Research Methodology Notes of a Mediocre
Student
Shubh N. Singh
Department of Mathematics
School of Mathematics, Statistics and Computer Science
Central University of South Bihar
Gaya (Bihar), India
Chapter 1
Proof Methods and Report Writing
1. Definition is a precise and unambiguous description of the meaning of a mathematical
term. It characterizes the meaning of a word by giving all the properties and only
those properties that must be true.
2. Theorem is a mathematical statement that is true and has been proved to be
true using rigorous mathematical reasoning. In a mathematical book/paper, the
term “theorem” is reserved for a verified true statement that is considered the most
important or significant. For examples,
The Pythagoras (or Pythagorean) theorem
The fundamental theorem of arithmetic
The fundamental theorem of algebra
3. Proposition is a proved true statement that is interesting, but generally less important
than a theorem.
4. Lemma is a verified true statement whose main purpose is to help in proving a
theorem or proposition. It is a stepping stone on the path to proving a theorem. Very
occasionally lemmas can take on a life of their own. For examples, Zorn’s lemma,
Urysohn’s lemma, Burnside’s lemma, Sperner’s lemma.
5. Corollary is a verified true statement in which the (usually short) proof relies heavily
on a given theorem or proposition. (we often say that “this is a corollary of Theorem
A”).
6. Conjecture is a statement that is unproved but is believed to be true. For examples,
Collatz conjecture, Goldbach conjecture, twin prime conjecture.
7. Claim is an assertion that is then proved. It is often used like an informal lemma.
8. Axiom/Postulate is a statement that is assumed to be true without proof. These
are the basic building blocks from which all theorems are proved. For examples,
Euclid’s
five postulates, Zermelo-Frankel axioms, Peano axioms.
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2 CHAPTER 1. PROOF METHODS AND REPORT WRITING
9. Identity is a mathematical expression giving the equality of two (often variable)
quantities. For example, trigonometric identities, Euler’s identity.
10. Paradox is a statement that can be shown, using a given set of axioms and definitions,
to be both true and false. Paradoxes are often used to show the inconsistencies in
a flawed theory (Russell’s paradox). The term paradox is often used informally to
describe a surprising or counterintuitive result that follows from a given set of rules.
For example, Banach-Tarski paradox, Alabama paradox, Gabriel’s horn paradox.
1.1 Types of proof
To prove the statement P → Q, we may do the following:
Prove directly: Assume P and then show Q.
Prove by contrapositive: Assume ¬Q and then show ¬P .
Prove by contradiction: Assume P and ¬Q. Then derive a contradiction.
1.2 Your Turn
Find all mistakes in the following. Try to formulate the sentences better.
1. Let n be an integer and let k = 2n + 1. k is odd.
2. If n is an positive integer, then is Γ(n) = n!.
3. p prime number, p|ab =⇒ p|a ∨ p|b.
√
4. x4 − 4x2 = −4 = (x2 )2 − 4x2 + 4 = 0 = (x2 − 2)2 = 0 = x2 = 2 = x = ± 2.
Chapter 2
Implication
Most mathematical statements are of the form
‘If statement P is true, then statement Q is true.′
This type of statement is called an implication. We say P implies Q and sometimes write
P =⇒ Q.
2.1 Necessary and Sufficient Conditions
2.1.1 Necessary Conditions
Definition 2.1.1. A necessary condition is one that must hold for a conclusion to be
true. It does not guarantee that the result is true.
To say that ‘P is a necessary condition for Q’ is to say that it is impossible to have
Q without P. In other words, the absence of P guarantees the absence of Q. A necessary
condition is sometimes also called an essential condition.
In other words, the statement ‘P is necessary for the statement Q’ means that ‘Q is
true only if P is true’. We know that this latter is the same as Q =⇒ P.
Some Examples:
Example 2.1.2.
P : Mohan is an IAS
Q : Mohan is an graduate.
Here, the statement Q is necessary for the statement P. Thus P =⇒ Q.
Example 2.1.3.
P : n is not divisible by 2
Q : n is an odd prime number .
Here, the statement P is a necessary condition for the statement Q. Thus Q =⇒ P.
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2.1.2 Sufficient Conditions
Definition 2.1.4. A sufficient condition is one that guarantees the conclusion is true.
The conclusion may be true even if the condition is not satisfied.
To say that ‘P is a sufficient condition for Q’ is to say that ‘the presence of P guarantees
the presence of Q’. In other words, if P is present, then Q must also be present.
In other words, the statement ‘P is sufficient for the statement Q’ means Q is true if A
is true. This is the same as P =⇒ Q.
Some Examples:
Example 2.1.5.
P : n is an even number
Q : n is divisible by 6.
Here, the statement Q is a sufficient condition for the statement P. Thus Q =⇒ P.
Being a square is sufficient for having four sides.
Thus
‘The statement ‘P is necessary for the statement Q’ is equivalent to ‘Q =⇒ P’.
‘The statement ‘P is sufficient for the statement Q’ is equivalent to ‘P =⇒ Q’.