Chapter 8: Cell - The Unit of Life

- The presence of the cell is what differentiates a living organism from a non-living
thing.

- Unicellular organisms can exist independently and perform essential life functions,
making the cell the fundamental unit of life.

- Antonie Von Leeuwenhoek first observed live cells, Robert Brown discovered the
nucleus, and the electron microscope revealed structural details.

Cell Theory
- Schwann reported animal cells have a plasma membrane, and plant cells have a
cell wall, leading to the hypothesis that bodies of animals and plants are composed
of cells and their products.

- Schleiden and Schwann formulated the cell theory, which was later modified by
Virchow to include that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

- Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound nuclei, while prokaryotic cells do not; both
have cytoplasm where cellular activities occur.

Cell Overview
- Cells vary greatly in size, shape, and activity; Mycoplasmas are the smallest cells,
while an ostrich egg is the largest single cell.

- Cell shapes include disc-like, polygonal, columnar, and irregular, varying with
function.

- Prokaryotic cells are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae, mycoplasma, and

PPLO, generally smaller and multiplying faster than eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic Cells
- Prokaryotes have a cell wall (except mycoplasma), cytoplasm, and no well-defined
nucleus; genetic material is naked, not membrane-bound.
- Plasmids in bacteria confer unique characteristics like antibiotic resistance, and
prokaryotes lack organelles except ribosomes.

- A specialized cell membrane called the mesosome, an infolding of the cell

membrane, is characteristic of prokaryotes.

Cell Envelope and Modifications

- Most prokaryotic cells have a complex cell envelope of glycocalyx, cell wall, and
plasma membrane, functioning as a protective unit.

- Bacteria are classified as Gram positive or Gram negative based on their cell
envelopes and response to Gram staining.

- Motile bacteria have flagella composed of filament, hook, and basal body, while pili
and fimbriae aid in attachment but not motility.

Ribosomes and Inclusion Bodies

- Ribosomes in prokaryotes are associated with the plasma membrane and are the
site of protein synthesis, forming polyribosomes.

- Reserve materials in prokaryotic cells are stored as inclusion bodies (e.g.,

phosphate granules) free in the cytoplasm.

- Gas vacuoles are found in blue-green, purple, and green photosynthetic bacteria.

Eukaryotic Cells
- Eukaryotes include protists, plants, animals, and fungi, with extensive
compartmentalization of the cytoplasm via membrane-bound organelles.

- Eukaryotic cells possess an organized nucleus with a nuclear envelope and

complex locomotory and cytoskeletal structures.

- Plant cells differ from animal cells by having cell walls, plastids, and large central
vacuoles, while animal cells have centrioles.

Cell Membrane
- Cell membranes are composed mainly of lipids and proteins, with phospholipids
arranged in a bilayer.

- Lipids are arranged with polar heads outwards and hydrophobic tails inwards,
protecting the tails from the aqueous environment; membranes also contain
cholesterol.

- Membrane proteins are classified as integral (partially or totally buried) and

peripheral (on the surface), with the ratio of protein and lipid varying in different cell
types.

Fluid Mosaic Model

- The fluid mosaic model proposes that the quasi-fluid nature of the lipid allows
lateral movement of proteins within the bilayer.

- Membrane fluidity is important for cell growth, intercellular junctions, secretion,

endocytosis, and cell division.

- The plasma membrane is selectively permeable, allowing passive transport

(simple diffusion, osmosis) and active transport (energy-dependent, e.g., Na+/K+
pump).

Cell Wall
- The cell wall, a non-living rigid structure, covers the plasma membrane in fungi
and plants, providing shape, protection, and cell interaction.

- Algae cell walls are made of cellulose, galactans, mannans, and minerals, while
plant cell walls consist of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, and proteins.

- The middle lamella, mainly calcium pectate, glues neighboring cells together, and
plasmodesmata connect the cytoplasm of these cells.

Endomembrane System
- The endomembrane system includes the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi
complex, lysosomes, and vacuoles, with coordinated functions.

- Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and peroxisomes are not part of the endomembrane

system because their functions are not coordinated with the other components.
- The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) divides the intracellular space into luminal and
extra luminal compartments and can be rough (with ribosomes) or smooth (without
ribosomes).

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) and Golgi Apparatus

- Rough ER (RER) is involved in protein synthesis and secretion and is continuous
with the outer nuclear membrane.

- Smooth ER (SER) is the major site for lipid synthesis, including steroidal hormones
in animal cells.

- The Golgi apparatus packages materials for intracellular or extracellular delivery,

modifying proteins synthesized by ribosomes.

Lysosomes and Vacuoles

- Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed by the Golgi apparatus,
containing hydrolytic enzymes active at acidic pH for digesting macromolecules.

- Vacuoles are membrane-bound spaces containing water, sap, and excretory

products, bounded by a single membrane called the tonoplast.

- In plants, the tonoplast facilitates transport of ions and materials into the vacuole
against concentration gradients; contractile vacuoles in Amoeba aid in
osmoregulation and excretion.

Mitochondria
- Mitochondria are double membrane-bound organelles with an outer and inner
membrane, the inner membrane forming cristae to increase surface area.

- The matrix contains circular DNA, RNA, ribosomes (70S), and components for
protein synthesis; mitochondria divide by fission.

- Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration, producing ATP and are thus
called the 'power houses' of the cell.
Plastids
- Plastids are found in plant cells and euglenoids, containing pigments that impart
specific color

- Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoids for trapping light energy in

photosynthesis.

- Chromoplasts contain fat-soluble carotenoid pigments (carotene, xanthophylls)

giving yellow, orange, or red colors, while leucoplasts store nutrients like
carbohydrates (amyloplasts), oils/fats (elaioplasts), and proteins (aleuroplasts).

Chloroplasts
- Chloroplasts in mesophyll cells are lens-shaped, oval, or ribbon-like, with numbers
varying from 1 to 40 per cell.

- They are double membrane-bound, with the inner membrane enclosing the
stroma, which contains thylakoids arranged in grana.

- The stroma contains enzymes for carbohydrate and protein synthesis, circular
DNA, and ribosomes; chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.

Ribosomes and Cytoskeleton

- Ribosomes, composed of RNA and proteins, are not membrane-bound and are
either eukaryotic 80S or prokaryotic 70S types, each with two subunits.

- The cytoskeleton, a network of protein filaments (microtubules, microfilaments,

intermediate filaments), provides mechanical support, motility, and shape
maintenance.

Cilia and Flagella

- Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane, with cilia
facilitating movement of the cell or surrounding fluid, and flagella responsible for
cell movement.
- Both are covered with plasma membrane and have an axoneme with microtubules
arranged in a 9+2 array.

- They emerge from centriole-like basal bodies.

Centrosome and Centrioles

- The centrosome contains two cylindrical centrioles surrounded by pericentriolar
materials, arranged perpendicularly.

- Centrioles are made of nine triplets of tubulin protein and form the basal bodies of
cilia/flagella.

- They also form spindle fibers during cell division in animal cells.

Nucleus
- The nucleus, described by Robert Brown, contains chromatin, nuclear matrix, and
nucleoli.

- The nuclear envelope, a double membrane with perinuclear space, separates the
nucleus from the cytoplasm and has pores for RNA and protein movement.

- The nucleolus, within the nucleoplasm, is the site of active ribosomal RNA
synthesis.

Chromatin and Chromosomes

- The interphase nucleus contains chromatin, composed of DNA, histones, non-
histone proteins, and RNA.

- Chromosomes, visible during cell division, have a primary constriction

(centromere) with kinetochores.

- Chromosomes are classified based on centromere position: metacentric, sub-

metacentric, acrocentric, and telocentric.

Satellite and Microbodies

- Some chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions, creating a small
fragment called the satellite.

- Microbodies are membrane-bound vesicles containing various enzymes, present in

both plant and animal cells.