chapter 38

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Silicon diodes
Some substances(like germaniumand silicon)are
neithergood conductorsnor [Link]
substancesare called semi-conductors.
Semi-conductorscan be made n-tgpeor p-type,
by addingtiny amountsof other substances
(n and p standfor negativeand positivecharges).
actual saze
If a p-type materialand an n-type materialare
joinedtogether,we get avery usefuldevice,
calleda p-n junctiondiode. -FE+l-
\_-,/
circuit symbol
Expenment38.7 Silicondiode
Connecta battery,a lamp and a diode in series.
Connectthe markedor narrow end of the diode
(the 'cathode')nearestto the negativeterminalof
the [Link] happensto the lamp?
Now turn the diode the opposite way round in the
[Link] lamp stilllight?

A diode allows a current to flow only one way.

Itis a rectifier.
The arrow on the diode symbolshowsthe direction
in which conventionalcurrentcan flow. The diode
is then saidto be foruard-biassed.
the currentis
If the diode is reuerse-biossed,
nearlyzero.

Experiment 38.2 I : V graph

Repeatexperiment3I.23 (pa3e259) measuringthe
currentI and the voltage V for a junction diode.
As the graphshows,almostno currentflows if the
voltageis appliedin the reversedirection.
A currentflows in the forward directionwhenever
the voltageis more than about 0.6 volts.
If the reversevoltage or the forward currentis
increasedtoo much,then the diode willbe damaged.
Seep. 259 for graphsof other non-ohmic conductors.
Diodeshave many usesin radios,TV and computers.

s 314
I Protecting equipment diode

Diodesare usedto protectradiosand computerswhich

would be damagedif the batteryor power supply was
connectedthe wrong way round. If the batteryin the
diagramwas connectedthe other way round, then
no currentwould flow and no damagecould be done.

2 Switching in stand-by batteries

Here is a circuitthat could be usedon your bicycle:
If you are riding the bike, the dynamowill producea
highervoltagethan the battery,and light the lamp
usingthe leJt-handcircuitonly, savingyour battery.
But if you stop at trafficlights,the dynamowill
stop, and then the righf-hand circuitwill light the
lamp. What does each diode do?
A similarcircuitcould keep a computerrunningeven
if there was a mainspower cut.

3 Rectification
The mainssupply providesalternatingcurrent(a.c.),
but often we want direct current(d.c.)as in a battery.
How can we use a diode to do this?

Experiment 38.3 Half-waue rectifier A

Connecta diode in serieswith a 1000 Ct resistor
and a low voltagea.c. supply.
Now use an oscilloscope(a CRO, see page 310)
to look at the waveform:firstconnectthe CRO
acrossthe a.c. supply (the 'input') and sketchthe
[Link](seealsopage3L1).
Then connectthe CRO acrossthe load resistoras
shown in the [Link] new waveform:
Why is only half the a.c. waveformstill present?
The diode conductsonly for half the a.c. cycle (only
when it is forward-biassed).
The alternatingcurrenthasbeen rectified to an
[Link] are usingthis circuit a.c. input d.c. output
wheneveryou plug your radio into the a.c. mains.

Experiment3S.4 Smoothing
+
Now connecta L0 pF capacitor(seepage 2451in
parallelwith the resistor(acrossthe input terminals).
Look at the [Link] hasbeen smoothed.
The capacitorstoressome energywhen the voltage smoothed d.c. output
is high, and then releasesit when the voltagefalls.

315
@ The Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
I actual size
Some specialdiodescalledLEDswillgive out light I
'flat'
when they are passinga current. -
The usualcolour is red, but it is possibleto get anode
n cathode
yellowor greenLEDs.
A lighfemittingdiode is an exampleof a transducer circuit
sYmbol
- it transfersenergyfrom one form to another. fS
-\\
What are the two forms of energyin a LED?

Experiment38.5
Connect an LED to a protective [Link]
connectthem to a potential divider circuit:
A potentialdivider (seepage258) letsus vary a
voltagesmoothly from low to high.
Whathappensto the LED asyou varythe voltage? protective
resistor
Connecta voltmeteracrossthe LED. What voltage
is neededbeforethe LED will light?
Doesthe diode light if it is reversedin the circuit?
The LED will not light until the appliedvoltageis
greaterthan about 2V. However if the full 6 V was
applied,the LED would be damaged.A LED must
alwayshave a protectiue resistorin serieswith it.

kample
A conductingLED hasa voltagedrop acrossit of 2V
and shouldpassa currentof only 10 mA (: 0.01 A). tI
If it is connectedto a 9 V supply,what protective
resistanceis needed? V
I'u
If there is 2 V acrossthe LED, the other 7 V must be
acrossthe protective resistorR. +1 2 v
V
Formulafirst: V: I x R (seepage253)
0.01 A
Thennumbers: 7-0.01 xR
..R: 7 :700O
0 .0 1

Uses:
LEDs are often used as indicator lamps. LEDs are
small, reliable,need only a small current and last
much longer than filament lamps.
n,
E -lE,j
a seven-segmentdisplay

LEDs are sometimes used in seuen-segment displays

in digital clocks, cash registersand calculators: U' l 115E
Professor-Messerwas using hrscalculator,sitting opposite Mrs Messer.
Why did she laugh when he typed in 0.7734 and then 5508?
Canyou make other words? Try;0.37108,5663. Or 35006, [Link] they3781637?

Jlt)
@' The Light-Dependent Resistor (LDR)
actual size
When a semi-conductorhaslight shiningon it, it can conduct semi-conductor

electricitymore eaSily. ^-l

I metal
Its resistancedependson the brightnessof the light, so it is I\ electrodes
calleda Light-Dependent Resistor(or photo-conductivecell).
The LDR shown in the photo is made from a semi-conductor '
ll
' t>-\,
calledcadmiumsulphide(CdS).In the dark its resistanceis -.i.:l-
\_./
more than 10 MO. In sunlightits resistanceis only about 100 O. circuit symbol

Experiment38.6 A light-meter
Connectan LDR in serieswith a cell, a milli-ammeterand
a variable [Link] the variable resistorto give a
deflectionon the ammeter:
What happensto the currentas you cover and uncoverthe LDR?
Uses:
This circuitcould be usedas a photographer'slight-meter(if it
was calibrated).The samecircuitcan be usedto alterthe aperture
in [Link] usesare shown later (page322).

M' The thermistor

- t
When a semi-conductoris heated,it can conductelectricity a -

more [Link] is becausethe risein temperaturemakes circuit symbol

more free electronsavailableto carrythe current.
The higherthe temperature,the lessthe resistance.

Expenment38.7 An electronicthermometer
Repeatthe last experiment,but with a thermistorin place of
the LDR. Heat the thermistorwith your hand or a hairdryer:
What happensto the currentas the thermistorgetshotter?
Uses:
This circuitcould be usedas an electronicthermometerif the
ammeterwas calibratedin "C (seepage29).lt would have a
non-linear scale,with unequaldivisions.
Thermistorsare usedto protectthe filamentsof projectorlamps
and TV tubesfrom a currentsurgeas they are switchedon. The actual
cold thermistorkeepsthe currentlow at first;as the filament size
heatsup, so doesthe thermistorand it graduallyletsmore r.
*'
[Link] extendsthe llfe of the filament. /f
/,/
More usesare shownlater (page321). /i
/j
bead
lhermistor

Experiment 38.8 I : V graph

Repeatexperiment37.23 (p.259\ measuringcurrentI and
voltageV for a [Link] graph is shownon p. 259.

377 s
tr Reed switch
A reed switchcan be usedin electroniccircuits.
It consistsof a glasstube with two iron reeds
sealedinsideit: actual size
If the iron is unmagnetised,there is a gap
betweenthe reeds,and no currentcan flow'
The switchis said tobe normolly'open (NO).
If a magnetis broughtnear the reedswitch,it
magnetises eachiron reed as shown:
(Thisis 'magneticinduction',seepage282.)
The result is that the two reedsare attracted
towardseachother,and they bend to touch
[Link] lamp comeson.
What happenswhen the magnetmovesaway?

Expenment38.9
Use a magnifuingglassto look closelyat the
reedswhile you move the magnetnearby.

Normally-closed reed switch

If an extranon-magneticcontactis addedto the
reed switchas shown,it can be usedas a iron contact

normally-closed (NC) switch. The current flows

from B io C until a magnet is brought near. What
non-magnetic contact
happensthen?
How can it be usedas a change-over(CO)switch?

Uses:
A normally-closed reed switch can be used in
burglar [Link] reed switch is fixed in the
door frameand a magnetis fixed to the door:
What happensif a burglaropensthe door?
What are ihe disadvantagesof this simplealarm?
A normally-open reed switch can be used as a
safetyswitchon the door of a microwaveoven.
Draw a diagramto show how this would work.

Reed relay
If a reedswitchis put insidea coil of wire (an
electromagnet, seep'age287\,then it can be
operatedby a currentin the coil'
This is.a reed relay.
A smailcurrentin the coil can switchon a larger
currentin the reed switch.(lt is a simplekind
of amplifier.)

318
 soft iron
&' Electromagnetic relay armature

The diagram shows another kind of relay, which can switch on

a larger current than a reed relay.
If enough current flows in the coil it will attract ihe soft iron
armature (see also page 289). The armature is pivoted and so
pushes the springy contacts together, so a current can flow
through them. What happens if the coil current is switched off?
The diagram shows one pair of normally-open contacts. Others
can be added side bv side so that several circuits can be switched.
Normally-closedand change-overcontactscan also be used.

Experiment 38.10 A burglar alarm

Connect a relay and a light-dependent resistor (LDR) to
a battery and a bell, as shown:
Shine a light on the LDR, so that its resistancefalls.
What happens to the current in the LDR?
What happens to the relay? What happens to the bell?
If you put this circuit in a drawer (where it is dark), what
would happen if a burglar opened the drawer?
It is important to include a diode as shown at D in the diagram.
This is because the relay coil acts like an induction coil (see
page 304) and can give a large reverse voltage. The diode
protects the circuit by shorting out this large voltage.

M Transducers and Systems

The LED, LDR, thermistor and reed switch are all examples of
transducers - they transfer enerEg from one form to another.
The rest of this chapter is about electronic systems. All the
systemshave three main parts as the diagram shows:
For example, an electric guitar has an input transducer (a pick-up),
a processor (the amplifier) and an output transducer (loudspeaker).
Here is a summarv of the transducersvou have met:
OUTPUT TRANSDUCERS

PROCESSORS
transistors page 320
amplifiers page 324
logic gates page 326

319
This is a devicefor amplifyingsmallelectric
[Link] is made of three layersof n, p, n
[Link] three layersare
calledthe collector, base and emitter.
actual size circuit symbol
The diagramshowsone kind of transistor,but (type BC 108) (npn type)

there aremany differentsizesand shapes.

Expenment38.17 CurrentampliJier
To investigatea transistor,setup the circuitshown: 6 V battery

Do you find that lamp L2 lightsbut lamp L1

does not?
Now unscrewlamp L1 so that there is a breakin
the circuitto the baseb.
Do you find that lamp L2 (in the collectorcircuit)
goesout? circuitdia9raml

Now replacelamp L1. DoesL2light again?

This showsthat:
a small current in the base circuit causes
a larger current to flow in the collector circuit.
In your circuit,a currentof about 1 mA in the base
circuithasswitchedon a currentof about 60 mA
in the collectorcircuit.
A transistoractsas a current amplifier.
A transistorisedradio containsseveraltransistors
to amplifu small currentsuntil they are big enough
to drive a loudspeaker.

Experiment38.12 Moisturedetector
Changeyour circuitso that insteadof lamp L1,
therearetwo [Link] probesaretwo
piecesof copper wire placedclosetogetherbut
not touching.
What happensto lamp L2 if you connectthe
probestogetherwith a conductor?Why is this?
What happensif you place a drop of watertouching
both probes? Why doesthe lamP light?
How could you placethe probesin a watertank
to light the lamp when the tank fills to a certain
depth? How could you usethis circuitto light
a warninglamp when it is rainingoutside?

324
 Experiment38.13 Help for a blind person
Changeyour circuitso that it includesa relayto
switchon abuzzer.
(Rememberto includea diode D to protectthe
transistor- see experiment38.10.)
Placethe probesso they are insidethe top of
a cup or beaker.
What happenswhen you fillthe beakerwith water?
Uses:
How couldthisbe usedto help a blind personknow
when to stop pouring from a tea-pot?
How couldit warn when a baby'snappyis wet?
Or switchon windscreen-wipers automaticallv?

Adding a thermistor
Experiment 38.14 A fire alarm (a heat operated switch)
Connecta thermistorand a variableresistorto a transistorswitch
as [Link] resistoruntil the lamp is just tumed off.
Whathappenswhen you heatup the thermistor?
(Seep. 317.)
The thermistorand the variableresistorare the two partsof a
voltagedivideror 'potentialdivider'(seepage258).
As the thermistorgetshotter and its resistancedecreases,its
'share'
of the 6 V decreasesand so the voltageacrossthe
[Link] increasesV6. (seethe diagram)
and switcheson the transistor.
If V6nis lessthan 0.6 V the transistorswitchis off.
If V6nrisesabove 0.6 V the transistorstartsto conduct.
If V6nis above 1.5 V the transistoris fully on.
Why is the variableresistorcalleda 'sensitivipcontrol'?
Uses:
Draw a diagramshowinghow you could add a relayso that a
bell would ring as a fire warning.
How could it be usedto warn if a chip pan was gettingtoo hot?

Experiment38.15 Afrost alarm

Invertthe temperaturesensorpart of your circuit,as shown:
Doesthe lamp light now when the thermistoris hot or when
it is cold?Why?
Uses:
How could this be usedas a frostalarmto warn a fruit farmer?
How could this be adapted(usinga relay)to keep a tropical
fishtank or a greenhouse
from becomingtoo cold?

32r
tr More uses of electronic circuits
Adding a light-dependent resistor

Experiment38.16 A light-sensorcircuit
Connectan LDR to a transistorswitchas shown:
Cover up the LDR so it is dark. Is the lamp off?
Shine light on the LDR. What happens?
Which variablecomponentcan you adjustto
make your circuitswitchon:
- even in a dim light?
- only in a bright light? Try it.
How could you usethis as a burglaralarm for a
drawer?(lt is usuallydark insidea drawer.)

Experiment38.17 An electroniccandle
Placethe LDR nearthelampand facingit, in a dark
room. Adjustit so the lamp is just off.
What happenswhen you bring a lightedmatchnear
'candle'light?
the lamp?Why doesthe
'candle'by
What happensif you snuff out the
coveringit with your fingers?Why?
This is an example [Link] from the
lamp to the LDR.

Experiment38.18 A burglaralarm(dark-operated)
Invertthe light-sensorpart of your circuitas shown:
Adjustthe sensitivitycontrol untilthe lamp is
'off
in daylight.
Now coverup the LDR. What happensto the lamp?
What happensto the resistanceof the LDR when it
is covered(seepage 377)?Doesthis increaseor
decreasethe voltageV6"?Why doesthe lamp light?
Uses:
How can this circuitbe usedto switchon car lamps
or street-lamps automaticallyat dusk?
Draw a diagramto show how you could add a relay
to ring a bell if a burglarinterruptsa beam of light.
What is the disadvantage of this circuit(see
experiment38.31)?
It is irnportantthat factorychimneysdo not pollute
the air with too much [Link] deviceto
warn a factorymanagerif the chimneyis producing
too muchsmoke.

322
Causing a delay
Experiment38.19 A delaYcircuit
Connecta resistorand a capacitor(seepage 245) in serieswith a
batteryasshown:
Add ahigh resistancevoltmeterand makesurethe capacitorand
voltmeterare connectedthe correctway round (correctpolsrtty).
Watchthe voltmeterand closethe [Link] happens?
The batteryis chargingup the capacitorthroughthe resistance.
Becauseit is a largecapacitanceand a largeresistanceit takesa
long time. The largerthe resistanceand the largerthe
capacitance, the longer the tiine constantof the circuit.

Expenment 38.20 A time-operatedswitchon

Connecta capacitorand resistorto a transistorswitchasshown:
Pressswitch51 and wait. What happens?
Why is there a delaybeforethe transistoris switchedon?
The transistordoesnot come on until V6" risesto 0.6 V.
Pressswitch52 to dischargethe capacitorand so re-setthe
[Link] can you vary the time delay?Try it.
Uses:
How could this circuitbe usedto make an egg-timerfor a deaf
person?Draw the circuityou would use if the personwas blind.

Experiment38.21 Atime-operatedswitchoff
How couldyou changeyour circuitso thatit doesthe opposite?
(So that 51 puts the lamp on and it goesoff aftera time delay.)

Use: How could you usethis circuitto switchoff your radio

.afteryou have gone to sleep?

Expenment38.22 A sound-operatedswitch
Connecta microphoneto a transistorswitchas shown:
This circuitalsocontainsa thyristor (siliconcontrolledrectifier).
This is a specialdiode with a third connection:the gate (g).
A thyristordoesnot conduct until a current enters the gate;
then it continuesconductingeueniJ the gate cutent sfops. crystal
microphone
Tappingthe microphonegivesa voltagefor a shorttime (see
page228). Why does the lamp light and stay lighted?
This is a 'latching'circuit(seealsopage330). To turn off the
lamp you mustdisconnectthe battery.
Uses:
How could this be usedto soundan alarmif a baby cries?
How could this be usedas a burglaralarm?

323
b Amplifiers
In experiment 38.11 we saw that a small current in
the base of a transistor causesa larger current to
flow in the collector circuit. lt is a current amplifier.
Amplifiers are needed in radios and CD-players
to amplify small signals until they are big enough
to drive a loudspeaker.

Experiment 38.23 ane-stage amplifis, (an intercom)

The diagram shows a simple one-stageamplifier:
The microphone gives a varying input voltage
across a-b (see also page 228). This is amplified
to give a larger output voltage acrossA-8.
It is a uolfoge amplifier.
If the output is 100 times the input voltage, the
circuit has a uolfoge gain of 100.
+

Use:
How could you use this as an intercom to
connect your bedroom with another room?
In practice, amplifiers usually have 2 or more
stagesto give greater amplification.
This is done by connecting the output A-B of the
first stage to the input a-b of the second stage.

Analogue or digital?
The last circuit is an example of an analogue
system: the voltage can vary smoothly and have
iny voltage between the lowest and the highest'
Another kind of system is digital. Digital systems
can only have certain definite values, usually
just on or off. A transistor switch (page 320) and
a logic gate (see page 326) are digital systems.
As they are either on or off, digital signals are
'noise' from other [Link]
less affected by
'cleaned up' to be perfect again.
signal can be
Computers use only digital signals.

Integrated circuits (IC) &8

actual
[Link] digitalsystemscan be built size
into an integrated circuit (lC): of
'chip'
actual size inside
Nowadays some ICs have more than a million of lC magnilied photo
components on one chip. This is microelectronics. of the circuit

324
 "l
{
1
'
tr Physics at work: Communications I
:

A com munication system consistsof:

@a method of transfening energy.

A radiouseselectromagneticwaves(page213).
A telephone(page287) usesa currentin a wire.
@ lnlormation (for example,someonetalkinginto
a microphone).

@ ,a way of en-codingthe informafion, combining

it with the energy to be [Link] is
transmitted to the receiver, where it is de-coded.
Radio
The diagram shows how a radio wave (called the
carrier wave) can have its amplitude changed or
modulated by a sound wave.
This is Amnlitude Modulation or AM:
Thiswave is transmitted from the radio station

A/ t
a tl
Rtransmitter

In your radio receiver,

a tuner selectsthe
carrier wave you want
(from the hundreds of
radio waves passing
through your room) l'*T
Then a diode rectifies
the signal (seepage
315), and a capacitor
smooths away the carrier wave.
Together they act as a de-modulator (or de-coder).
e @Ffu
lllil/l /illil
The signal is then amplified (pa1e 324) and passed
to the loudspeaker (page 289), so you can hear it.
An alternative way of encoding the signal is
FM,-FrequencyModulation, as shown here:
It gives better quality sound, with less interference
W carrler
radio wave
+r'v
souno
waveform
i l l i l t/ l l l l U l
l i l i l lt i l i l i l l
t]i/u
\]\/uut/
frequencY-
modulated

32s
 Experiment38.24 N\D circuit
Connectthe circuitshown in the diagram:
Pressdown the switchesone at a time and then
both together.
What do you have to do to get the lamp to light?
The lamp lights only if switchA AND switch B are
[Link] is calledan AND gate"
We can describethe way this circuitor'gate' switch switch
lamp
works in a diagram called a truth table: A B
open open off
Checkeach row of the truth table carefully.
This is calledthe logic of the circuit. closed open oft
open closed off
This kind of logic is usedin a washingmachine
'on' closed closed ON
where there is a main switchand another
switchoperatedby the door of the [Link] inputs outPut
safety,the washingmachinewill only work if the
main switchis on AND the door is closed.
AND
Truth tablesare usuallyshown with numbersrather switch switch lamp
than [Link] only two states A B
(open,closed)we useonly two numbers:0 and 1. 0 0 0
If the switchis open and so electricitycannotpass, { 0 0
it is given the value 0. 0 1 0
If the switchis closedso electricitycan go 1 1 1
through,it is called1. inputs output
In the sameway, a lamp which is off is 0, and a
lamp whichis on is L.

Expenment 38.25 OR circuit

Here is a circuit with a different logic:
The lamp comes on if switch A OR switch B is
[Link] is called an OR gate-
Check its truth table carefully:
The doors of cars have switches connected with OR
logic: the light inside the car comes on if either
the driver's door OR the passenger'sdoor is opened. OR
switch switch
The circuits on this page only use mechanical lamp
A B
switches. In practice, it is much more usefulto
0 0 0
have logic circuits that are made of transistor
switchqs, and use electrical signals for inputs 1 0 1
and outputs. These logic gates can be made very 0 1 1
small, inside integrated circuits. They are used 1 1 1
in digital watches, robots and computers. inputs output

326
AND gate
A tiny integratedcircuitcan easilycontainseveralAND gates,
A r-:-'--:r
built from transistorswitches(seepage320). . -fl. \ output
lnputs ff " :
Eachtransistorswitch operateson the uoltage applied to it. The B v\aa::''
voltagecan be 0 (calledlogical0) or it can be higher (called
ANDtruthtable
logical1). tnDutS
The circuitsymbol for an AND gatewith two inputsis shown here: AB output
(Rememberits shape:it looks like the D of AND.) 0 0 0
1 0 o
The truth table is the sameas the AND gate on the oppositepage. o 't 0
There is an output only if input A AND input B are at a logical1. 1 1 I
Remember:0is zero volts and 1 is a highervoltage(usually5 V).

OR gate
The circuitsymbolfor an OR gatewith two inputsis shown here:
Noticethe differentshapefrom an AND gate. ORtruthtable
The truth table is the sameas the OR gate on the oppositepage. tnDuts output
AB
There is an ouput if eitherinput A OR input B areat a higher 0 0 0
voltage. 1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1, 1

NOT gate
The third kind of logic gateis the NOT gate or inverter. NOTtruthtable
Its circuitsymbolis shown here:
Its truth table is very simple: the output is alwaysthe
oppositeof the input. It is an inuerter.
The output is 1 if the input is NOT 1.

Sometimesthesegatesare [Link] example, I nnir natoc

AND with NOT : NAND gate. Havejust two states:

OR with NOT : NOR gate. Just off or on,
Comparethesesymbolsand truth tableswith the AND With 0 or L
and OR [Link] do you notice?

NANDtruthtable NORtruthtable
inputs output output
A- B ^ino*""
'O o 1 0 0 1
'l
0 1 1 0 0
0 I 1 0 1 0
1 't
0 1 I 0
Thischip contains four ANDgates

327
M Using logic gates
A designer of washing machines wants to ensure
that ihe motor will not start untilthe on/off switch
1 = motor on
is on ond the door is safely closed: 0: motor off

From the truth table for a AND gate (page 327),

you can see that the output willbe a 1 (to switch
on the motor) only if bofh inputs are 1.

If we also want to keep the motor off until the

water level is correct, we add another AND gaie:
1:on
0=off

'Experiment
38.26 A seat-beltalarm
Connecttwo switchesto the logic A
circuitshown: 1 : engine on
Use LEDs to show the outputs at P 0:off
and Q. Try pressingthe switchesin B
differentcombinations.
'I = buzzer on
This is a kind of combinationlock. 0-off
It can be usedas a seat-beltalarm.
To turn on the engine, point P must be at logical L and this
can only be done by iurning on both switchesA and B.
However, if A (the driver's ignition key) is turned on before AB P o R
buzzer
inputs engrne
B (the seat-beltswitch) then the warning buzzer sounds. AANDB NOTA AAND O

To analyse this circuit we need to draw up a truth table to 00 0 1 0

cover allthe combinationsof A and B: 01 0 0 0
10 0 1 1=on
The third column shows the result at P (of A AND B), while 11 1=on 0 o
column Q shows the result at Q (of NOT B). You should work
through this table carefully, moving down each column in turn.

Experiment 38.27 Dark and cold alarm

Connect up this system:

A gardener wants an alarm to sound if it is

night-time AND it is freezing outside, so that
he can protect his crops. There is more than
one way to do this. Here is one way:
The switch C lets him turn off the alarm.
Draw up a truth table for all the combinations
Can you re-design this circuit using 2 NOf gates
of A and B (assumingC is on), to check that and an AND, instead of the OR and the NOT?
it works correctly.

328
To operate these logic gates, we need input circuits that give either
0 volts (logical 0) or give about 5 volts (logical 1). This is how we do it:

hot-1

Thesepotentialdividersgive a logicalO or 1, lf the sensorand resistorare interchanged,the logic is reversed

Experiment 38.28 Light-dependent switch

Connect up this system:
This uses the third circuit shown above.
If it is dark, the input to the NOT gate is 0, so
its output is 1, which turns on the transistor.
The relay then switches on the heater.
Page 319 explainsthe reason for the diode.
The variable resistor R changesthe sensitivity
of the circuit to the light.

Experiment 38.29 Wet NVD light sensor

Connect up this system:

If either input is 0, the output is 0 and the LED

is off. The LED will only light if the probes are
wet AND light is shining on the LDR.
1 = LEDon
0:LEDoff
Use: To warn you (with a bell) if it was raining
AND it was day-time - so you could bring in the
washing from the line or the baby from the pram
(but it wouldn't bother you if it rained at night!).

Experiment 38.30 Wet N\D cold sensor

Replacethe LDR with a thermistor, and add
a NOT gate:

The NOT gate inverts the logic, so that it gives

a logical I when the thermistor is cold. rll
_+J :
I
If the output of the AND gate is 1, it switches #
on the transistor and the relay circuit.
Use:'A safetycircuit for a washingmachine.
How can you change the circuit so that it rings
a bell if it is either wet OR cold?

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tr The bi-stable
Some circuitscan storeinformation- they have
a m€mory. Computersneed memory circuitsto
storedata.
The simplestmemory circuitusestwo NOR gates
which are cross-connected.
This is calleda bi-stableor a flip-flop, becauseit
has [Link] the diagrams:
S=1
(se0

Stablestate A Stablestate I

output - 1 F=1 output= 0

(Fe-set)
' lf theS inputis brieflyconnected
to logical1, lf the R input is briefly connected to logical 1,
it setsthebi-stableto stateA it re-sets the bi-stable to state B

The circuitflips betweenstateA and stateB.

You shouldcheckthe logic of eachNOR gate
(seethe truth table on page327).
In effectthe circuitremembersor 'latches'the last
thingthat happenedto it.
A computercontainsmillionsof thesebi-stablesin
its RAM (RandomAccessMemory).Eachbi-stable
can storeone 'bit' of information.

Experiment38.31 A burglaralarm with a latch

If a burglar triggersa sensor,the alarm bell A magnified'chip'- it contains65 000 bi-stables!
should continue to ring even after he has
moved past the [Link] this system:
The switchmight be a pressureswitchunder your
door mat. What happenswhen you pressthe
switchfor just a moment?
The alarmstayson becausethe bi-stablelatch
'remembers'
that the burglarwas there.
How can you re-setthe circuit?

Summary
A diode allowsa currentto flow one way only. This can be usedto rectifya.c. to d.c.
The resistanceof an LDR decreasesif it is [Link] resistanceof a thermistordecreases
when it is [Link] LDR, a thermistor,and a rced switch are input transducers.
A relay and a LED are output hansducers.
A trainsistoramplifiessmall currents.A transistorcan be used as an electronicswitch.
Thereare severalkindsof logic gates:AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR.

330
 Questions s"Draw transistorcircuitsfor the svstemsin
Copy out and complete: question4.
a) Germaniumand siliconare called 'systems'diagrams:
{}. Draw block
A diode will passa currentonly when it a) to switchon a waterpump if a houseplant
is....-biassed. is too dry,
b) A diode is usefulas a half-wave. . . . to b) to switch on a heaterif a fish tank gets
convert. . . . currentto. . . . current. too cold,
The output can be smoothedby a . . . . . c) for an anti-burglardeviceto switchon the
c) A LED (. . . .) is a transducer;it changes houselightsat night when you are away
. . . . energyto. . . . energy. on holiday.
d) When an LDR (. . . .)is illuminated,its
resistance When a thermistoris ? . Draw transistorcircuitsfor question6.
heated,its resistance. . . . . & . Draw block'systems'diagrams:
e) A . . . . (NO)reed switchdoesnot passa a) to switch on a water pump if a ditch fills
currentuntil a . . . . is broughtnear it. with water,
f) A . . . . currentin the coil of a relay can b) to switchon a roadworkslight at night,
switch on or off a . . . . current through c) to switchon a fan in a storageheaterif it
the contacts. heatsup,
g) A transistoris usedto . . . . smallcurrents. d) to ring a bell if a baby cries,
A smallcurrentin the . . . . circuitcauses e) for a fire alarmto detectsmoke
a . . . . currenttoflowin the . . . . circuit. ('smokeis more dangerousthan fire'),
Draw the symboland truth tablefor a)AND f) to switch on a pump to fill a water tank if
b) OR c) NOT d)NAND e)NOR gates. the levelistoo low,
g) to ring a bell when an oven is up to the
The diagramshowsa diode circuitusedto correcttemperature,
switchin a batteryautomaticallyif the main h) for an oven timer.
power supply fails.
AD +6V
s. Draw a truth table for this svstem:
power suppty
A
B

'systems'diagrams:
$*" Draw block
a) to soundan alarm only if the baby cries
OV ond its nappy is wet,
fg
b) to open a greenhousewindow if it is
a) Roundwhich route doesthe currentflow warm in the day-time,
when the power is on? Why? c) to tell you if it is a good day for garden-
'trickle
b) Which route is usedto charge'the ing becauseit is warm, dry and light,
battery? d) to sound an alarm if the tropical fish tank
c) Which route when the power fails?Why? is dark or cold or the water is low,
'systems' e) to allow a drillingmachineto run only if
Draw block diagrams:
the operatorpressesa foot switchand has
a) to light a lamp if it rains,
not got her handsbreakinga beam of
b) to ring a bell if it rains,
light which is shiningnearthe drill,
c). to switchon a fan motor if a greenhouse
getstoo hot, 0 to show a deafpersonif the doorbellhas
rungsincelastthey looked.(Adda re-set.)
d) to soundan alarm if a thief opensa
light-tightdrawer. Further questions on page 336.

331