UNIT – I: Analytic and Elementary

Functions
Complex Analysis Notes

Contents
1 Functions of a Complex Variable and Mappings 2
1.1 Complex Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Limits and Theorems on Limits 2

2.1 Limit of a Complex Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Theorems on Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

3 Limits Involving the Point at Infinity 3

4 Continuity and Differentiation 3

4.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.2 Differentiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

5 Cauchy-Riemann Equations and Examples 4

6 Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability 4

7 Analytic Functions and Examples 4

8 Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonometric Functions 5

8.1 Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
8.2 Logarithmic Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
8.3 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1
1 Functions of a Complex Variable and Map-
pings
1.1 Complex Functions
A complex function f is a rule that assigns to each complex number z ∈ C
a complex number w ∈ C. It is often written as:

f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y)

where z = x + iy, and u(x, y), v(x, y) are real-valued functions of two real
variables.

1.2 Mappings
A complex function f (z) can be interpreted as a mapping from one complex
plane to another. This mapping may preserve or distort shapes depending
on the function.
Example:

• f (z) = z 2 : Squares the magnitude and doubles the angle.

• f (z) = z1 : Inversion with respect to the unit circle, followed by reflection

in the real axis.

2 Limits and Theorems on Limits

2.1 Limit of a Complex Function
The limit of f (z) as z → z0 is L if for every ϵ > 0, there exists δ > 0 such
that:
0 < |z − z0 | < δ ⇒ |f (z) − L| < ϵ
This is written as:
lim f (z) = L
z→z0

2
2.2 Theorems on Limits
Let f (z) and g(z) be complex functions such that their limits exist as z → z0 ,
then:

lim (f (z) ± g(z)) = lim f (z) ± lim g(z)

z→z0 z→z0 z→z
  0 
lim (f (z)g(z)) = lim f (z) · lim g(z)
z→z0 z→z0 z→z0

f (z) limz→z0 f (z)

lim = , if lim g(z) ̸= 0
z→z0 g(z) limz→z0 g(z) z→z0

3 Limits Involving the Point at Infinity

We say limz→∞ f (z) = w0 if:

∀ϵ > 0, ∃R > 0 such that |z| > R ⇒ |f (z) − w0 | < ϵ

Example: For f (z) = z1 ,

lim f (z) = 0
z→∞

4 Continuity and Differentiation

4.1 Continuity
A function f (z) is continuous at z0 if:

lim f (z) = f (z0 )

z→z0

4.2 Differentiability
The derivative of f at z0 is defined by:

f (z) − f (z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
z→z0 z − z0
if this limit exists. If f is differentiable at z0 , then it is also continuous there.

3
5 Cauchy-Riemann Equations and Examples
Let f (z) = u(x, y) + iv(x, y). The Cauchy-Riemann (CR) equations are:

∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= , =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x

Example: Show that f (z) = z 2 is analytic.

Let z = x + iy, then:

f (z) = (x + iy)2 = x2 − y 2 + 2ixy

So,
u(x, y) = x2 − y 2 , v(x, y) = 2xy
Then,
∂u ∂v ∂u ∂v
= 2x = , = −2y = −
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Hence, CR equations are satisfied and f is analytic.

6 Sufficient Conditions for Differentiability

If u and v have continuous first-order partial derivatives in a neighborhood
of z0 , and CR equations are satisfied at z0 , then f is differentiable at z0 .

7 Analytic Functions and Examples

A function f (z) is called analytic at a point z0 if it is differentiable in a
neighborhood of z0 .
Examples of Analytic Functions:

• f (z) = z n , where n ∈ Z

• f (z) = ez

• f (z) = sin z, cos z

• f (z) = 1
z
is analytic except at z = 0

4
8 Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonomet-
ric Functions
8.1 Exponential Function
∞
z
X zn
e =
n=0
n!

ex+iy = ex (cos y + i sin y)

8.2 Logarithmic Function

The logarithm is the inverse of the exponential function. For z ̸= 0,

log z = ln |z| + i arg z, arg z ∈ R

The logarithm is multi-valued due to the periodic nature of arg z.

8.3 Trigonometric Functions

eiz − e−iz eiz + e−iz
sin z = , cos z =
2i 2
sin z
tan z =
cos z

5
 UNIT – II: Complex Integration
Complex Analysis Notes

Contents
1 Derivatives of Functions 2

2 Definite Integrals of Functions 2

3 Contours and Contour Integrals 2

3.1 Contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3.2 Contour Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

4 Upper Bounds for Moduli of Contour Integrals 3

5 Antiderivatives 3

6 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem 3

7 Cauchy Integral Formula and Its Extensions 4

8 Liouville’s Theorem 4

9 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra 4

1
1 Derivatives of Functions
Let f (z) be a complex function. The derivative at a point z0 ∈ C is defined
as:
f (z) − f (z0 )
f ′ (z0 ) = lim
z→z0 z − z0
if the limit exists. This is the same definition as in real calculus, but the
limit must exist and be the same from all directions in the complex plane.

2 Definite Integrals of Functions

For a real-valued function f (x), the definite integral from a to b is:
Z b
f (x) dx
a

This idea is extended to complex functions using **parametrized curves** in

the complex plane.

3 Contours and Contour Integrals

3.1 Contours
A contour is a piecewise smooth curve C in the complex plane. It can be
described by a continuous, piecewise-differentiable function:

γ : [a, b] → C, γ(t) = x(t) + iy(t)

3.2 Contour Integral

Let f be continuous on a contour C. The contour integral of f over C is
defined as: Z Z b
f (z) dz = f (γ(t))γ ′ (t) dt
C a
R
Example: Evaluate C
z dz, where C is the upper half of the unit circle
from z = 1 to z = −1.

2
 Solution: Parametrize the semicircle:
γ(t) = eit , t ∈ [0, π]
Then:
π π π
e2it
Z Z Z 
it it 2it 1
z dz = e · ie dt = i e dt = i = (e2πi − 1) = 0
C 0 0 2i 0 2

4 Upper Bounds for Moduli of Contour Inte-

grals
If f is continuous on a contour C, then:
Z
f (z) dz ≤ max |f (z)| · length(C)
C z∈C

This is known as the ML-inequality:

Z
f (z) dz ≤ M · L
C

where M = maxz∈C |f (z)| and L is the arc length of C.

5 Antiderivatives
Let f be a complex function. A function F is an antiderivative of f in a
domain D if:
F ′ (z) = f (z) ∀z ∈ D
If f has an antiderivative in D, then for any contour C from a to b:
Z
f (z) dz = F (b) − F (a)
C

6 Cauchy-Goursat Theorem
Let f be analytic in a simply connected domain D, and let C be a closed
contour in D. Then: Z
f (z) dz = 0
C

3
 Consequences: - If f is analytic in a domain D, then the integral of
f around any closed contour in D is 0. - The integral depends only on the
endpoints if the domain is simply connected.

7 Cauchy Integral Formula and Its Exten-

sions
If f is analytic in a domain D and C is a positively oriented simple closed
contour contained in D, and a is a point inside C, then:
Z
1 f (z)
f (a) = dz
2πi C z−a

Generalization (Higher Derivatives):

Z
(n) n! f (z)
f (a) = dz
2πi C (z − a)n+1

8 Liouville’s Theorem
If a function f is entire (analytic on all of C) and bounded, then f is constant.
Proof Idea: Use the Cauchy estimate from the integral formula:
n! · M
|f (n) (0)| ≤
Rn
As R → ∞, f (n) (0) → 0 ⇒ f (n) (0) = 0 for all n ≥ 1 ⇒ f is constant.

9 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

Every non-constant polynomial P (z) ∈ C[z] has at least one root in C.
Proof Sketch Using Liouville’s Theorem: Assume P (z) ̸= 0 for all
1
z ∈ C, then f (z) = P (z) is entire and bounded. Then by Liouville’s Theorem,
f is constant, so P (z) is constant—a contradiction.

4
 UNIT – III: Series and Residues
Complex Analysis Notes

Contents
1 Taylor Series 2

2 Laurent Series 2

3 Absolute and Uniform Convergence of Power Series 2

4 Integration and Differentiation of Power Series 3

5 Isolated Singular Points 3

6 Residues 3

7 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem 4

8 Residue at Infinity 4

9 Residues at Poles: Examples 4

10 Application: Definite Integrals Involving Sines and Cosines 4

1
1 Taylor Series
Let f be analytic at z0 . Then in a neighborhood of z0 , f can be written as:
∞
X f (n) (z0 )
f (z) = (z − z0 )n
n=0
n!

1
Example: For f (z) = 1−z
, Taylor expansion about z0 = 0 is:
∞
1 X
= zn, |z| < 1
1−z n=0

2 Laurent Series
If f is analytic in an annulus R1 < |z − z0 | < R2 , then:
∞
X
f (z) = an (z − z0 )n
n=−∞

This is called the Laurent series, which includes both positive and negative
powers.
1
Example: Expand f (z) = z(z−1) in the annulus 0 < |z| < 1:
∞ ∞
1 1 1 X n X n−1
f (z) = · = z = z
z 1−z z n=0 n=0

3 Absolute and Uniform Convergence of Power

Series
an (z − z0 )n converges: - **Absolutely** if |an ||z − z0 |n
P P
A power series
converges. - **Uniformly** on compact subsets within the radius of conver-
gence.

2
4 Integration and Differentiation of Power Se-
ries
If a power series converges in |z − z0 | < R, then it can be: - **Differentiated
term-by-term**:
∞
X
f ′ (z) = nan (z − z0 )n−1
n=1

- **Integrated term-by-term**:
Z ∞
X an
f (z) dz = C + (z − z0 )n+1
n=0
n + 1

5 Isolated Singular Points

Let f be analytic in a punctured neighborhood of z0 , but not at z0 . Then z0
is an isolated singularity.
Types: - Removable: if Laurent series has no negative powers. - Pole
of order n: if finitely many negative powers, and a−n ̸= 0. - Essential: if
infinitely many negative powers exist.
Example: - sinz z : removable at z = 0 - z13 : pole of order 3 at z = 0 - e1/z :
essential at z = 0

6 Residues
The residue of f at an isolated singularity z0 , denoted Res(f, z0 ), is the
coefficient a−1 in the Laurent expansion.
For a simple pole:

Res(f, z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z)

z→z0

For a pole of order n:

1 dn−1
Res(f, z0 ) = lim n−1 [(z − z0 )n f (z)]
(n − 1)! z→z0 dz

3
7 Cauchy’s Residue Theorem
Let f be analytic except for isolated singularities inside a closed contour C.
Then: Z X
f (z) dz = 2πi Res(f, zk )
C
where zk are the singularities inside C.

8 Residue at Infinity
Defined as: X
Res(f, ∞) = − Res(f, zk )
where zk are all finite isolated singularities.

9 Residues at Poles: Examples

1
Example: Find residue of f (z) = (z−2)2
at z = 2.
It is a pole of order 2:
1 d 1 d
Res(f, 2) = lim [(z − 2)2 · 2
] = (1) = 0
1! z→2 dz (z − 2) dz
ez
Example: f (z) = z2
: pole of order 2 at z = 0
d 2 ez d
Res(f, 0) = lim [z · 2 ] = lim (ez ) = e0 = 1
z→0 dz z z→0 dz

10 Application: Definite Integrals Involving

Sines and Cosines
Use contour integration and the residue theorem to evaluate real integrals.
Example: Evaluate Z ∞
cos x
2
dx
−∞ x + 1
eiz
Solution: Consider f (z) = z 2 +1
, and integrate over a semicircular con-
tour in the upper half-plane.

4
Residue at z = i is:
eiz e−1
Res(f, i) = lim =
z→i (z + i) 2i

Then,
∞
e−1
Z  
cos x
dx = Re 2πi · = πe−1
−∞ x2 + 1 2i