</h3>

Over 80% of websites use a third-party JavaScript <a href="/wiki/Library_(computing)"

title="Library (computing)">library</a> or <a href="/wiki/Web_framework" title="Web
framework">web framework</a> as part of their client-side scripting.<a href="#cite_note-lib_usage-39">[39]</a>

<a href="/wiki/JQuery" title="JQuery">jQuery</a> is by far the most-used.<sup id="cite_ref-

lib_usage_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lib_usage-39">[39]</a> Other
notable ones include <a href="/wiki/Angular_(web_framework)" title="Angular (web
framework)">Angular</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bootstrap_(front-end_framework)" title="Bootstrap
(front-end framework)">Bootstrap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lodash" title="Lodash">Lodash</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Modernizr" title="Modernizr">Modernizr</a>, <a href="/wiki/React_(software)"
class="mw-redirect" title="React (software)">React</a>, <a href="/wiki/[Link]"
title="[Link]">Underscore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">Vue</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lib_usage-39">[39]</a>
Multiple options can be used in conjunction, such as jQuery and Bootstrap.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a>

However, the term "Vanilla JS" was coined for websites not using any libraries or frameworks
at all, instead relying entirely on standard JavaScript functionality.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a>

<h2>Other usage<span class="anchor" id="Server-

side_JavaScript"></h2>

The use of JavaScript has expanded beyond its <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web
browser">web browser</a> roots. <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript
engine">JavaScript engines</a> are now embedded in a variety of other software systems, both for
<a href="/wiki/Server-side" class="mw-redirect" title="Server-side">server-side</a> website
deployments and non-browser <a href="/wiki/Application_software" title="Application
software">applications</a>.

Initial attempts at promoting server-side JavaScript usage were <a

href="/wiki/Netscape_Enterprise_Server" class="mw-redirect" title="Netscape Enterprise
Server">Netscape Enterprise Server</a> and <a href="/wiki/Microsoft"
title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Internet_Information_Services" title="Internet
Information Services">Internet Information Services</a>,<a
href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-
43">[43]</a> but they were small niches.<a href="#cite_note-2009server-44">[44]</a> Server-side usage eventually
started to grow in the late 2000s, with the creation of <a href="/wiki/[Link]"
title="[Link]">[Link]</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_server-side_JavaScript_implementations"
title="List of server-side JavaScript implementations">other approaches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2009server-44">[44]</a>

<a href="/wiki/Electron_(software_framework)" title="Electron (software

framework)">Electron</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apache_Cordova" title="Apache Cordova">Cordova</a>,
<a href="/wiki/React_Native" title="React Native">React Native</a>, and other <a
href="/wiki/Application_framework" title="Application framework">application frameworks</a>
have been used to create many applications with behavior implemented in JavaScript. Other non-
browser applications include <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Acrobat" title="Adobe Acrobat">Adobe
Acrobat</a> support for scripting <a href="/wiki/PDF" title="PDF">PDF</a> documents<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> and <a
href="/wiki/GNOME_Shell" title="GNOME Shell">GNOME Shell</a> extensions written in
JavaScript.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a>

JavaScript has recently begun to appear in some <a href="/wiki/Embedded_system"

title="Embedded system">embedded systems</a>, usually by leveraging [Link].<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a>

<h2>Execution</h2>

<h3>JavaScript engine</h3>

<div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-

output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div role="note" class="hatnote
navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a
href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a>.[<a class="external text"
href="[Link]
a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

A <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript engine</a> is a <a

href="/wiki/Software_component" title="Software component">software component</a> that
executes JavaScript <a href="/wiki/Source_code" title="Source code">code</a>. The first JavaScript
<a href="/wiki/Software_engine" title="Software engine">engines</a> were mere <a
href="/wiki/Interpreter_(computing)" title="Interpreter (computing)">interpreters</a>, but all
relevant modern engines use <a href="/wiki/Just-in-time_compilation" title="Just-in-time
compilation">just-in-time compilation</a> for improved performance.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a>

JavaScript engines are typically developed by <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web

browser">web browser</a> vendors, and every major browser has one. In a browser, the JavaScript
engine runs in concert with the <a href="/wiki/Browser_engine" title="Browser engine">rendering
engine</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object
Model">Document Object Model</a> and <a href="/wiki/Web_IDL" title="Web IDL">Web IDL</a>
bindings.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> However,
the use of JavaScript engines is not limited to browsers; for example, the <a
href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8 engine</a> is a core
component of the <a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a> <a
href="/wiki/Runtime_system" title="Runtime system">runtime system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-JavaScript_engine_v8_doc-
52">[52]</a>

Since <a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a> is the standardized

specification of JavaScript, ECMAScript engine is another name for these <a
href="/wiki/Programming_language_implementation" title="Programming language
implementation">implementations</a>. With the advent of <a href="/wiki/WebAssembly"
title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a>, some engines can also execute this code in the same <a
href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a> as
regular JavaScript code.<a
href="#cite_note-JavaScript_engine_Wasm-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-JavaScript_engine_v8_doc-
52">[52]</a></div></div>

<h3>Runtime system</h3>

The JavaScript engine must be embedded within a <a href="/wiki/Runtime_system"
title="Runtime system">runtime system</a> (either a <a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web
browser">web browser</a> or a standalone system) to provide objects and methods by which
scripts can interact with the larger environment. This includes the necessary APIs for <a
href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">I/O</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Computer_network"
title="Computer network">networking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_storage" title="Data
storage">storage</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Computer_graphics" title="Computer
graphics">graphics</a> facilities. The runtime also provides the ability to import scripts.

JavaScript is a single-<a href="/wiki/Thread_(computing)" title="Thread

(computing)">threaded</a> language. The runtime processes <a
href="/wiki/Message_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Message (computer
science)">messages</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Queue_(abstract_data_type)" title="Queue (abstract
data type)">queue</a> one at a time, and it calls a <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect"
title="Subroutine">function</a> associated with each new message, creating a <a
href="/wiki/Call_stack" title="Call stack">call stack</a> frame with the function's <a
href="/wiki/Parameter_(computer_programming)" title="Parameter (computer
programming)">arguments</a> and <a href="/wiki/Local_variable" title="Local variable">local
variables</a>. The call stack shrinks and grows based on the function's needs. When the call stack is
empty upon function completion, JavaScript proceeds to the next message in the queue. This is
called the <a href="/wiki/Event_loop" title="Event loop">event loop</a>, described as "run to
completion" because each message is fully processed before the next message is considered.
However, the language's <a href="/wiki/Concurrency_(computer_science)" title="Concurrency
(computer science)">concurrency model</a> describes the event loop as <a
href="/wiki/Asynchronous_I/O" title="Asynchronous I/O">non-blocking</a>: program I/O is
performed using <a href="/wiki/Event_(computing)" title="Event (computing)">events</a> and <a
href="/wiki/Callback_(computer_programming)" title="Callback (computer programming)">callback
functions</a>. This means, for example, that JavaScript can process a mouse click while waiting for a
database query to return information.<a href="#cite_note-
54">[54]</a>

The notable standalone runtimes are <a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a>,

<a href="/wiki/Deno_(software)" title="Deno (software)">Deno</a>, and <a
href="/wiki/Bun_(software)" title="Bun (software)">Bun</a>.

<h2>Features</h2>

The following features are common to all conforming ECMAScript implementations unless
explicitly specified otherwise.

<h3>Imperative and

structured</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured programming">Structured
programming</a></div>
JavaScript supports much of the <a href="/wiki/Structured_programming" title="Structured
programming">structured programming</a> syntax from <a href="/wiki/C_(computer_language)"
class="mw-redirect" title="C (computer language)">C</a> (e.g., <code>if</code> statements,
<code>while</code> loops, <code>switch</code> statements, <code>do while</code> loops, etc.).
One partial exception is <a href="/wiki/Scope_(computer_science)" title="Scope (computer
science)">scoping</a>: originally JavaScript only had <a href="/wiki/Function_scoping" class="mw-
redirect" title="Function scoping">function scoping</a> with <code>var</code>; <a
href="/wiki/Block_scoping" class="mw-redirect" title="Block scoping">block scoping</a> was added
in ECMAScript 2015 with the keywords <code>let</code> and <code><a
href="/wiki/Const_(computer_programming)" title="Const (computer
programming)">const</a></code>. Like C, JavaScript makes a distinction between <a
href="/wiki/Expression_(computer_science)" title="Expression (computer science)">expressions</a>
and <a href="/wiki/Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer
science)">statements</a>. One syntactic difference from C is <a href="/wiki/Defensive_semicolon"
class="mw-redirect" title="Defensive semicolon">automatic semicolon insertion</a>, which allow
semicolons (which terminate statements) to be omitted.<a href="#cite_note-Flanagan2006-55">[55]</a>

<h3>Weakly typed</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Weakly_typed"
class="mw-redirect" title="Weakly typed">Weakly typed</a></div>

JavaScript is <a href="/wiki/Strong_and_weak_typing" title="Strong and weak typing">weakly

typed</a>, which means certain types are implicitly cast depending on the operation used.<a
href="#cite_note-casting_rules-56">[56]</a>

<ul><li>The binary <code>+</code> operator casts both operands to a string unless both operands
are numbers. This is because the addition operator doubles as a concatenation operator</li>

<li>The binary <code>-</code> operator always casts both operands to a number</li>

<li>Both unary operators (<code>+</code>, <code>-</code>) always cast the operand to a

number</li></ul>

Values are cast to strings like the following:<sup id="cite_ref-casting_rules_56-1"

class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-casting_rules-56">[56]</a>

<ul><li>Strings are left as-is</li>

<li>Numbers are converted to their string representation</li>

<li>Arrays have their elements cast to strings after which they are joined by commas
(<code>,</code>)</li>
<li>Other objects are converted to the string <code>[object Object]</code> where
<code>Object</code> is the name of the constructor of the object</li></ul>

Values are cast to numbers by casting to strings and then casting the strings to numbers. These
processes can be modified by defining <code>toString</code> and <code>valueOf</code> functions
on the <a href="#Object-orientation_(prototype-based)">prototype</a> for string and number
casting respectively.

JavaScript has received criticism for the way it implements these conversions as the
complexity of the rules can be mistaken for inconsistency.<a
href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a
href="#cite_note-casting_rules-56">[56]</a> For example, when adding a number to a string,
the number will be cast to a string before performing concatenation, but when subtracting a number
from a string, the string is cast to a number before performing subtraction.

<caption>JavaScript type conversions

</caption>

<th>left operand

</th>

<th>operator

</th>

<th>right operand

</th>

<th>result

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

<td><code>""</code> (empty string)

</td></tr>
<tr>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>{}</code> (empty object)

</td>

<td><code>"[object Object]"</code> (string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>false</code> (boolean)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>[]</code> (empty array)

</td>

<td><code>"false"</code> (string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>"123"</code>(string)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>1</code> (number)

</td>

<td><code>"1231"</code> (string)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>"123"</code> (string)

</td>

<td><code>1</code> (number)

</td>

<td><code>122</code> (number)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td><code>"123"</code> (string)

</td>

</td>

<td><code>"abc"</code> (string)

</td>

<td><code><a href="/wiki/NaN" title="NaN">NaN</a></code> (number)

</td></tr></tbody></table>

Often also mentioned is <code>{} + []</code> resulting in <code>0</code> (number). This is

misleading: the <code>{}</code> is interpreted as an empty code block instead of an empty object,
and the empty array is cast to a number by the remaining unary <code>+</code> operator. If the
expression is wrapped in parentheses - <code>({} + [])</code> - the curly brackets are interpreted as
an empty object and the result of the expression is <code>"[object Object]"</code> as
expected.<a href="#cite_note-
casting_rules-56">[56]</a>

<h3>Dynamic</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Dynamic_Programming" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic Programming">Dynamic
Programming</a></div>

<h4>Typing</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic typing">Dynamic typing</a></div>

JavaScript is <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic

typing">dynamically typed</a> like most other <a href="/wiki/Scripting_language" title="Scripting
language">scripting languages</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Type_system" title="Type system">type</a> is
associated with a <a href="/wiki/Value_(computer_science)" title="Value (computer
science)">value</a> rather than an expression. For example, a <a
href="/wiki/Variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable
(programming)">variable</a> initially bound to a number may be reassigned to a <a
href="/wiki/String_(computer_science)" title="String (computer science)">string</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> JavaScript supports
various ways to test the type of objects, including <a href="/wiki/Duck_typing" title="Duck
typing">duck typing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006176–178-59">[59]</a>

<h4>Run-time evaluation</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Eval"
title="Eval">eval</a></div>

JavaScript includes an <code><a href="/wiki/Eval" title="Eval">eval</a></code> function that can

execute statements provided as strings at run-time.

<h3><span class="mw-headline"

id="Object-orientation_(prototype-based)">Object-orientation (prototype-based)</h3>

Prototypal inheritance in JavaScript is described by <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Crockford"

title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a> as:

</blockquote>

In JavaScript, an <a href="/wiki/Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer

science)">object</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Associative_array" title="Associative array">associative
array</a>, augmented with a prototype (see below); each key provides the name for an object <a
href="/wiki/Property_(programming)" title="Property (programming)">property</a>, and there are
two syntactical ways to specify such a name: dot notation (<code>obj.x = 10</code>)
and bracket notation (<code>obj['x'] = 10</code>). A property may be added, rebound,
or deleted at run-time. Most <a href="/wiki/Property_(programming)" title="Property
(programming)">properties</a> of an object (and any property that belongs to an object's prototype
inheritance chain) can be enumerated using a <code>for...in</code> loop.

<h4>Prototypes</h4>

JavaScript uses <a href="/wiki/Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based

programming">prototypes</a> where many other object-oriented languages use <a
href="/wiki/Class_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Class (computer
science)">classes</a> for <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)"
title="Inheritance (object-oriented programming)">inheritance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> It is possible to simulate many class-
based features with prototypes in JavaScript.<a
href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a>

<h4>Functions as object

constructors</h4>

Functions double as object constructors, along with their typical role. Prefixing a function call
with new will create an instance of a prototype, inheriting properties and methods from the
constructor (including properties from the <code>Object</code> prototype).<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> ECMAScript 5 offers the
<code>[Link]</code> method, allowing explicit creation of an instance without automatically
inheriting from the <code>Object</code> prototype (older environments can assign the prototype to
<code>null</code>).<a
href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> The constructor's <code>prototype</code> property
determines the object used for the new object's internal prototype. New methods can be added by
modifying the prototype of the function used as a constructor. JavaScript's built-in constructors, such
as <code>Array</code> or <code>Object</code>, also have prototypes that can be modified. While
it is possible to modify the <code>Object</code> prototype, it is generally considered bad practice
because most objects in JavaScript will inherit methods and properties from the
<code>Object</code> prototype, and they may not expect the prototype to be modified.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a>

<h4>Functions as methods</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Method_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Method (computer
science)">Method (computer science)</a></div>

Unlike in many object-oriented languages, in JavaScript there is no distinction between a function

definition and a <a href="/wiki/Method_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Method
(computer science)">method</a> definition. Rather, the distinction occurs during function calling.
When a function is called as a method of an object, the function's local this keyword is bound
to that object for that invocation.

<h3>Functional</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Functional_programming" title="Functional programming">Functional
programming</a></div>

JavaScript <a href="/wiki/Subroutine" class="mw-redirect" title="Subroutine">functions</a> are

<a href="/wiki/First-class_function" title="First-class function">first-class</a>; a function is
considered to be an object.<a
href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> As such, a function may have properties and methods, such as
<code>.call()</code> and <code>.bind()</code>.<a
href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

<h4>Lexical closure</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Closure_(computer_programming)" title="Closure (computer programming)">Closure
(computer programming)</a></div>

A nested function is a function defined within another function. It is created each time the
outer function is invoked.

In addition, each nested function forms a <a href="/wiki/Closure_(computer_programming)"

title="Closure (computer programming)">lexical closure</a>: the <a
href="/wiki/Scope_(programming)#Lexical_scoping_vs._dynamic_scoping" class="mw-redirect"
title="Scope (programming)">lexical scope</a> of the outer function (including any constant, local
variable, or argument value) becomes part of the internal state of each inner function object, even
after execution of the outer function concludes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006141-68">[68]</a>

<h4>Anonymous function</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">Anonymous function</a></div>

JavaScript also supports <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous

function">anonymous functions</a>.

<h3>Delegative</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Delegation_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Delegation (object-oriented
programming)">Delegation (object-oriented programming)</a></div>
JavaScript supports implicit and explicit <a href="/wiki/Delegation_(object-
oriented_programming)" title="Delegation (object-oriented programming)">delegation</a>.

<h4><span class="mw-headline"

id="Functions_as_roles_(Traits_and_Mixins)">Functions as roles (Traits and Mixins)</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Role-
oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Role-oriented programming</a>, <a
href="/wiki/Traits_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traits (computer science)">Traits
(computer science)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mixin" title="Mixin">Mixin</a></div>

JavaScript natively supports various function-based implementations of <a href="/wiki/Role-

oriented_programming" title="Role-oriented programming">Role</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> patterns like <a
href="/wiki/Traits_(computer_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traits (computer
science)">Traits</a><a
href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-
71">[71]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mixin" title="Mixin">Mixins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Such a function defines additional
behavior by at least one method bound to the <code>this</code> keyword within its
<code>function</code> body. A Role then has to be delegated explicitly via <code>call</code> or
<code>apply</code> to objects that need to feature additional behavior that is not shared via the
prototype chain.

<h4>Object composition and

inheritance</h4>

Whereas explicit function-based delegation does cover <a href="/wiki/Object_composition"

title="Object composition">composition</a> in JavaScript, implicit delegation already happens every
time the prototype chain is walked in order to, e.g., find a method that might be related to but is not
directly owned by an object. Once the method is found it gets called within this object's context.
Thus <a href="/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)" title="Inheritance (object-oriented
programming)">inheritance</a> in JavaScript is covered by a delegation automatism that is bound to
the prototype property of constructor functions.

<h3>Miscellaneous</h3>

<h4>Zero-based numbering</h4>

JavaScript is a <a href="/wiki/Zero-based_numbering#Usage_in_programming_languages"

title="Zero-based numbering">zero-index</a> language.

<h4>Variadic functions</h4>

An indefinite number of parameters can be passed to a function. The function can access them
through <a href="/wiki/Formal_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Formal parameter">formal
parameters</a> and also through the local <code>arguments</code> object. <a
href="/wiki/Variadic_functions" class="mw-redirect" title="Variadic functions">Variadic
functions</a> can also be created by using the <code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
Function/bind">bind</a></code> method.

<h4>Array and object

literals</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a
href="/wiki/Associative_arrays" class="mw-redirect" title="Associative arrays">Associative
arrays</a> and <a href="/wiki/Object_literal" class="mw-redirect" title="Object literal">Object
literal</a></div>

Like in many scripting languages, arrays and objects (<a href="/wiki/Associative_arrays"

class="mw-redirect" title="Associative arrays">associative arrays</a> in other languages) can each be
created with a succinct shortcut syntax. In fact, these <a href="/wiki/Object_literal" class="mw-
redirect" title="Object literal">literals</a> form the basis of the <a href="/wiki/JSON"
title="JSON">JSON</a> data format.

<h4>Regular expressions</h4>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">Regular expression</a></div>

In a manner similar to <a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a>, JavaScript also supports <a
href="/wiki/Regular_expression" title="Regular expression">regular expressions</a>, which provide
a concise and powerful syntax for text manipulation that is more sophisticated than the built-in string
functions.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>

<h4><span class="mw-headline"

id="Promises_and_Async/await">Promises and Async/await</h4>

JavaScript supports <a href="/wiki/Futures_and_promises" title="Futures and

promises">promises</a> and <a href="/wiki/Async/await" title="Async/await">Async/await</a> for
handling asynchronous operations.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation
needed">citation
needed</a>]

<h5>Promises</h5>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/Futures_and_promises" title="Futures and promises">Futures and promises</a></div>

A built-in Promise object provides functionality for handling promises and associating handlers
with an asynchronous action's eventual result. Recently, the JavaScript specification introduced
combinator methods, which allow developers to combine multiple JavaScript promises and do
operations based on different scenarios. The methods introduced are: [Link], [Link],
[Link] and [Link].

<h5><span class="mw-headline"

id="Async/await">Async/await</h5>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Async/await"
title="Async/await">Async/await</a></div>

Async/await allows an asynchronous, non-blocking function to be structured in a way similar to

an ordinary synchronous function. Asynchronous, non-blocking code can be written, with minimal
overhead, structured similarly to traditional synchronous, blocking code.

<h3>Vendor-specific

extensions</h3>

Historically, some <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">JavaScript

engines</a> supported these non-standard features:

<ul><li>conditional <code>catch</code> clauses (like Java)</li>

<li><a href="/wiki/List_comprehension" title="List comprehension">array comprehensions</a> and

generator expressions (like Python)</li>

<li>concise function expressions (<code>function(args) expr</code>; this experimental syntax

predated arrow functions)</li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript_for_XML" title="ECMAScript for XML">ECMAScript for XML</a>

(E4X), an extension that adds native XML support to ECMAScript (unsupported in Firefox since
version 21<a
href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a>)</li></ul>

<h2>Syntax</h2>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a
href="/wiki/JavaScript_syntax" title="JavaScript syntax">JavaScript syntax</a></div>
<h3>Simple examples</h3>

<a href="/wiki/Variable_(computer_science)" title="Variable (computer science)">Variables</a>

in JavaScript can be defined using either the <code>var</code>,<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <code>let</code><a href="#cite_note-moz_let-76">[76]</a> or
<code>const</code><a href="#cite_note-
moz_const-77">[77]</a> keywords. Variables defined without keywords will be defined at the
global scope.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>// Declares a function-scoped variable named `x`,
and implicitly assigns the

// special value `undefined` to it. Variables without value are automatically

// set to undefined.

// var is generally considered bad practice and let and const are usually
preferred.

var x<span

class="p">;

// Variables can be manually set to `undefined` like so

let x2

= undefined;

// Declares a block-scoped variable named `y`, and implicitly sets it to

// `undefined`. The `let` keyword was introduced in ECMAScript 2015.

let y<span

class="p">;

// Declares a block-scoped, un-reassignable variable named `z`, and sets it
to

// a string literal. The `const` keyword was also introduced in ECMAScript
2015,

// and must be explicitly assigned to.

// The keyword `const` means constant, hence the variable cannot be
reassigned
// as the value is `constant`.

const z<span

class="w"> = "this value
cannot be reassigned!";

// Declares a global-scoped variable and assigns 3. This is generally

considered

// bad practice, and will not work if strict mode is on.

t =

3;

// Declares a variable named `myNumber`, and assigns a number literal (the
value

// `2`) to it.

let myNumber<span

class="w"> = 2;

// Reassigns `myNumber`, setting it to a string literal (the value `"foo"`).

// JavaScript is a dynamically-typed language, so this is legal.

myNumber =<span

class="w"> "foo";

</pre></div>

Note the <a href="/wiki/Comment_(computer_programming)" title="Comment (computer

programming)">comments</a> in the examples above, all of which were preceded with two <a
href="/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)" title="Slash (punctuation)">forward slashes</a>.

There is no built-in <a href="/wiki/Input/output" title="Input/output">Input/output</a>

functionality in JavaScript, instead it is provided by the run-time environment. The ECMAScript
specification in edition 5.1 mentions that "there are no provisions in this specification for input of
external data or output of computed results".<a
href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a>

However, most runtime environments have a <code>console</code> object that can be used to print
output.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Here is a
minimalist <a href="/wiki/%22Hello,_World!%22_program" title=""Hello, World!"
program">"Hello, World!" program</a> in JavaScript in a runtime environment with a console object:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"
dir="ltr"><pre>console.log("Hello, World!");

</pre></div>

In HTML documents, a program like this is required for an output:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>// Text nodes can be made using the "write"
method.

// This is frowned upon, as it can overwrite the document if the document is fully
loaded.

document.write<span

class="p">('foo');

// Elements can be made too. First, they have to be created in the DOM.

const myElem<span

class="w"> = document.createElement('span');

// Attributes like classes and the id can be set as well

myElem.classList<span

class="p">.add('foo');

myElem.id<span

class="w"> = 'bar';

// After setting this, the tag will look like this: ``

myElem.<span

class="nx">setAttribute('data-attr', 'baz'); // Which could also be written as
`[Link] = 'baz'`
// Finally append it as a child element to the <body> in the HTML

document.body<span

class="p">.appendChild(myElem);

// Elements can be imperatively grabbed with querySelector for one element, or
querySelectorAll for multiple elements that can be looped with forEach

document.<span

class="nx">querySelector('.class'); // Selects the first element with the
"class" class

document.<span

class="nx">querySelector('#id'); // Selects the first element with an
`id` of "id"

document.<span

class="nx">querySelector('[data-other]'); // Selects the first element with the "data-other" attribute

document.<span

class="nx">querySelectorAll('.multiple'); // Returns an Array-like NodeList of all elements with the "multiple" class

</pre></div>A simple <a href="/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science)" title="Recursion (computer

science)">recursive</a> function to calculate the <a href="/wiki/Factorial"
title="Factorial">factorial</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Natural_number" title="Natural number">natural
number</a>:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>function factorial(n) {

// Checking the argument for legitimacy. Factorial is
defined for positive integers.

if <span

class="p">(isNaN(n)) {

console.<span

class="nx">error("Non-numerical argument not
allowed.");
 return NaN; // The
special value: Not a Number

}

if <span

class="p">(n === 0)

return <span

class="mf">1; // 0! =
1

if <span

class="p">(n < 0)

return <span

class="kc">undefined; // Factorial of negative numbers is not defined.

if <span

class="p">(n % 1) {

console.<span

class="nx">warn(`${n} will be
rounded to the closest integer. For non-integers consider using gamma function
instead.`);

n <span

class="o">= Math.round(n);

}

// The above checks need not be repeated in the
recursion, hence defining the actual recursive part separately below.

// The following line is a function expression to

recursively compute the factorial. It uses the arrow syntax introduced in ES6.

const <span

class="nx">recursivelyCompute = a => a
> 1 ? a *
recursivelyCompute(a -
1) : 1; // Note the use of the ternary
operator `?`.

return <span

class="nx">recursivelyCompute(n);

}

factorial(3<span

class="p">); // Returns 6

</pre></div>

An <a href="/wiki/Anonymous_function" title="Anonymous function">anonymous function</a>

(or lambda):

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>const counter =
function()
{

let <span

class="nx">count =
0;

return <span

class="kd">function() {

return <span

class="o">++count;

}

};

const x<span

class="w"> = counter();
x(); //
Returns 1

x(); //

Returns 2

x(); //

Returns 3

</pre></div>

This example shows that, in JavaScript, <a href="/wiki/Closure_(computer_programming)"

title="Closure (computer programming)">function closures</a> capture their non-local variables by
reference.

Arrow functions were first introduced in <a href="/wiki/ECMAScript#6th_Edition_–

_ECMAScript_2015" title="ECMAScript">6th Edition - ECMAScript 2015</a>. They shorten the syntax
for writing functions in JavaScript. Arrow functions are anonymous, so a variable is needed to refer to
them in order to invoke them after their creation, unless surrounded by parenthesis and executed
immediately.

Example of arrow function:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>// Arrow functions let us omit the `function`
keyword.

// Here `long_example` points to an anonymous function value.

const <span

class="nx">long_example = (input1, input2) =>
{

console.<span

class="nx">log("Hello, World!");

const <span

class="nx">output =
input1 + input2;

return <span

class="nx">output;

};
// If there are no braces, the arrow function simply returns the expression

// So here it's (input1 + input2)

const <span

class="nx">short_example = (input1, input2) =>
input1 + input2;

long_example(2<span

class="p">, 3); // Prints "Hello, World!" and returns
5

short_example(2<span

class="p">, 5); // Returns 7

// If an arrow function has only one parameter, the parentheses can be
removed.

const <span

class="nx">no_parentheses = input => input
+ 2;

no_parentheses(<span

class="mf">3); //
Returns 5

// An arrow function, like other function definitions, can be executed in the same
statement as they are created.

// This is useful when writing libraries to avoid filling the global scope, and for
closures.

let three<span

class="w"> = ((a,
b) => a
+ b) (1, 2);

const <span

class="nx">generate_multiplier_function = a
=> (b =>
isNaN(b) ||
!b ? a
: a*=b);

const <span

class="nx">five_multiples = generate_multiplier_function(5);
// The supplied argument "seeds" the expression and is retained by
a.

five_multiples(1<span

class="p">); // Returns 5

five_multiples(3<span

class="p">); // Returns 15

five_multiples(4<span

class="p">); // Returns 60

</pre></div>

In JavaScript, <a href="/wiki/Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer

science)">objects</a> can be created as <a href="/wiki/Instance_(computer_science)"
title="Instance (computer science)">instances</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Class_(computer_science)"
class="mw-redirect" title="Class (computer science)">class</a>.

Object class example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>class Ball {
 constructor(radius) {

this.<span

class="nx">radius =
radius;

this.<span

class="nx">area =
Math.PI * ( radius
** 2 );

}

// Classes (and thus objects) can contain functions
known as methods

show()<span

class="w"> {

console.<span

class="nx">log(this.radius);

}

};

const myBall<span

class="w"> = new Ball(5);
// Creates a new instance of the ball object with radius 5

myBall.radius<span

class="o">++; // Object
properties can usually be modified from the outside

myBall.show<span

class="p">(); // Using the inherited "show"
function logs "6"

</pre></div>

In JavaScript, <a href="/wiki/Object_(computer_science)" title="Object (computer

science)">objects</a> can be instantiated directly from a function.
Object functional example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>function Ball(radius) {

const <span

class="nx">obj =
{ radius, area
};

// Objects are mutable, and functions can be added as
properties.

obj.<span

class="nx">show =
() => console.log(obj.radius);

return <span

class="nx">obj;

};

const myBall<span

class="w"> = Ball(5); // Creates a new ball object with
radius 5. No "new" keyword needed.

myBall.radius<span

class="o">++; // The
instance property can be modified.
myBall.show(); // Using the "show" function logs
"6" - the new instance value.

</pre></div>

<a href="/wiki/Variadic_function" title="Variadic function">Variadic function</a> demonstration

(<code>arguments</code> is a special <a href="/wiki/Variable_(programming)" class="mw-redirect"
title="Variable (programming)">variable</a>):<a
href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>function sum() {

let <span

class="nx">x =
0;

for <span

class="p">(let i =
0; i <
arguments.length; ++i)

x <span

class="o">+= arguments[i];

return <span

class="nx">x;

}

sum(1<span

class="p">, 2); // Returns 3

sum(1<span

class="p">, 2, 3); // Returns 6
// As of ES6, using the rest operator.

function sum<span

class="p">(...args)
{

return <span

class="nx">args.reduce((a,
b) => a
+ b);

}

sum(1<span

class="p">, 2); // Returns 3

sum(1<span

</pre></div>

<a href="/wiki/Immediately-invoked_function_expression" class="mw-redirect"

title="Immediately-invoked function expression">Immediately-invoked function expressions</a> are
often used to create closures. Closures allow gathering properties and methods in a namespace and
making some of them private:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>let counter =
(function() {

let <span

class="nx">i =
0; // Private property

return <span

class="p">{ // Public methods
 get: function()
{

alert(<span

class="nx">i);

},

set:<span

class="w"> function(value) {

i <span

class="o">= value;

},

increment:<span

class="w"> function()
{

alert(<span

class="o">++i);

}

};

})(); // Module

counter.get<span

class="p">(); // Returns 0

counter.set<span

class="p">(6);

counter.<span

class="nx">increment(); // Returns 7

counter.<span

class="nx">increment(); // Returns 8

</pre></div>

<a href="/wiki/Generator_(computer_programming)" title="Generator (computer

programming)">Generator</a> objects (in the form of generator functions) provide a function which
can be called, exited, and re-entered while maintaining internal context (statefulness).<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><div class="mw-
highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr"><pre>function* rawCounter() {

yield <span

class="mf">1;

yield <span

class="mf">2;

}

function* <span

class="nx">dynamicCounter() {

let <span

class="nx">count =
0;

while <span

class="p">(true)
{

// It is not recommended to utilize while true loops
in most cases.

yield <span

class="o">++count;

}

}

// Instances

const counter1<span

class="w"> = rawCounter();

const counter2<span

class="w"> = dynamicCounter();

// Implementation

counter1.next<span

class="p">(); // {value: 1, done: false}
counter1.next(); // {value: 2, done: false}

counter1.next<span

class="p">(); // {value: undefined, done:
true}

counter2.next<span

class="p">(); // {value: 1, done: false}

counter2.next<span

class="p">(); // {value: 2, done: false}

counter2.next<span

class="p">(); // {value: 3, done: false}

// ...infinitely

</pre></div>

JavaScript can export and import from modules:<sup id="cite_ref-moz_modules_82-0"

class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moz_modules-82">[82]</a>

Export example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>/* [Link] */

// This function remains private, as it is not exported

let sum<span

class="w"> = (a,
b) => {

return <span

class="nx">a +
b;

}

// Export variables

export let<span

class="w"> name = 'Alice';
export let age = 23;

// Export named functions

export function<span

class="w"> add(num1, num2) {

return <span

class="nx">num1 +
num2;

}

// Export class

export class<span

class="w"> Multiplication {

constructor(<span

class="nx">num1, num2) {

this.<span

class="nx">num1 =
num1;

this.<span

class="nx">num2 =
num2;

}

add()<span

class="w"> {

return <span

class="nx">sum(this.num1,
this.num2);

}

}

</pre></div>

Import example:

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>// Import one property

import {

add } from './[Link]';

console.log<span

class="p">(add(1, 2));

//> 3

// Import multiple properties

import {

name, age }
from './[Link]';

console.log<span

class="p">(name,
age);

//> "Alice", 23

// Import all properties from a module

import *<span

class="w"> from './[Link]'

console.log<span

class="p">(name,
age);

//> "Alice", 23

console.log<span

class="p">(add(1,2));

//> 3

</pre></div>

<h3>More advanced

example</h3>

This sample code displays various JavaScript features.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>/* Finds the lowest common multiple (LCM) of two
numbers */

function <span

class="nx">LCMCalculator(x, y) {
// constructor function

if <span

class="p">(isNaN(x*y)) throw
new TypeError("Non-numeric arguments
not allowed.");

const <span

class="nx">checkInt =
function(x) { // inner function

if <span

class="p">(x % 1
!== 0)

throw <span

class="ow">new TypeError(x + "is not an integer");

return <span

class="nx">x;
 };

this.<span

class="nx">a =
checkInt(x)

// semicolons ^^^^ are optional, a newline is

enough

this.<span

class="nx">b =
checkInt(y);

}

// The prototype of object instances created by a constructor is

// that constructor's "prototype" property.

LCMCalculator.<span

class="nx">prototype =
{ // object literal

constructor:<span

class="w"> LCMCalculator, // when reassigning a prototype, set the constructor property
appropriately

gcd:

function()
{ // method that
calculates the greatest common divisor

// Euclidean algorithm:

let <span

class="nx">a =
Math.abs(this.a), b =
Math.abs(this.b), t;

if <span

class="p">(a < b) {

// swap variables

// t = b; b = a; a = t;

[a<span

class="p">, b] =
[b, a];
// swap using destructuring assignment (ES6)

}

while <span

class="p">(b !== 0) {

t <span

class="o">= b;

b <span

class="o">= a
% b;

a <span

class="o">= t;

}

// Only need to calculate GCD once, so "redefine"
this method.

// (Actually not redefinition—it's defined on the

instance itself,

// so that [Link] refers to this "redefinition" instead
of [Link].

// Note that this leads to a wrong result if the
LCMCalculator object members "a" or "b" are altered afterwards.)

// Also, 'gcd' === "gcd", this['gcd'] ===
[Link]

this[<span

class="s1">'gcd'] = function() {

return <span

class="nx">a;

};

return <span

class="nx">a;

},

// Object property names can be specified by strings
delimited by double (") or single (') quotes.

"lcm":<span

class="w"> function()
{

// Variable names do not collide with object
properties, e.g., |lcm| is not |[Link]|.

// not using |this.a*this.b| to avoid FP precision

issues

let <span

class="nx">lcm =
this.a / this.gcd() *
this.b;

// Only need to calculate lcm once, so "redefine" this
method.

this.<span

class="nx">lcm =
function()
{

return <span

class="nx">lcm;

};

return lcm;

},

// Methods can also be declared using ES6
syntax

toString()<span

class="w"> {

// Using both ES6 template literals and the (+)
operator to concatenate values

return <span

class="sb">`LCMCalculator: a = ${this.a}, b = ` + this.b;

}

};

// Define generic output function; this implementation only works for Web
browsers

function output<span

class="p">(x)
{

document.<span

class="nx">body.appendChild(document.createTextNode(x));

document.<span

class="nx">body.appendChild(document.createElement('br'));

}

// Note: Array's map() and forEach() are defined in JavaScript 1.6.
// They are used here to demonstrate JavaScript's inherent functional
nature.

[

[25<span

class="p">, 55],

[21<span

class="p">, 56],

[22<span

class="p">, 58],

[28<span

class="p">, 56]

].map(<span

class="kd">function(pair) {
// array literal + mapping function

return <span

class="ow">new LCMCalculator(pair[0], pair[1]);

}).sort((<span

class="nx">a, b) => a.lcm()
- b.lcm())
// sort with this comparative function; => is a shorthand form of a
function, called "arrow function"

.forEach<span

class="p">(printResult);

function <span

class="nx">printResult(obj) {

output(<span

class="nx">obj +
", gcd = " + obj.gcd()
+ ", lcm =
" + obj.lcm());

}

</pre></div>

The following output should be displayed in the browser window.

<div class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-output mw-content-ltr"

dir="ltr"><pre>LCMCalculator: a = 28, b = 56, gcd = 28, lcm =
56

LCMCalculator: a = 21, b = 56, gcd = 7, lcm = 168

LCMCalculator: a = 25, b = 55, gcd = 5, lcm = 275

LCMCalculator: a = 22, b = 58, gcd = 2, lcm = 638

</pre></div>

<h2>Security</h2>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Browser_security"
title="Browser security">Browser security</a></div>

JavaScript and the <a href="/wiki/Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object

Model">DOM</a> provide the potential for malicious authors to deliver scripts to run on a client
computer via the Web. Browser authors minimize this risk using two restrictions. First, scripts run in
a <a href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a> in
which they can only perform Web-related actions, not general-purpose programming tasks like
creating files. Second, scripts are constrained by the <a href="/wiki/Same-origin_policy" title="Same-
origin policy">same-origin policy</a>: scripts from one website do not have access to information
such as usernames, passwords, or cookies sent to another site. Most JavaScript-related security bugs
are breaches of either the same origin policy or the sandbox.

There are subsets of general JavaScript—ADsafe, Secure ECMAScript (SES)—that provide

greater levels of security, especially on code created by third parties (such as advertisements).<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Closure Toolkit is another project for
safe embedding and isolation of third-party JavaScript and HTML.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>

<a href="/wiki/Content_Security_Policy" title="Content Security Policy">Content Security

Policy</a> is the main intended method of ensuring that only trusted code is executed on a Web
page.

<h3>Cross-site scripting</h3>

A common JavaScript-related security problem is <a href="/wiki/Cross-site_scripting"

title="Cross-site scripting">cross-site scripting</a> (XSS), a violation of the <a href="/wiki/Same-
origin_policy" title="Same-origin policy">same-origin policy</a>. XSS vulnerabilities occur when an
attacker can cause a target Website, such as an online banking website, to include a malicious script
in the webpage presented to a victim. The script in this example can then access the banking
application with the privileges of the victim, potentially disclosing secret information or transferring
money without the victim's authorization. One important solution to XSS vulnerabilities is <a
href="/wiki/HTML_sanitization" title="HTML sanitization">HTML sanitization</a>.

Some browsers include partial protection against reflected XSS attacks, in which the
attacker provides a URL including malicious script. However, even users of those browsers are
vulnerable to other XSS attacks, such as those where the malicious code is stored in a database. Only
correct design of Web applications on the server-side can fully prevent XSS.

XSS vulnerabilities can also occur because of implementation mistakes by browser

authors.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a>

<h3>Cross-site request

forgery</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cross-
site_request_forgery" title="Cross-site request forgery">Cross-site request forgery</a></div>

Another cross-site vulnerability is <a href="/wiki/Cross-site_request_forgery" title="Cross-site

request forgery">cross-site request forgery</a> (CSRF). In CSRF, code on an attacker's site tricks the
victim's browser into taking actions the user did not intend at a target site (like transferring money at
a bank). When target sites rely solely on cookies for request authentication, requests originating
from code on the attacker's site can carry the same valid login credentials of the initiating user. In
general, the solution to CSRF is to require an authentication value in a hidden form field, and not
only in the cookies, to authenticate any request that might have lasting effects. Checking the HTTP
Referrer header can also help.

"JavaScript hijacking" is a type of CSRF attack in which a <code><script></code> tag on

an attacker's site exploits a page on the victim's site that returns private information such as <a
href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> or JavaScript. Possible solutions include:

<ul><li>requiring an authentication token in the <a href="/wiki/POST_(HTTP)" title="POST

(HTTP)">POST</a> and <a href="/wiki/GET_(HTTP)" class="mw-redirect" title="GET
(HTTP)">GET</a> parameters for any response that returns private information.</li></ul>

<h3>Misplaced trust in the

client</h3>
Developers of client-server applications must recognize that untrusted clients may be under the
control of attackers. The application author cannot assume that their JavaScript code will run as
intended (or at all) because any secret embedded in the code could be extracted by a determined
adversary. Some implications are:

<ul><li>Website authors cannot perfectly conceal how their JavaScript operates because the raw
source code must be sent to the client. The code can be <a href="/wiki/Obfuscated_code"
class="mw-redirect" title="Obfuscated code">obfuscated</a>, but obfuscation can be reverse-
engineered.</li>

<li>JavaScript form validation only provides convenience for users, not security. If a site verifies that
the user agreed to its terms of service, or filters invalid characters out of fields that should only
contain numbers, it must do so on the server, not only the client.</li>

<li>Scripts can be selectively disabled, so JavaScript cannot be relied on to prevent operations such
as right-clicking on an image to save it.<a href="#cite_note-
87">[87]</a></li>

<li>It is considered very bad practice to embed sensitive information such as passwords in JavaScript
because it can be extracted by an attacker.<a
href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_pollution" title="Prototype pollution">Prototype pollution</a> is a

runtime vulnerability in which attackers can overwrite arbitrary properties in an object's
prototype.</li></ul>

<h3>Misplaced trust in

developers</h3>

Package management systems such as <a href="/wiki/Npm_(software)" class="mw-redirect"

title="Npm (software)">npm</a> and Bower are popular with JavaScript developers. Such systems
allow a developer to easily manage their program's dependencies upon other developers' program
libraries. Developers trust that the maintainers of the libraries will keep them secure and up to date,
but that is not always the case. A vulnerability has emerged because of this blind trust. Relied-upon
libraries can have new releases that cause bugs or vulnerabilities to appear in all programs that rely
upon the libraries. Inversely, a library can go unpatched with known vulnerabilities out in the wild. In
a study done looking over a sample of 133,000 websites, researchers found 37% of the websites
included a library with at least one known vulnerability.<a href="#cite_note-jslibs-89">[89]</a> "The median lag between the
oldest library version used on each website and the newest available version of that library is 1,177
days in ALEXA, and development of some libraries still in active use ceased years ago."<a href="#cite_note-jslibs-89">[89]</a> Another
possibility is that the maintainer of a library may remove the library entirely. This occurred in March
2016 when Azer Koçulu removed his repository from npm. This caused tens of thousands of
programs and websites depending upon his libraries to break.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>

<h3>Browser and plugin
coding errors</h3>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a
href="/wiki/Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">Buffer overflow</a></div>

JavaScript provides an interface to a wide range of browser capabilities, some of which may have
flaws such as <a href="/wiki/Buffer_overflow" title="Buffer overflow">buffer overflows</a>. These
flaws can allow attackers to write scripts that would run any code they wish on the user's system.
This code is not by any means limited to another JavaScript application. For example, a buffer
overrun exploit can allow an attacker to gain access to the operating system's <a href="/wiki/API"
title="API">API</a> with superuser privileges.

These flaws have affected major browsers including Firefox,<sup id="cite_ref-92"

class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Internet Explorer,<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and Safari.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

Plugins, such as video players, <a href="/wiki/Adobe_Flash#Flash_client_security"

title="Adobe Flash">Adobe Flash</a>, and the wide range of <a href="/wiki/ActiveX"
title="ActiveX">ActiveX</a> controls enabled by default in Microsoft Internet Explorer, may also have
flaws exploitable via JavaScript (such flaws have been exploited in the past).<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a>

In Windows Vista, Microsoft has attempted to contain the risks of bugs such as buffer
overflows by running the Internet Explorer process with limited privileges.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> <a href="/wiki/Google_Chrome"
title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a> similarly confines its page renderers to their own "<a
href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a>".

<h3>Sandbox implementation

errors</h3>

Web browsers are capable of running JavaScript outside the sandbox, with the privileges
necessary to, for example, create or delete files. Such privileges are not intended to be granted to
code from the Web.

Incorrectly granting privileges to JavaScript from the Web has played a role in vulnerabilities
in both Internet Explorer<a
href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> and Firefox.<a
href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft demoted JScript's
privileges in Internet Explorer.<a href="#cite_note-
100">[100]</a>

<a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a>

allows JavaScript source files on a computer's hard drive to be launched as general-purpose, non-
sandboxed programs (see: <a href="/wiki/Windows_Script_Host" title="Windows Script
Host">Windows Script Host</a>). This makes JavaScript (like <a href="/wiki/VBScript"
title="VBScript">VBScript</a>) a theoretically viable vector for a <a
href="/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)" title="Trojan horse (computing)">Trojan horse</a>, although
JavaScript Trojan horses are uncommon in practice.<a
href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">failed
verification</a>]

<h3>Hardware

vulnerabilities</h3>

In 2015, a JavaScript-based proof-of-concept implementation of a <a href="/wiki/Rowhammer"

class="mw-redirect" title="Rowhammer">rowhammer</a> attack was described in a paper by
security researchers.<a
href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a><a
href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a><a
href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a><a
href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a>

In 2017, a JavaScript-based attack via browser was demonstrated that could bypass <a
href="/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization" title="Address space layout
randomization">ASLR</a>. It is called "ASLR⊕Cache" or AnC.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>

In 2018, the paper that announced the <a href="/wiki/Spectre_(security_vulnerability)"

title="Spectre (security vulnerability)">Spectre</a> attacks against Speculative Execution in Intel and
other processors included a JavaScript implementation.<a
href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a>

<h2>Development tools</h2>

Important tools have evolved with the language.

<ul><li>Every major web browser has built-in <a href="/wiki/Web_development_tools" title="Web

development tools">web development tools</a>, including a JavaScript <a href="/wiki/Debugger"
title="Debugger">debugger</a>.</li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Static_program_analysis" title="Static program analysis">Static program

analysis</a> tools, such as <a href="/wiki/ESLint" title="ESLint">ESLint</a> and <a
href="/wiki/JSLint" title="JSLint">JSLint</a>, scan JavaScript code for conformance to a set of
standards and guidelines.</li>

<li>Some browsers have built-in <a href="/wiki/Profiling_(computer_programming)" title="Profiling

(computer programming)">profilers</a>. Stand-alone profiling libraries have also been created, such
as [Link] and jsbench.<a href="#cite_note-
109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto1-
110">[110]</a></li>

<li>Many <a href="/wiki/Text_editor" title="Text editor">text editors</a> have syntax highlighting

support for JavaScript code.</li></ul>

<h2>Related technologies</h2>

<h3>Java</h3>

A common misconception is that JavaScript is directly related to <a

href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming language)">Java</a>. Both
indeed have a C-like syntax (the C language being their most immediate common ancestor language).
They are also typically <a href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer
security)">sandboxed</a>, and JavaScript was designed with Java's syntax and standard library in
mind. In particular, all Java keywords were reserved in original JavaScript, JavaScript's standard
library follows Java's naming conventions, and JavaScript's <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-
lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" id="" style="" dir="ltr">Math</code> and
<code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-javascript mw-content-ltr" id="" style=""
dir="ltr">Date</code> objects are based on classes from Java 1.0.<a
href="#cite_note-popularity-111">[111]</a>

Both languages first appeared in 1995, but Java was developed by <a
href="/wiki/James_Gosling" title="James Gosling">James Gosling</a> of Sun Microsystems and
JavaScript by <a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a> of Netscape
Communications.

The differences between the two languages are more prominent than their similarities. Java
has <a href="/wiki/Static_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Static typing">static typing</a>, while
JavaScript's typing is <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_typing" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic
typing">dynamic</a>. Java is loaded from <a href="/wiki/Compiler" title="Compiler">compiled</a>
bytecode, while JavaScript is loaded as human-readable source code. Java's objects are <a
href="/wiki/Class-based_programming" title="Class-based programming">class-based</a>, while
JavaScript's are <a href="/wiki/Prototype-based_programming" title="Prototype-based
programming">prototype-based</a>. Finally, Java did not support functional programming until Java
8, while JavaScript has done so from the beginning, being influenced by <a
href="/wiki/Scheme_(programming_language)" title="Scheme (programming
language)">Scheme</a>.

<h3>JSON</h3>

<a href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a> is a data format derived from JavaScript; hence the
name JavaScript Object Notation. It is a widely-used format supported by many other programming
languages.

<h3>Transpilers</h3>

Many websites are JavaScript-heavy, so <a href="/wiki/Transpiler" class="mw-redirect"
title="Transpiler">transpilers</a> have been created to convert code written in other languages,
which can aid the development process.<a
href="#cite_note-transpilers-35">[35]</a>

<a href="/wiki/TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a> and <a

href="/wiki/CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a> are two notable languages that
transpile to JavaScript.

<h3>WebAssembly</h3>

<a href="/wiki/WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a> is a newer language

with a <a href="/wiki/Bytecode" title="Bytecode">bytecode</a> format designed to complement
JavaScript, especially the performance-critical portions of <a href="/wiki/Web_page" title="Web
page">web page</a> scripts. All of the major <a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript
engine">JavaScript engines</a> support WebAssembly,<a
href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> which runs in the same <a
href="/wiki/Sandbox_(computer_security)" title="Sandbox (computer security)">sandbox</a> as
regular JavaScript code.

<a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a> is a subset of JavaScript that served as the

forerunner of WebAssembly.<a href="#cite_note-
113">[113]</a>

<h2>References</h2>

<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1217336898">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-

size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-
size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-
width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-
columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-
output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-
output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-
style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-
parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-
roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist">

<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references">

<li id="cite_note-press_release-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-

press_release_1-0">Jump up to:
a</a> <a
href="#cite_ref-press_release_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1215172403">.mw-parser-
output [Link]{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation
q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-
color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .[Link]-lock-free
a{background:url("//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/6/65/[Link]")right 0.1em
center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free
a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .[Link]-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-
output .[Link]-lock-registration
a{background:url("//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/[Link]")right
0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-
limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration
a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .[Link]-lock-subscription
a{background:url("//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/[Link]")right 0.1em
center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-
subscription a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon
a{background:url("//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/[Link]")right
0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-
ws-icon a{background-size:contain}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-
error{display:none;color:#d33}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:#d33}.mw-parser-
output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#2C882D;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-
kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-
weight:inherit}[Link]-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-
maint{color:#18911F}[Link]-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-
error,[Link]-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-
error{color:#f8a397}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){[Link]-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-
output .cs1-visible-error,[Link]-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-
error{color:#f8a397}[Link]-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output
.cs1-maint{color:#18911F}}</style><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1"><a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="[Link]
[Link]">"Netscape and Sun announce JavaScript, the Open, Cross-platform Object
Scripting Language for Enterprise Networks and the Internet"</a> (Press release). 4 December 1995.
Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] original</a> on 16 September
2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=Netscape+and+Sun+announce+JavaScript
%2C+the+Open%2C+Cross-
platform+Object+Scripting+Language+for+Enterprise+Networks+and+the+Internet&[Link]=19
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cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-wikidata-d7f43e85b8900d2d29227ac1622064499af14a0f-
v11_2-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite
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<li id="cite_note-looklikejava-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-

looklikejava_5-0">Jump up to:
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ser+comparison+test%3A+Internet+Explorer+vs.+Firefox%2C+Opera
%2C+Safari+and+Chrome&[Link]=2009-07-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F
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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
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id=ZH6bpbcrlvYC&q=nodejs">Professional [Link]: Building JavaScript Based Scalable
Software</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
id=ZH6bpbcrlvYC&printsec=frontcover&dq=nodejs&hl=en&sa=X#v=onepage&a
mp;q=nodejs&f=false">Archived</a> 2017-03-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, John Wiley & Sons, 01-Oct-2012

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label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
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ntroducing+JScript+.NET&[Link]=2000-07-
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class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-55447-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-596-55447-
7"><bdi>978-0-596-55447-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
id=2weL0iAfrEMC">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 29 March 2019.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=book&[Link]=JavaScript%3A+The+Definitive+Guide
%3A+The+Definitive+Guide&[Link]=16&[Link]=%22O%27Reilly+Media%2C+Inc.
%22&[Link]=2006-08-17&[Link]=978-0-596-55447-
7&[Link]=Flanagan&[Link]=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2weL0iAfrEMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

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casting_rules_56-0">Jump up to:
a</a> <a
href="#cite_ref-casting_rules_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-
casting_rules_56-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-casting_rules_56-
3">d</a> <link rel="mw-
deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite
id="CITEREFKorolev2019" class="citation web cs1">Korolev, Mikhail (1 March 2019). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
the-internet-52m7">"JavaScript quirks in one image from the Internet"</a>. The DEV
Community. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
image-from-the-internet-52m7">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2019. Retrieved 28 October
2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=The+DEV+Community&[Link]=JavaScrip
t+quirks+in+one+image+from+the+Internet&[Link]=2019-03-
01&[Link]=Korolev&[Link]=Mikhail&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fmkrl
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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFBernhardt2012"
class="citation web cs1">Bernhardt, Gary (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] Destroy All Software. <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
wat">Archived</a> from the original on 28 October 2019.
Retrieved 28 October 2019.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=Destroy+All+Software&[Link]=Wat&am
p;[Link]=2012&[Link]=Bernhardt&[Link]=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]%2Ftalks%2Fwat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]
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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006176–178_59-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump
up">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlanagan2006">Flanagan
2006</a>, pp. 176–178.

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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCrockford"
class="citation web cs1">Crockford, Douglas. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] Inheritance in JavaScript"</a>.
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href="[Link]
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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=Prototypal+Inheritance+in+JavaScript&rft.a
ulast=Crockford&[Link]=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%[Link]&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
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<li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61" aria-label="Jump
up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
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href="[Link]
hain">"Inheritance and the prototype chain"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mozilla"
title="Mozilla">Mozilla</a> Developer Network. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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%3Amtx
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heritance+and+the+prototype+chain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fen-US
%2Fdocs%2FJavaScript%2FGuide%2FInheritance_and_the_prototype_chain&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHerman2013"
class="citation book cs1">Herman, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
JavaScript</a>. Addison-Wesley. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-321-
81218-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-321-81218-6"><bdi>978-0-321-81218-6</bdi></a>.</
cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=book&[Link]=Effective+JavaScript&[Link]=83&[Link]
=Addison-Wesley&[Link]=2013&[Link]=978-0-321-81218-
6&[Link]=Herman&[Link]=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNz9iAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]
%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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<li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHaverbeke2011"
class="citation book cs1">Haverbeke, Marijn (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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JavaScript</a>. No Starch Press. pp. 95–97. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-
redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59327-
282-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59327-282-1"><bdi>978-1-59327-282-1</bdi></a>.</
cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=book&[Link]=Eloquent+JavaScript&[Link]=95-
97&[Link]=No+Starch+Press&[Link]=2011&[Link]=978-1-59327-282-
1&[Link]=Haverbeke&[Link]=Marijn&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9U5I_tskq9MC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2011"
class="citation web cs1">Katz, Yehuda (12 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
javascript/">"Understanding "Prototypes" in JavaScript"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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understanding-prototypes-in-javascript/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2013. Retrieved 6 April
2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx%3Abook&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=Understanding+%22Prototypes
%22+in+JavaScript&[Link]=2011-08-
12&[Link]=Katz&[Link]=Yehuda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2F2011%2F08%2F12%2Funderstanding-prototypes-in-javascript%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHerman2013"
class="citation book cs1">Herman, David (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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JavaScript</a>. Addison-Wesley. pp. 125–127. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
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6"><bdi>978-0-321-81218-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=book&[Link]=Effective+JavaScript&[Link]=125-
127&[Link]=Addison-Wesley&[Link]=2013&[Link]=978-0-321-81218-
6&[Link]=Herman&[Link]=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNz9iAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]
%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
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href="[Link]
Function">"Function – JavaScript"</a>. <a href="/wiki/MDN_Web_Docs" title="MDN Web
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006141-68"><a

href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlanagan2006141_68-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump
up">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlanagan2006">Flanagan
2006</a>, p. 141.

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<li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link]
[Link]#the-many-talents-of-javascript-for-generalizing-role-oriented-programming-
approaches-like-traits-and-mixins">The many talents of JavaScript for generalizing Role-Oriented
Programming approaches like Traits and Mixins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
[Link]#the-many-talents-of-javascript-for-generalizing-role-oriented-
programming-approaches-like-traits-and-mixins">Archived</a> 2017-10-05 at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>,
[Link], April 11, 2014.

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<li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link] for JavaScript</a> <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
traitsjs/">Archived</a> 2014-07-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, 2010.

</li>
<li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71" aria-label="Jump
up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link] | CocktailJS"</a>.
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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%26%23124%3B+CocktailJS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2F&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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<li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCroll2011"
class="citation web cs1">Croll, Angus (31 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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fresh look at JavaScript Mixins"</a>. JavaScript, JavaScript…. <a rel="nofollow" class="external
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2011/05/31/a-fresh-look-at-javascript-mixins/">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April
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31&[Link]=Croll&[Link]=Angus&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]%2F2011%2F05%2F31%2Fa-fresh-look-at-javascript-mixins
%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFHaverbeke2011"
class="citation book cs1">Haverbeke, Marijn (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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JavaScript</a>. No Starch Press. pp. 139–149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"
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1"><bdi>978-1-59327-282-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=book&[Link]=Eloquent+JavaScript&[Link]=139-
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1&[Link]=Haverbeke&[Link]=Marijn&rft_id=https%3A%2F
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%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

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Archive/Web/E4X">"E4X – Archive of obsolete content"</a>. Mozilla Developer Network.
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JavaScript"</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Mozilla_Developer_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Mozilla
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Web/JavaScript/Reference/Statements/const">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2018. Retrieved 27 June
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href="[Link]
Functions_and_function_scope/arguments">"arguments"</a>. Mozilla Developer Network.
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</li>

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moz_modules_82-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external
text" href="[Link]
modules"</a>. MDN Web Docs. Mozilla. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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Web/JavaScript/Guide/Modules">Archived</a> from the original on 17 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July
2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=MDN+Web+Docs&[Link]=JavaScript+mo
dules&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fen-US%2Fdocs%2FWeb%2FJavaScript
%2FGuide%2FModules&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

</li>

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</li>

<li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84" aria-label="Jump

</li>

<li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
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Project"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>. <a rel="nofollow"
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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mp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fcaja%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
article=4392">"Mozilla Cross-Site Scripting Vulnerability Reported and Fixed – MozillaZine
Talkback"</a>. [Link]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
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Retrieved 24 February 2017.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=[Link]&[Link]=Mozilla+Cross-
Site+Scripting+Vulnerability+Reported+and+Fixed+
%E2%80%93+MozillaZine+Talkback&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%[Link]%3Farticle%3D4392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFKottelin2008"
class="citation web cs1">Kottelin, Thor (17 June 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
%E2%80%9Cprotection%E2%80%9D-forget-about-it/">"Right-click "protection"? Forget about
it"</a>. [Link]. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
about-it/">the original</a> on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=[Link]&[Link]=Right-click+
%22protection%22%3F+Forget+about+it&[Link]=2008-06-
17&[Link]=Kottelin&[Link]=Thor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2F2008%2F06%2F17%2Fright-click-%25E2%2580%259Cprotection%25E2%2580%259D-forget-
about-it%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFRehorik2016"
class="citation web cs1">Rehorik, Jan (29 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
javascript/">"Why You Should Never Put Sensitive Data in Your JavaScript"</a>. ServiceObjects
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href="[Link]
you-should-never-put-sensitive-data-in-your-javascript/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 June
2019. Retrieved 3 June
2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=ServiceObjects+Blog&[Link]=Why+You+
Should+Never+Put+Sensitive+Data+in+Your+JavaScript&[Link]=2016-11-
29&[Link]=Rehorik&[Link]=Jan&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]%2Fblog%2Fwhy-you-should-never-put-sensitive-data-in-your-javascript
%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-jslibs-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jslibs_89-0"><span

class="cite-accessibility-label">Jump up to: a</a> <a
href="#cite_ref-jslibs_89-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite
id="CITEREFLauingerChaabaneArshadRobertson2016" class="citation cs2">Lauinger, Tobias;
Chaabane, Abdelberi; Arshad, Sajjad; Robertson, William; Wilson, Christo; Kirda, Engin (21 December
2016), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
publications/[Link]">"Thou Shalt Not Depend on Me: Analysing the Use of Outdated
JavaScript Libraries on the Web"</a> (PDF), Northeastern
University, <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv
(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link] <a
href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="[Link] <a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-891562-46-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-891562-46-
4"><bdi>978-1-891562-46-4</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] archived from <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] original</a>
(PDF) on 29 March 2017,
retrieved 28 July 2022</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=article&[Link]=Northeastern+University&[Link]=Thou+Sha
lt+Not+Depend+on+Me
%3A+Analysing+the+Use+of+Outdated+JavaScript+Libraries+on+the+Web&[Link]=2016-12-
21&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1811.00918&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2FCorpusID%3A17885720%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi
%2F10.14722%2Fndss.2017.23414&[Link]=978-1-891562-46-
4&[Link]=Lauinger&[Link]=Tobias&[Link]=Chaabane
%2C+Abdelberi&[Link]=Arshad%2C+Sajjad&[Link]=Robertson
%2C+William&[Link]=Wilson%2C+Christo&[Link]=Kirda%2C+Engin&rft_id=https%3A
%2F%[Link]%2Fhome%2Farshad%2Fpublications
%[Link]&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFCollins2016"
class="citation news cs1">Collins, Keith (27 March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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code/">"How one programmer broke the internet by deleting a tiny piece of code"</a>.
Quartz. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
programmer-broke-the-internet-by-deleting-a-tiny-piece-of-code/">Archived</a> from the original
on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 22
February 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info
%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=article&[Link]=Quartz&[Link]=How+one+programmer+br
oke+the+internet+by+deleting+a+tiny+piece+of+code&[Link]=2016-03-
27&[Link]=Collins&[Link]=Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2F646467%2Fhow-one-programmer-broke-the-internet-by-deleting-a-tiny-piece-of-code
%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> SC Magazine UK, <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
deleted-code-breaks-the-internet/article/532050/">Developer's 11 lines of deleted code 'breaks the
internet'</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
11-lines-of-deleted-code-breaks-the-internet/article/532050/">Archived</a> February 23, 2017, at
the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> Mozilla Corporation, <a
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href="[Link] overflow in
[Link]()</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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2006/[Link]">Archived</a> 2014-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>
<li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93" aria-label="Jump
up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFFesta1998"
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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overflow+bug+in+IE&[Link]=1998-08-
19&[Link]=Festa&[Link]=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%[Link]&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
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</li>

<li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> [Link], <a
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href="[Link] Safari JavaScript Buffer
Overflow Lets Remote Users Execute Arbitrary Code and HTTP Redirect Bug Lets Remote Users
Access Files</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> SecurityFocus, <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] WebViewFolderIcon ActiveX
Control Buffer Overflow Vulnerability</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
info">Archived</a> 2011-10-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> Fusion Authority, <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
[Link]">Macromedia Flash ActiveX Buffer Overflow</a> <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
[Link]">Archived</a> August 13, 2011, at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>
<li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97" aria-label="Jump
up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
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%3Amtx
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de+in+Vista+IE7+%E2%80%93+IEBlog&[Link]=2006-02-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F
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%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> US CERT, <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link] Note
VU#713878: Microsoft Internet Explorer does not properly validate source of redirected frame</a>
<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
713878/">Archived</a> 2009-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> Mozilla Foundation, <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] Foundation
Security Advisory 2005–41: Privilege escalation via DOM property overrides</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="[Link]
2005/[Link]">Archived</a> 2014-06-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine"
title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAndersen2004"
class="citation web cs1">Andersen, Starr (9 August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
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2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
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anced+Browsing+Security&[Link]=2004-08-
09&[Link]=Andersen&[Link]=Starr&rft_id=https%3A%2F
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class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> For one example of a rare
JavaScript Trojan Horse, see Symantec Corporation, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
99">[Link].K</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
security_response/[Link]?docid=2003-100111-0931-99">Archived</a> 2011-09-13 at the <a
href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite
id="CITEREFGrussMauriceMangard2015" class="citation arxiv cs1">Gruss, Daniel; Maurice,
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Attack in JavaScript". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv
(identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow"
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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=preprint&[Link]=arXiv&[Link]=[Link]
%3A+A+Remote+Software-Induced+Fault+Attack+in+JavaScript&[Link]=2015-07-
24&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv
%2F1507.06955&[Link]=Gruss&[Link]=Daniel&[Link]=Maurice%2C+Cl
%C3%A9mentine&[Link]=Mangard%2C+Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]
%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFJean-Pharuns2015"
class="citation news cs1">Jean-Pharuns, Alix (30 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
hack-ive-ever-seen">"[Link] Is the Most Ingenious Hack I've Ever Seen"</a>.
Motherboard. <a href="/wiki/Vice_(magazine)" title="Vice (magazine)">Vice</a>. <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
article/9akpwz/rowhammerjs-is-the-most-ingenious-hack-ive-ever-seen">Archived</a> from the
original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=article&[Link]=Motherboard&[Link]=[Link]+Is+th
e+Most+Ingenious+Hack+I%27ve+Ever+Seen&[Link]=2015-07-30&[Link]=Jean-
Pharuns&[Link]=Alix&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2Fen_us
%2Farticle%2F9akpwz%2Frowhammerjs-is-the-most-ingenious-hack-ive-ever-seen&rfr_id=info
%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFGoodin2015"
class="citation web cs1">Goodin, Dan (4 August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
attacking-pcs-just-add-javascript/">"DRAM 'Bitflipping' exploit for attacking PCs: Just add
JavaScript"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ars_Technica" title="Ars Technica">Ars Technica</a>. <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
technology/2015/08/dram-bitflipping-exploit-for-attacking-pcs-just-add-javascript/">Archived</a>
from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=Ars+Technica&[Link]=DRAM+
%27Bitflipping%27+exploit+for+attacking+PCs%3A+Just+add+JavaScript&[Link]=2015-08-
04&[Link]=Goodin&[Link]=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2Finformation-technology%2F2015%2F08%2Fdram-bitflipping-exploit-for-attacking-pcs-just-add-
javascript%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite id="CITEREFAuerbach2015"
class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Auerbach" title="David Auerbach">Auerbach,
David</a> (28 July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
hy_a_new_security_attack_is_truly_terrifying.html">"Rowhammer security exploit: Why a new
security attack is truly terrifying"</a>. [Link]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
bitwise/2015/07/
rowhammer_security_exploit_why_a_new_security_attack_is_truly_terrifying.html">Archived</a>
from the original on 30 July 2015. Retrieved 29 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=[Link]&[Link]=Rowhammer+security
+exploit%3A+Why+a+new+security+attack+is+truly+terrifying&[Link]=2015-07-
28&[Link]=Auerbach&[Link]=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2Farticles%2Ftechnology%2Fbitwise
%2F2015%2F07%2Frowhammer_security_exploit_why_a_new_security_attack_is_truly_terrifying.ht
ml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link] <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link]
projects/anc/">Archived</a> 2017-03-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a> VUSec, 2017

</li>

<li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link]
about-to-make-drive-by-exploits-much-nastier/">New ASLR-busting JavaScript is about to make
drive-by exploits much nastier</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
new-aslr-busting-javascript-is-about-to-make-drive-by-exploits-much-nastier/">Archived</a> 2017-
03-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>
Ars Technica, 2017

</li>

<li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text" href="[Link] Attack</a> <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
[Link]">Archived</a> 2018-01-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback
Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Spectre Attack

</li>

<li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109" aria-label="Jump

up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-
inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
[Link]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]
from the original on 19 December 2016. Retrieved 6 November 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=[Link]&[Link]=[Link]
&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]
%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988">
</li>

<li id="cite_note-auto1-110"><a href="#cite_ref-auto1_110-0"

aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link
rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite
id="[Link]" class="citation web cs1">[Link]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] Performance Benchmarking Playground for JavaScript"</a>.
[Link]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] from the
original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 13 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=[Link]&[Link]=[Link]+Performanc
e+Benchmarking+Playground+for+JavaScript&[Link]=[Link]&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

</li>

<li id="cite_note-popularity-111"><a href="#cite_ref-

popularity_111-0" aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite
id="CITEREFEich2008" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan
Eich">Eich, Brendan</a> (3 April 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] <a rel="nofollow"
class="external text"
href="[Link]
popularity/">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2011.
Retrieved 19 January 2012.</cite><span
title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Abook&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=Popularity&[Link]=2008-04-
03&[Link]=Eich&[Link]=Brendan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2F2008%2F04%2Fpopularity%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
class="Z3988">

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</li>

<li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113" aria-label="Jump

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<h2>Sources</h2>

<ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite

id="CITEREFDere2017" class="citation news cs1">Dere, Mohan (21 December 2017). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
react-app-redux-react-router-redux-observable-bootstrap-altogether-216db97e89a3">"How to
integrate create-react-app with all the libraries you need to make a great app"</a>.
freeCodeCamp. Retrieved 14
June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi
%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=article&[Link]=freeCodeCamp&[Link]=How+to+integrate+
create-react-app+with+all+the+libraries+you+need+to+make+a+great+app&[Link]=2017-12-
21&[Link]=Dere&[Link]=Mohan&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]%2Fintegrating-create-react-app-redux-react-router-redux-
observable-bootstrap-altogether-216db97e89a3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]
%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988"></li>

<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite

id="CITEREFPanchal2022" class="citation news cs1">Panchal, Krunal (26 April 2022). <a
rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link]
comparison">"Angular vs React Detailed Comparison"</a>. Groovy Web. Retrieved 5 June
2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx
%3Ajournal&[Link]=article&[Link]=Groovy+Web&[Link]=Angular+vs+React+D
etailed+Comparison&[Link]=2022-04-
26&[Link]=Panchal&[Link]=Krunal&rft_id=https%3A%2F
%[Link]%2Fblog%2Fangular-vs-react-detail-comparison&rfr_id=info%3Asid
%[Link]%3AJavaScript" class="Z3988"></li></ul>

<h2>Further reading</h2>

<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1033289096"><div

role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a
href="/wiki/ECMAScript#External_links" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript Specification
Documents</a></div>

<ul><li>Flanagan, David. JavaScript: The Definitive Guide. 7th edition. Sebastopol, California:
O'Reilly, 2020. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-491-95202-3"
title="Special:BookSources/978-1-491-95202-3">978-1-491-95202-3</a>.</li>

<li>Haverbeke, Marijn. Eloquent JavaScript. 3rd edition. No Starch Press, 2018. 472 pages.
<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a
href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a
href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1593279509" title="Special:BookSources/978-
1593279509">978-1593279509</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link]

<li>Zakas, Nicholas. Principles of Object-Oriented JavaScript, 1st edition. No Starch Press,

2014. 120 pages. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect"
title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1593275402"
title="Special:BookSources/978-1593275402">978-1593275402</a>.</li></ul>

<h2>External links</h2>

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JavaScript at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects"

title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister
projects</a></div>

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middle" typeof="mw:File"><img alt=""
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from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt=""
src="//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-
Wikiversity_logo_2017.[Link]" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element"
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href="[Link] class="extiw"
title="v:Topic:JavaScript">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li><img alt=""
src="//[Link]/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/[Link]/27px-
[Link]" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element"
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[Link] 1.5x,
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href="[Link] class="extiw"
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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="[Link] Modern JavaScript

Tutorial</a>. A community maintained continuously updated collection of tutorials on the entirety of
the language.</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"

href="[Link] at <a
href="/wiki/Curlie" class="mw-redirect" title="Curlie">Curlie</a></li>

<li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1215172403"><cite

class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text"
href="[Link] The First 20 Years"</a>. Retrieved 6 February
2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev
%3Amtx%3Abook&[Link]=unknown&[Link]=JavaScript
%3A+The+First+20+Years&rft_id=https%3A%2F%[Link]
%2Fprerecorded_hopl.[Link]&rfr_id=info%3Asid%[Link]%3AJavaScript"
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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ESLint" title="ESLint">ESLint</a></li>

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<li><a href="/wiki/JSLint" title="JSLint">JSLint</a></li></ul>

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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Subset" title="Subset">Supersets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-
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0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/JS%2B%2B" title="JS++">JS++</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ArkTS" title="ArkTS">ArkTS</a></li></ul>

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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/AtScript" title="AtScript">AtScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Babel_(transcompiler)" title="Babel (transcompiler)">Babel</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ClojureScript" class="mw-redirect" title="ClojureScript">ClojureScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/CoffeeScript" title="CoffeeScript">CoffeeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Dart_(programming_language)" title="Dart (programming

language)">Dart</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Elm_(programming_language)" title="Elm (programming language)">Elm</a></li>

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<li><a href="/wiki/LiveScript_(programming_language)" title="LiveScript (programming

language)">LiveScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Morfik" title="Morfik">Morfik</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Nim_(programming_language)" title="Nim (programming

language)">Nim</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Opa_(programming_language)" title="Opa (programming

language)">Opa</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/PureScript" title="PureScript">PureScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Reason_(programming_language)" title="Reason (programming

language)">Reason</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebSharper" title="WebSharper">WebSharper</a></li></ul>

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style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/JavaScript_library" title="JavaScript library">JavaScript library</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JavaScript_syntax" title="JavaScript syntax">JavaScript syntax</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chrome_(browser)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chrome (browser)">Chrome

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<li><a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox Inspector</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Komodo_IDE" title="Komodo IDE">Komodo IDE</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Edge" title="Microsoft Edge">Microsoft Edge DevTools</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Opera_(web_browser)" title="Opera (web browser)">Opera DevTools</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Safari_(web_browser)" title="Safari (web browser)">Safari Web
Inspector</a></li></ul>

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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Documentation_generator" title="Documentation generator">Doc
generators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/JSDoc" title="JSDoc">JSDoc</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%">Editors (<a
href="/wiki/Comparison_of_JavaScript-based_source_code_editors" title="Comparison of JavaScript-
based source code editors">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-
list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ace_(editor)" title="Ace (editor)">Ace</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud9_IDE" title="Cloud9 IDE">Cloud9 IDE</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Atom_(text_editor)" title="Atom (text editor)">Atom</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/CodeMirror" title="CodeMirror">CodeMirror</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brackets_(text_editor)" title="Brackets (text editor)">Brackets</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Light_Table_(software)" title="Light Table (software)">Light

Table</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/PhpStorm" class="mw-redirect" title="PhpStorm">PhpStorm</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Eclipse_projects#Top-level_sub-projects" title="List of Eclipse

projects">Orion</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Studio" title="Visual Studio">Visual Studio</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Visual_Studio_Express" title="Microsoft Visual Studio

Express">Visual Studio Express</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Studio_Code" title="Visual Studio Code">Visual Studio Code</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Studio#Azure_DevOps_Services" title="Visual Studio">Visual Studio Team

Services</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Vim_(text_editor)" title="Vim (text editor)">Vim</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">Engines</a></th><td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ECMAScript_engines" title="List of ECMAScript engines">List of

ECMAScript engines</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software
framework">Frameworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_JavaScript-based_web_frameworks" title="Comparison of

JavaScript-based web frameworks">Comparison of JavaScript frameworks</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_JavaScript_libraries" title="List of JavaScript libraries">List of JavaScript

libraries</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%">Related <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a></th><td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ajax_(programming)" title="Ajax (programming)">Ajax</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/AssemblyScript" title="AssemblyScript">AssemblyScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_Style_Sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Cascading Style

Sheets">Cascading Style Sheets</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Document_Object_Model" title="Document Object Model">Document Object

Model</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/HTML5" title="HTML5">HTML5</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebAuthn" title="WebAuthn">WebAuthn</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Package_manager" title="Package manager">Package
managers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Npm" title="Npm">npm</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Yarn_(package_manager)" title="Yarn (package manager)">yarn</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%">Module bundlers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even
hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Webpack" title="Webpack">Webpack</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Vite_(software)" title="Vite (software)">Vite</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Esbuild" title="Esbuild">esbuild</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Server-side_JavaScript" class="mw-redirect" title="Server-side
JavaScript">Server-side</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active_Server_Pages" title="Active Server Pages">Active Server

Pages</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Bun_(software)" title="Bun (software)">Bun</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/CommonJS" title="CommonJS">CommonJS</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Deno_(software)" title="Deno (software)">Deno</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSGI" title="JSGI">JSGI</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a></li>

<li>Wakanda</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Unit_testing" title="Unit testing">Unit testing</a> frameworks
(<a href="/wiki/List_of_unit_testing_frameworks#JavaScript"
title="List of unit testing frameworks">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group
navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jasmine_(JavaScript_testing_framework)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jasmine

(JavaScript testing framework)">Jasmine</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Mocha_(JavaScript_framework)" title="Mocha (JavaScript

framework)">Mocha</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/QUnit" title="QUnit">QUnit</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Crockford" title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Ryan_Dahl" title="Ryan Dahl">Ryan Dahl</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/John_Resig" title="John Resig">John Resig</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-

data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Programming_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-
collapsible expanded navbox-inner mw-made-collapsible" style="border-
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colspan="2"><button type="button" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default"
aria-expanded="true" tabindex="0">hide</button><link
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deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar
plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a
href="/wiki/Template:Programming_languages" title="Template:Programming languages"><abbr
title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
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languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a
href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Programming_languages"
title="Special:EditPage/Template:Programming languages"><abbr title="Edit this
template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Programming_languages" style="font-
size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Programming_language" title="Programming
language">Programming languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow"
colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_programming_languages" title="Comparison of programming

languages">Comparison</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_programming_languages" title="Timeline of programming

languages">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/History_of_programming_languages" title="History of programming

languages">History</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"

style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ada_(programming_language)" title="Ada (programming

language)">Ada</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ALGOL" title="ALGOL">ALGOL</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/APL_(programming_language)" title="APL (programming language)">APL</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ArkTS" title="ArkTS">ArkTS</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_language" title="Assembly language">Assembly</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/BASIC" title="BASIC">BASIC</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/C_(programming_language)" title="C (programming language)">C</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/C%2B%2B" title="C++">C++</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/C_Sharp_(programming_language)" title="C Sharp (programming

language)">C#</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic_(classic)" title="Visual Basic (classic)">Classic Visual Basic</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/COBOL" title="COBOL">COBOL</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Erlang_(programming_language)" title="Erlang (programming

language)">Erlang</a></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/Forth_(programming_language)" title="Forth (programming
language)">Forth</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Fortran" title="Fortran">Fortran</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Go_(programming_language)" title="Go (programming language)">Go</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Haskell" title="Haskell">Haskell</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Java_(programming_language)" title="Java (programming

language)">Java</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">JavaScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Julia_(programming_language)" title="Julia (programming

language)">Julia</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Kotlin_(programming_language)" title="Kotlin (programming

language)">Kotlin</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)" title="Lisp (programming language)">Lisp</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Lua_(programming_language)" title="Lua (programming language)">Lua</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/MATLAB" title="MATLAB">MATLAB</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ML_(programming_language)" title="ML (programming language)">ML</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Object_Pascal" title="Object Pascal">Object Pascal</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_(programming_language)" title="Pascal (programming

language)">Pascal</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Perl" title="Perl">Perl</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/PHP" title="PHP">PHP</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Prolog" title="Prolog">Prolog</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Python_(programming_language)" title="Python (programming

language)">Python</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/R_(programming_language)" title="R (programming language)">R</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_(programming_language)" title="Ruby (programming

language)">Ruby</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Rust_(programming_language)" title="Rust (programming

language)">Rust</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SQL" title="SQL">SQL</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Scratch_(programming_language)" title="Scratch (programming

language)">Scratch</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Shell_script" title="Shell script">Shell</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Simula" title="Simula">Simula</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Smalltalk" title="Smalltalk">Smalltalk</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Swift_(programming_language)" title="Swift (programming

language)">Swift</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Visual_Basic_(.NET)" title="Visual Basic (.NET)">Visual Basic</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming

languages">more...</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><img alt=""

src="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-
Symbol_list_class.[Link]" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element"
srcset="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-
Symbol_list_class.[Link] 1.5x,
//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-
Symbol_list_class.[Link] 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185">
Lists: <a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages" title="List of programming
languages">Alphabetical</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_programming_languages_by_type" title="List of programming languages

by type">Categorical</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Generational_list_of_programming_languages" title="Generational list of

programming languages">Generational</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Non-English-based_programming_languages" title="Non-English-based

programming languages">Non-English-based</a></li>

<li><img alt=""

src="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-
Symbol_category_class.[Link]" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element"
srcset="//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-
Symbol_category_class.[Link] 1.5x,
//[Link]/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-
Symbol_category_class.[Link] 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185"> <a
href="/wiki/Category:Programming_languages" title="Category:Programming
languages">Category</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-

data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="ECMAScript" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible
autocollapse navbox-inner mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title"
colspan="2"><button type="button" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-
collapsible-toggle-collapsed" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0">show</button><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li
class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:ECMAScript" title="Template:ECMAScript"><abbr
title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:ECMAScript" title="Template talk:ECMAScript"><abbr title="Discuss this
template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a
href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:ECMAScript"
title="Special:EditPage/Template:ECMAScript"><abbr title="Edit this
template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="ECMAScript" style="font-size:114%;margin:0
4em"><a href="/wiki/ECMAScript" title="ECMAScript">ECMAScript</a></div></th></tr><tr
style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dialects</th><td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/ActionScript" title="ActionScript">ActionScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Caja_project" title="Caja project">Caja</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">JavaScript</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/JavaScript_engine" title="JavaScript engine">engines</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JScript_.NET" title="JScript .NET">JScript .NET</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/QtScript" title="QtScript">QtScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/TypeScript" title="TypeScript">TypeScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WMLScript" title="WMLScript">WMLScript</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ECMAScript_engines" title="List of ECMAScript
engines">Engines</a> (comparison)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-
even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presto_(layout_engine)#JavaScript_engines" class="mw-redirect"

title="Presto (layout engine)">Carakan</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Presto_(layout_engine)#JavaScript_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Presto

(layout engine)">Futhark</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/InScript_(JavaScript_engine)" title="InScript (JavaScript engine)">InScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebKit#JavaScriptCore" title="WebKit">JavaScriptCore</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JScript" title="JScript">JScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/KJS_(software)" class="mw-redirect" title="KJS (software)">KJS</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Presto_(layout_engine)#ECMAScript_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Presto

(layout engine)">Linear B</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/QtScript" title="QtScript">QtScript</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Rhino_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Rhino (JavaScript engine)">Rhino</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SpiderMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">SpiderMonkey</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/SpiderMonkey#TraceMonkey" title="SpiderMonkey">TraceMonkey</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SpiderMonkey#JägerMonkey"
title="SpiderMonkey">JägerMonkey</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Tamarin_(software)" title="Tamarin (software)">Tamarin</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/V8_(JavaScript_engine)" title="V8 (JavaScript engine)">V8</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Chakra_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Chakra (JavaScript engine)">ChakraCore</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chakra_(JScript_engine)" title="Chakra (JScript

engine)">Chakra</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JScript_.NET" title="JScript .NET">JScript .NET</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Nashorn_(JavaScript_engine)" title="Nashorn (JavaScript

engine)">Nashorn</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Software_framework" title="Software
framework">Frameworks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks
navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Client-side_JavaScript" class="mw-redirect" title="Client-side
JavaScript">Client-side</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dojo_Toolkit" title="Dojo Toolkit">Dojo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Echo_(framework)" title="Echo (framework)">Echo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Ext_JS" title="Ext JS">Ext JS</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Google_Web_Toolkit" title="Google Web Toolkit">Google Web Toolkit</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JQuery" title="JQuery">jQuery</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Lively_Kernel" title="Lively Kernel">Lively Kernel</a></li>

<li>midori</li>

<li><a href="/wiki/MochiKit" title="MochiKit">MochiKit</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/MooTools" title="MooTools">MooTools</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Prototype_JavaScript_Framework" title="Prototype JavaScript

Framework">Prototype</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Pyjs" title="Pyjs">Pyjs</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Qooxdoo" title="Qooxdoo">qooxdoo</a></li>

<li class="mw-empty-elt"></li>
<li><a href="/wiki/SproutCore" title="SproutCore">SproutCore</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Spry_framework" title="Spry framework">Spry</a></li>

<li>Wakanda Framework</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/Server-side_JavaScript" class="mw-redirect" title="Server-side JavaScript">Server-
side</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Deno_(software)" title="Deno (software)">Deno</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Bun_(software)" title="Bun (software)">Bun</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Jaxer#Aptana_Jaxer" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaxer">Jaxer</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/AppJet" title="AppJet">AppJet</a></li>

<li>WakandaDB</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Multiple</th><td

class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Cappuccino</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/JavaScript_library" title="JavaScript library">Libraries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-
with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SWFObject" title="SWFObject">SWFObject</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/[Link]" title="[Link]">[Link]</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row"

class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list
navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brendan_Eich" title="Brendan Eich">Brendan Eich</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_Crockford" title="Douglas Crockford">Douglas Crockford</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/John_Resig" title="John Resig">John Resig</a></li>

<li>Scott Isaacs</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"

style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_HTML" title="Dynamic HTML">DHTML</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Ecma_International" title="Ecma International">Ecma International</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSDoc" title="JSDoc">JSDoc</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSGI" title="JSGI">JSGI</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSHint" title="JSHint">JSHint</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSLint" title="JSLint">JSLint</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JSON" title="JSON">JSON</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/JavaScript_Style_Sheets" title="JavaScript Style Sheets">JSSS</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_(JavaScript_conformance_test)" title="Sputnik (JavaScript conformance

test)">Sputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Browser_speed_test#SunSpider" title="Browser speed test">SunSpider</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Asynchronous_module_definition" title="Asynchronous module

definition">Asynchronous module definition</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/CommonJS" title="CommonJS">CommonJS</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<dl><dt><img alt=""

<dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_JavaScript_libraries" title="List of JavaScript libraries">JavaScript

libraries</a></dd>

<dd><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ajax_frameworks#JavaScript" title="List of Ajax frameworks">Ajax

frameworks</a></dd>

<dt><img alt=""

<dd><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_JavaScript_frameworks" class="mw-redirect" title="Comparison

of JavaScript frameworks">JavaScript frameworks</a></dd>

<dd><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_server-side_JavaScript_solutions" class="mw-redirect"

title="Comparison of server-side JavaScript solutions">server-side JavaScript</a></dd></dl>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>
<div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1061467846"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-
labelledby="Web_browsers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible
autocollapse navbox-inner mw-made-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="border-
spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title"
colspan="2"><button type="button" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-
collapsible-toggle-collapsed" aria-expanded="false" tabindex="0">show</button><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-
data:TemplateStyles:r1063604349"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li
class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Web_browsers" title="Template:Web browsers"><abbr
title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a
href="/wiki/Template_talk:Web_browsers" title="Template talk:Web browsers"><abbr title="Discuss
this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a
href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Web_browsers" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Web
browsers"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Web_browsers"
style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Web_browser" title="Web browser">Web
browsers</a></div></th></tr><tr style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-
odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table
class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup mw-made-collapsible"
style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><button
type="button" class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default" aria-expanded="true"
tabindex="0">hide</button><div
id="*_Features_*_standards_*_protocols" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">

<ul><li>Features</li>

<li>standards</li>

<li>protocols</li></ul>

</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"

style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks
navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bookmark_(digital)" title="Bookmark (digital)">Bookmarks</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Browser_extension" title="Browser extension">Extensions</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Private_browsing" title="Private browsing">Privacy mode</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/Web_standards" title="Web standards">Web standards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-
with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/HTML" title="HTML">HTML</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/HTML5" title="HTML5">v5</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/CSS" title="CSS">CSS</a></li>

<li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">JavaScript</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/WebAssembly" title="WebAssembly">WebAssembly</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Web_storage" title="Web storage">Web storage</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Indexed_Database_API" title="Indexed Database API">IndexedDB</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebGL" title="WebGL">WebGL</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebGPU" title="WebGPU">WebGPU</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Protocols</th><td

class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/HTTP" title="HTTP">HTTP</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/HTTPS" title="HTTPS">Encryption</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/HTTP_cookie" title="HTTP cookie">Cookies</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Third-party_cookies" title="Third-party

cookies">third-party</a></li></ul></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Online_Certificate_Status_Protocol" title="Online Certificate Status

Protocol">OCSP</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebRTC" title="WebRTC">WebRTC</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebSocket" title="WebSocket">WebSocket</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr
style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-
collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup mw-made-collapsible" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><button type="button"
class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" aria-
expanded="false" tabindex="0">show</button><div
id="Active" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Active</div></th></tr><tr style="display:
none;"><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a
href="/wiki/Blink_(browser_engine)" title="Blink (browser engine)">Blink</a>-based</th><td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Chromium_(web_browser)" title="Chromium (web browser)">Chromium</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Arc_(web_browser)" title="Arc (web browser)">Arc</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Avast_Secure_Browser" title="Avast Secure Browser">Avast</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Brave_(web_browser)" title="Brave (web browser)">Brave</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/C%E1%BB%91c_C%E1%BB%91c" title="Cốc Cốc">Coc Coc</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Comodo_Dragon" title="Comodo Dragon">Comodo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Dooble" title="Dooble">Dooble</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Epic_(web_browser)" title="Epic (web browser)">Epic</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Falkon" title="Falkon">Falkon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Maxthon" title="Maxthon">Maxthon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Edge" title="Microsoft Edge">Microsoft Edge</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Opera_(web_browser)" title="Opera (web browser)">Opera</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Otter_Browser" title="Otter Browser">Otter</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Puffin_Browser" title="Puffin Browser">Puffin </a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Samsung_Internet" title="Samsung Internet">Samsung Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Silk" title="Amazon Silk">Silk</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Sleipnir_(web_browser)" title="Sleipnir (web browser)">Sleipnir</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SRWare_Iron" title="SRWare Iron">SRWare</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Supermium" title="Supermium">Supermium</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/UC_Browser" title="UC Browser">UC</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Ungoogled-chromium" title="Ungoogled-chromium">ungoogled</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Vivaldi_(web_browser)" title="Vivaldi (web browser)">Vivaldi</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Naver_Whale" title="Naver Whale">Whale</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Yandex_Browser" title="Yandex Browser">Yandex</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-
list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0
0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Floorp" title="Floorp">Floorp</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/GNU_IceCat" title="GNU IceCat">GNU IceCat</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/LibreWolf" title="LibreWolf">LibreWolf</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Midori_(web_browser)" title="Midori (web browser)">Midori</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SlimBrowser" title="SlimBrowser">SlimBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Tor_Browser" class="mw-redirect" title="Tor Browser">Tor Browser</a></li>

<li>Gecko <a href="/wiki/Fork_(software_development)" title="Fork (software
development)">forks</a>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilisk_(web_browser)" title="Basilisk (web browser)">Basilisk</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/K-Meleon" title="K-Meleon">K-Meleon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Pale_Moon" title="Pale Moon">Pale Moon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SeaMonkey" title="SeaMonkey">SeaMonkey</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Waterfox" title="Waterfox">Waterfox</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/WebKit" title="WebKit">WebKit</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group
navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safari_(web_browser)" title="Safari (web browser)">Safari</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/GNOME_Web" title="GNOME Web">GNOME Web</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ICab" title="ICab">iCab</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Konqueror" title="Konqueror">Konqueror</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td

class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/360_Secure_Browser" title="360 Secure Browser">360</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/DuckDuckGo_Private_Browser" title="DuckDuckGo Private

Browser">DuckDuckGo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Eww_(web_browser)" title="Eww (web browser)">eww</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Flow_(web_browser)" title="Flow (web browser)">Flow</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Links_(web_browser)" title="Links (web browser)">Links</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Lunascape" title="Lunascape">Lunascape</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Lynx_(web_browser)" title="Lynx (web browser)">Lynx</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/NetFront" title="NetFront">NetFront</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/NetSurf" title="NetSurf">NetSurf</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/QQ_Browser" title="QQ Browser">QQ</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Qutebrowser" title="Qutebrowser">qutebrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/W3m" title="W3m">w3m</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr
style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-
collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup mw-made-collapsible" style="border-
spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><button type="button"
class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default mw-collapsible-toggle-collapsed" aria-
expanded="false" tabindex="0">show</button><div
id="Discontinued" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Discontinued</div></th></tr><tr
style="display: none;"><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks
navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group"
style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Blink_(browser_engine)" title="Blink (browser engine)">Blink</a>-
based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd"
style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaker_(web_browser)" title="Beaker (web browser)">Beaker</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Citrio" title="Citrio">Citrio</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Flock_(web_browser)" title="Flock (web browser)">Flock</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Redcore" title="Redcore">Redcore</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Rockmelt" title="Rockmelt">Rockmelt</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SalamWeb" title="SalamWeb">SalamWeb</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Sputnik_(search_engine)#Browser" title="Sputnik (search

engine)">Sputnik</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Torch_(web_browser)" title="Torch (web browser)">Torch</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/Gecko_(software)" title="Gecko (software)">Gecko</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-
list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0
0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beonex_Communicator" title="Beonex Communicator">Beonex</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Camino_(web_browser)" title="Camino (web browser)">Camino</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Classilla" title="Classilla">Classilla</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Conkeror" title="Conkeror">Conkeror</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Firefox_Lite" title="Firefox Lite">Firefox Lite</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Galeon" title="Galeon">Galeon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Ghostzilla" title="Ghostzilla">Ghostzilla</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Comodo_IceDragon" title="Comodo IceDragon">IceDragon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Kazehakase" title="Kazehakase">Kazehakase</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Kylo_(web_browser)" title="Kylo (web browser)">Kylo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/IBM_Lotus_Symphony" title="IBM Lotus Symphony">Lotus</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/MicroB" title="MicroB">MicroB</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Minimo" title="Minimo">Minimo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Mozilla_Application_Suite" title="Mozilla Application Suite">Mozilla suite</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/PirateBrowser" title="PirateBrowser">PirateBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/AT%26T_Pogo" title="AT&T Pogo">Pogo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Kirix_Strata" title="Kirix Strata">Strata</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Swiftfox" title="Swiftfox">Swiftfox</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Swiftweasel" title="Swiftweasel">Swiftweasel</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/TenFourFox" class="mw-redirect" title="TenFourFox">TenFourFox</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Timberwolf_(web_browser)" title="Timberwolf (web

browser)">Timberwolf</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/XB_Browser" title="XB Browser">xB</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/Trident_(software)" title="Trident (software)">MSHTML</a>-based</th><td
class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_Explorer" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/AOL_Explorer" title="AOL Explorer">AOL</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Deepnet_Explorer" title="Deepnet Explorer">Deepnet</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/GreenBrowser" title="GreenBrowser">GreenBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/MediaBrowser" title="MediaBrowser">MediaBrowser</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/NeoPlanet" title="NeoPlanet">NeoPlanet</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/NetCaptor" title="NetCaptor">NetCaptor</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/SpaceTime_(software)#SpaceTime_Browser" title="SpaceTime

(software)">SpaceTime</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ZAC_Browser" title="ZAC Browser">ZAC</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a

href="/wiki/WebKit" title="WebKit">WebKit</a>-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group
navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arora_(web_browser)" title="Arora (web browser)">Arora</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_(web_browser)" title="Bolt (web browser)">BOLT</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Dolphin_Browser" title="Dolphin Browser">Dolphin</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_(web_browser)" title="Fluid (web browser)">Fluid</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Google_TV_(smart_TV_platform)" class="mw-redirect" title="Google TV (smart TV

platform)">Google TV</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Iris_Browser" title="Iris Browser">Iris</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_Browser" title="Mercury Browser">Mercury</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Nokia_Browser_for_Symbian" title="Nokia Browser for Symbian">Nokia

Symbian</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/OmniWeb" title="OmniWeb">OmniWeb</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Opera_Coast" title="Opera Coast">Opera Coast</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Origyn_Web_Browser" title="Origyn Web Browser">Origyn</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/QtWeb" title="QtWeb">QtWeb</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Shiira" title="Shiira">Shiira</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Steel_(web_browser)" title="Steel (web browser)">Steel</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Surf_(web_browser)" title="Surf (web browser)">surf</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Uzbl" title="Uzbl">Uzbl</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WebPositive" class="mw-redirect" title="WebPositive">WebPositive</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Xombrero" title="Xombrero">xombrero</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td

class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div
style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abaco_(web_browser)" title="Abaco (web browser)">abaco</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Amaya_(web_editor)" title="Amaya (web editor)">Amaya</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Arachne_(web_browser)" title="Arachne (web browser)">Arachne</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Arena_(web_browser)" title="Arena (web browser)">Arena</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Blazer_(web_browser)" title="Blazer (web browser)">Blazer</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Cake_Browser" title="Cake Browser">Cake</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Charon_(web_browser)" title="Charon (web browser)">Charon</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/CM_Browser" title="CM Browser">CM</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Live_Labs_Deepfish" title="Microsoft Live Labs

Deepfish">Deepfish</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Dillo" title="Dillo">Dillo</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Edge_Legacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microsoft Edge Legacy">Edge

Legacy</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ELinks" title="ELinks">ELinks</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Gazelle_(web_browser)" title="Gazelle (web browser)">Gazelle</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/HotJava" title="HotJava">HotJava</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/IBM_Home_Page_Reader" title="IBM Home Page Reader">IBM Home Page
Reader</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/IBM_WebExplorer" title="IBM WebExplorer">IBM WebExplorer</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/IBrowse" title="IBrowse">IBrowse</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/KidZui" title="KidZui">KidZui</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Line_Mode_Browser" title="Line Mode Browser">Line Mode</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_(web_browser)" title="Mosaic (web browser)">Mosaic</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/MSN_TV" title="MSN TV">MSN TV</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/NetPositive" class="mw-redirect" title="NetPositive">NetPositive</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Netscape_(web_browser)" title="Netscape (web browser)">Netscape</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Skweezer" title="Skweezer">Skweezer</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Skyfire_(company)" title="Skyfire (company)">Skyfire</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/ThunderHawk" title="ThunderHawk">ThunderHawk</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Vision_Mobile_Browser" title="Vision Mobile Browser">Vision</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WinWAP" title="WinWAP">WinWAP</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/WorldWideWeb" title="WorldWideWeb">WorldWideWeb</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr
style="display: none;"><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Web_browsers" title="Category:Web browsers">Category</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_web_browsers" title="Comparison of web

browsers">Comparisons</a></li>

<li><a href="/wiki/List_of_web_browsers" title="List of web browsers">List</a></li></ul>

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