P

REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

NORTHERN NEGROS STATE COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY
OLD SAGAY, SAGAY CITY, NEGROS OCCIDENTAL
(034)722-4169/[Link]

COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE AND
ALLIED SCIENCES
COURSE MODULE IN
INTRODUCTION TO
LIVESTOCK AND
POULTRY
PRODUCTION
1st Semester; A.Y. 2021 – 2022

2
COURSE FACILITATOR: MAE ANN S. TONGOL
FB/MESSENGER: Mae Ann S. Tongol
Email: mastongol@[Link]
Phone No: 0925-8472614

MODULE
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 VISION

SUN-NEGROS: A glocally recognized university offering distinctively – niched

academic programs engaged in dynamic quality instruction, research and extension

by 2025.

MISSION

To produce glocally viable graduates through innovative learning and research

environment and to contribute to nation – building by providing education, training,

research and resource creation opportunities in various technical and disciplinal

areas.

INSTITUTIONAL OUTCOMES

1. Demonstrate logical thinking, critical judgment and independent decision-

making on any confronting situations

2. Demonstrate necessary knowledge, skills and desirable attitudes expected of

one’s educational level and field of discipline

3. Exhibit necessary knowledge, skills and desirable attitudes in research

4. Exhibit proactive and collaborative attributes in diverse fields

5. Manifest abilities and willingness to work well with others either in the practice

of one’s profession or community involvement without compromising legal and

ethical responsibilities and accountabilities.

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CHED BS Agriculture Program Outcomes:
The program shall produce a graduate who can:
 Articulate and discuss the latest developments in the specific field of practice
(PQF level 6 descriptor);
 Effectively communicate orally and in writing using both English and Filipino;
 Work effectively and independently in multi-disciplinary and multi-cultural
teams (PQF level 6 descriptor);
 Act in recognition of professional, social, and ethical responsibilities;
 Preserve and promote “Filipino historical and cultural heritage” (based on RA
722);
 Generate and share knowledge relevant to specific fields in the study of
agriculture;
 Participate in the formulation and implementation of agricultural developments
plans and programs;
 Apply scientific method in the conduct of research activities;
 Understand and apply the concepts of agricultural productivity and
sustainability in the context of national, regional, and global developments;
 Engage in agricultural production and post-production activities;
 Promote sound agricultural technologies to various clients and in the
manpower development for agriculture
 Employ relevant tools in information technology in solving agriculture-related
problems;

NONESCOST BSA Program Outcomes:

The program shall produce a graduate who can be:

1. self-reliant and technically competent agriculturist

2. Entrepreneurs in the field of specialization

3. Engage in scientific researches

4. Active participants in extension services and projects in the community

Warm greetings!

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 Welcome to the 1ST Semester of School Year 2021-2022! Welcome to the
College of Arts and Sciences and welcome to NONESCOST!

Despite of all the happenings around us, there is still so much to be thankful
for and one of these is the opportunity to continue learning.

You are right now browsing your course module in AAS 102, Introduction to
Livestock and Poultry Production. As you read on, you will have an overview
of the course, the content, requirements and other related information
regarding the course. The module is made up of 2 lessons.

INTRODUCTION- Overview of the lesson

LEARNING OUTCOMES- Lesson objectives for you to ponder on

MOTIVATION- Fuels you to go on

PRESENTATION- A smooth transition to the lesson

TEACHING POINTS- Collection of ideas that you must discover

LEARNING ACTIVITIES – To measure your learning’s in the lesson where you wandered

ASSESSMENT – To test your understanding in the lesson you discovered

Please read your modules and learn the concepts by heart. It would help you
prepare to be effective and efficient professional in your respective fields. You

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 can explore more of the concepts by reading the references and the
supplementary readings.

I encourage you to get in touch with me in case you may encounter problems
while studying your modules. Keep a constant and open communication. Use
your real names in your FB accounts or messenger so I can recognize you
based on the list of officially enrolled students in the course. I would be very
glad to assist you in your journey. Furthermore, I would also suggest that you
build a workgroup among your classmates. Participate actively in our
discussion board or online discussion if possible and submit your
outputs/requirements on time. You may submit them online through email and
messenger. You can also submit hard copies. Place them in short size bond
paper inside a short plastic envelop with your names and submit them in
designated pick-up areas.

I hope that you will find this course interesting and fun. I hope to know more of
your experiences, insights, challenges and difficulties in learning as we go
along this course. I am very positive that we will successfully meet the
objectives of the course.

May you continue to find inspiration to become a great professional. Keep

safe and God bless!

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 Course Outline AAS 102- INTRODUCTION TO LIVESTOCK AND
POULTRY PRODUCTION

Course
AAS 102
Number
Course Title INTROCUCTION TO LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY PRODUCTION
Course Management of farm animals for efficient production of meat,
Description milk, eggs and other animal products
No. of Units 3 units
Pre-
AAS 101
requisites
1. Discuss the fundamental principles, and facts in livestock and
Course poultry production.
Intended 2. Perform basic skills in managing livestock and poultry farm.
Learning 3. Apply principles and modern techniques in managing livestock and
Outcomes poultry in order to produce meat, milk and other products more
efficiently despite of the challenges related to climate change.
Content MODULE 1
Coverage LESSON 1
BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION
A. Overview of the Beef Cattle Industry
1. Inventory
2. Supply and Demand
3. Competitive Advantages of Beef Production
4. Constraints in the Cattle Sector
5. Interventions
B. Beef Production Systems in the Philippines
1. Ranching or Extensive System
2. Feedlot Fattening Operation
3. Backyard cattle Raising or Semi-subsistence or Small holder

LESSON 2
BEEF CATTLE BREEDS, BREEDING AND REPRODUCTION
A. Breeds of Cattle
B. Beef Breeding
C. Breeding Systems
D. Reproduction
E. Some Indicators of Good Breeding and Reproductive
Management
F. Nutrition
1. Nutrients and Their Functions
2. Common Feeds for Ruminants
G. Herd Management
1. Herd Division
2. Management of Breeding Females
3. Management of Calves, Growers, and Fatteners
4. Management of Breeding Bulls
H. General Management Practices
1. Cattle Identification

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 2. Dehorning
3. Castration
4. Record-keeping
5. Selection and Culling

MODULE 2
LESSON 1
DAIRY PRODUCTION
A. Overview of Dairy Production
1. Milk and Milk Products
2. The Philippine Dairy Situation
3. Government Effort to Develop the Philippine Dairy Industry
4. Breeds of Dairy cattle
5. Water Buffaloes
B. Dairy Cattle Production
1. Physiology of Reproduction
2. Bull’s Reproductive Physiology
3. Cow’s Reproductive Physiology
C. Dairy Cattle Management
1. Breeding Management
2. Feeding Management
3. Herd Health
Milk Production

LESSON 2
PASTURE MANAGEMENT
A. The Need for Improved Pasture
B. Establishing Pastures
1. Sowing Time
2. Management of Improved Pastures
3. Efficient Pasture Use
C. Forage Preservation for a Year-Round Feed Supply
1. Strategy of Preservation
2. Types of Silo
3. Dairy Cattle Production Terms

MODULE 3
LESSON 1
POULTRY PRODUCTION
A. Overview of the Poultry Industry
B. Species of Poultry
C. Specialized fields in Poultry
1. Breeding Farm
2. Egg Farm
3. Broiler farm
4. Support Services
D. Production and Management
1. Brooding Requirement
2. Growing Management

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 3. Layer Flock Management
E. Broiler Production
1. Factors to consider in Broiler Raising
2. Systems of Broiler Operation
3. Enhancing gender participation in commercial poultry production

LESSON 2
SWINE PRODUCTION
A. Overview of Swine Industry
B. Breeds of Swine
C. Management of Boar
D. Care and Management of Sows and Gilts
E. Care and management of Piglets from birth to Weaning
F. Care and Management of Growing-finishing Pigs

SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS:
1. Bestil, LC. [Link] Production. Visayas
State University. Leyte, Philippines
2. PSA, 2019. Number of livestock animals slaughtered in
slaughterhouses by animal type, region and province, quarterly
data (1982-2017) – heads

[Link]
527c70a0-6c57-4dee-99e5-85bf9f6f97c5
USDA, 2019. Livestock Production Practices
[Link]
op-livestock-practices/[Link]

TEXTBOOK:
T1 - D. Gillespie JR and Flanders FB. 2010. Modern Livestock
References and Poultry Production. Delmar CengageLearning . USA
T2 - Colin S. [Link] of Animal Science. Delmar
CengageLearning . USA
T3 - John Webster. 2011. Management and Welfare of Farm
Animals. Wiley-Blackwell. UK
T4 - Chiba, S. et al.,. 2005. A Guide for silage making and
utilization in the tropical regions. Japan Livestock Association
Technology Association. Japan
T5 - McDonald P, et al. [Link] Nutrition.7th
[Link] Hall.
T6 - [Link] Farming
[Link]

Online References:
OR 1: [Link]
OR 2: [Link]

Course 1. Broiler Production Narrative Report

Requirement 2. Laboratory performance and outputs

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 3. Individual Presentation
4. Reflection paper
5. Class attendance
s
6. Term examination
7. Quizzes

Prepared by: TRICIA KAYE Z. ESPIRITU Lic. Agr.

AILYN C. COGONON, MSA
Reviewed and Approved by:

Subject Area Coordinator : MAE ANN S. TONGOL, Ph. D.

Dean, CAAS : MAE ANN S. TONGOL, Ph. D.

GAD Director : JACKILEE A ANACLETO, [Link]

CIMD, Chairperson : MA. JANET S. GEROSO, Ph.D.

QA Director : DONNA FE V. TOLEDO, Ed. D.

VP- Academic Affairs : SAMSON M. LAUSA, Ph. D

MODULE
2
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LESSO
N

1 DAIRY PRODUCTION
15
HOURS

.
World milk production is almost entirely derived from cattle, buffaloes,

and goats. In developing countries, milk producing animals are often raised in

subsistence and smallholder systems.

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Describe the characteristics of the dairy enterprise.
2. Describe the breeds of dairy cattle, giving their origin and breed
characteristics.
3. Select desirable breeding and production animals.
4. Assess the body condition of dairy animals
5. Select appropriate feeds for dairy animals.
6. Select rations for dairy cows for maximum production.
7. Select rations for replacement animals for fast, economic growth.
8. Select an appropriate feeding method.

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 Activity 1. Pre-test
Instructions: Among the 3 pictures, identify which are not dairy cattle. On the
space provided write and name what breed of cattle is in the picture.

______________________ ____________________ ___________________

In this lesson you will learn the nutritional importance of milk, the

situation of the dairy production in the Philippines, breeds of cattle and water

buffaloes production, and its management.

 Overview of Dairy Production

 Dairy Cattle Production

 Dairy Cattle Management

I. OVERVIEW OF DAIRY PRODUCTION

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 1. Milk and Milk Products Milk

 Nature’s most perfect food

 With its assortment of protein, fat, lactose (milk sugar), minerals, vitamins,

enzymes, and water

 Nutritional Importance of Milk

 Contains all the essential amino acids needed by humans.

 The protein of milk is composed of casein, lactalbumin, globulin, and

serum albumin.

 Components of Milk

• Casein is the most abundant protein consistent of milk. It has many uses in

addition to providing protein in the diet.

• Lactalbumin is part of the enzyme system that synthesizes lactose in the

mammary gland. It is part of the enzymes into milk as a by-product and

becomes part of milk protein.

• Protein globulins of milk are structural parts of antibodies.

 Colostrum

• The first milk a female produces after the young is born. • It contains many

antibodies that give the newborn protection from harmful microorganisms

that invade the body and causes illness.

 Milk

• Other constituents of milk include lactose, minerals such as Ca and P (both

of which are important in bone growth and other body functions), and

vitamins. • Milk is, however, low in Fe, therefore young animals consuming

nothing but milk may develop anemia. • Milk contains several important

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 vitamins such as a vitamin A, which help keep the intestinal tract and skin

in proper repair, the vitamin B complex, and vitamins D and E. Vitamin D is

added to most marketed milk. • Milk is low in vitamin C, which prevents

scurvy (a disease characterized by bleeding, spongy gums and loose teeth

2. THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY SITUATION

The Philippines produces less than one percent of its total annual dairy

requirement and imports the balance. Local milk production is projected to

reach 26,000 MT in 2020 and will likely hit 26,500 MT in 2021 due to growing

local dairying capabilities and the implementation of new dairy development

projects. Around 65 percent of total milk produced is cow’s milk, while the rest

is carabao milk (31 percent) and goat milk (4 percent).

Data from the NDA shows that local milk production (from cattle,

carabao and goats) was 25 million metric tons (MMT) in 2019, about 17,000

MT of which was cow’s milk. The value of dairy production in 2019 amounted

to P966 million ($19.7 million). According to the NDA, the average farmgate

price of milk increased to P44.24/liter ($0.90) in 2020 from P42.06/liter ($0.86)

in 2019. By contrast the corresponding farm gate price of milk in the U.S. is

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 about $0.41/liter ($18.80 per cwt /1 cwt = 23.359 kg) as of August 2020.

In 2020, the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) estimated the

country’s beginning inventory of dairy cattle (female dairy animals only) at

11,645, while there are 9,328 head of carabao and 8,851 of goats. Dairy cattle

numbers increased slightly due to the importation of new dairy breeds and an

increase in live births.

3. GOVERNMENT EFFORT TO DEVELOP THE PHILIPPINE DAIRY

INDUSTRY

With current dairy production trends rapidly growing in the Philippines

dairy market, the future can only see more growth. The National Dairy Authority

aims to accelerate dairy herd build-up and milk production. With the help of

local governments, strong farm relationship and quality

assuance, the future of Filipino dairy production is bright.

The Philippines dairy industry is expanding .Increases in dairy imports

and a shift to promote more local dairy production are ramping up to meet

demand. The local Filipino government has become a partner for milk farms,

providing land, loans and sponsorship centered on dairy. Relationships between

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 big and small farms also play a key role in dairy production.

4. BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE

 Holstein

• Dominate the industry

• +90% of the dairy cattle in the US

• Officially known as Holstein-Fresians

• From Netherlands and Northern Germany

• Typically black and white in colour

• Total milk solids % are lower

 Solids refer to milk fat solids found in milk.

 These are used to determine quality and use of the milk

produced by that breed of cattle

 Jersey

• 2nd in popularity

• Developed on the island of Jersey, off the coast of France

• Coat color ranges from light tan to almost black

• Ability to efficiently convert feed to milk

• Lower body maintenance needs

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 • Amount of milk produced per cow is lower

• Total solids %- highest of all breeds

 Brown Swiss

• 3 rd most popular • Originated Switzerland

• Normally brown to gray

• Similar to Holsteins in size

• Known for ability to produce milk in hot climates

• 2nd in milk production • Total solids % in middle of all breeds

5. WATER BUFFALOES

 Types and Breeds of Water Buffalo

 Swamp type – Bubalus bubalis, 2n = 48

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 • Breeds :Philippine carabao ,Cambodian and Chinese buffaloes

 Light gray to gray, white bands below the jaw and across the chest

and legs

 Sickle-shaped horns

 1.5 -2 kg of milk/day

 River type – Bubalus bubalis, 2n = 50

• Breeds: Indian Murrah, Bulgarian Murrah and Brazilian Murrah

 Black or dark gray in color

 • With tightly curled or drooping straight horn

 • Dairy type buffalo can produce 8-10 liters of milk daily

• To produce 8-10 kg milk/day for 300day lactation (2,400-3,000 L/lactation)

II. DAIRY PRODUCTION

1. PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION

 Milk production is a secondary sex characteristic.

 Genetic improvement is dependent on adequate supply of high-

genetic potential heifers to replace culled cows.

 Profitable milk production and improvement of dairy cattle are

dependent on high degree of reproductive efficiency

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  Dairymen agree that a 12-month calving interval is ideal to

maximize production and profit.

 Failure to maintain this high degree of reproductive efficiency is a

major economic loss

 Decreased milk production

 Decreased feed efficiency

 Decreased number of calves

 Increased costs

A normal cow becomes pregnant on the first or second service and produces a

live and healthy calf every 12-13 months.

Sterility

• Complete absence of reproductive ability

• Animals can’t reproduce

• Should be culled from the herd

Infertility

• Lowered fertility

• Animals that are not sterile, but not normally fertile

Sterility and Fertility

•Not a single problem but a very complex one

• May be a result of one or more factors

 Management

 Genetic

 Physiological

 Disease

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 Reproductive Physiology

• Successful reproduction involves a series of physiological functions

by both male and female

• The male functions are

• To produce large number of sperms

• To ejaculate the sperm into the vagina of the cow

• The function of the female in successful reproduction is more complex than the male

• Because her role continues after fertilization

• The female functions are

• To produce viable ova

• To deliver the ova to the site of fertilization

• To provide optimum environment for fertilization, embryo-development, implantation,

and development of the fetus to term

• To deliver a live, healthy calf at the end of gestation

2. BULL’S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

 Spermatozoa
• Produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testis
• Stored in the epididymis
• At the time of ejaculation, pass through the vas deferens, ampulla,
urethra, and penis

During

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 ejaculation, fluids are added to the spermatozoa

• Coming from the accessory organs

 Ampulla

 Seminal vesicles

 Prostate

 Cowper’s gland

• This fluid serves as

 Medium for sperm transport

 Sperm activation (sperm are relatively immotile until ejaculation)

 Supply of nutrients

Sperm

• Volume of semen per ejaculate varies from 2-15ml (5-6 ml average)

• Sperm concentration ranges from 1-3 B sperms per ml (2 B/ml

average)

• Percent motile cells ranges from 0-85% (75% average)

• Based on the figures

• Average ejaculate contains about 7 B motile cells (5ml x 2B/ml x 70%)

• In natural service, a bull may service 50 – 100 cows per year

• In artificial insemination, a bull can service 10,000 to 20,000 cows per

year.

Artificial Insemination

• Semen is normally collected by the use of an artificial vagina

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 • Semen of inferior quality are discarded

• Semen is diluted with an egg yolk-citrate or milkbased extender (if to be

frozen, with glycerol)

• Dilution rates are calculated to yield a final motile spermatozoa per

Insemination of 10-12 million.

• Semen are packaged in ampoules or straws, frozen, and stored

• Semen are usually frozen in liquid nitrogen at -184 to -196 C

• Can remain viable for 10-15 years

3. COW’S REPRODUCTIVE PHYSIOLOGY

Ova

• Produced in ovarian follicle

• Released from the follicle through ovulation

‘• Picked up by the infundibulum of the oviduct

• Move and fertilized in the oviduct

• 4-6 days after fertilization, will move in the uterine horn

• 30-33 days after fertilization, will be implanted in the uterus to develop into a

full term calf

• Calf is discharged through the cervix, vagina and vulva

• Ova production and release begins at puberty (6-10 months of age) and

continues on a 21-day cyclic basis until pregnancy

• Normally re-established within 40-50 days after calving and continues until

pregnancy occurs again.

III. DAIRY CATTLE MANAGEMENT

1. BREEDING MANAGEMENT

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 • The time of optimum fertility of the ova is very short (2-4 hours)

• Ovulation time varies from 5 – 16 hours after the end of standing heat

(10-11 hours average)

• Fertile life of sperm is limited to 28 hours in the female reproductive tract

• Timing of breeding is critical for optimum fertilization rates

• Optimum conception rates have been reported during the last half hour

of standing heat period

• Based on the facts, the following recommendations have been

followed

• If standing heat is first observed in the morning, breed in the

afternoon or evening.

• If standing heat is first observed in the afternoon or evening,

breed the next morning.

• These recommendations are based on

• Average heat period of 18 hours

• Average ovulation time of 10 to 11 hours after the end of heat

• First observed standing heat was near the beginning of the

standing heat period

2. FEEDING MANAGEMENT

• Objective is to provide a ration that will encourage optimum

economical milk production of acceptable composition while
conducive to the health of the cows
• Initial step is to determine the most economical sources of
nutrients
• To produce adequate supply of high quality forages at minimum
cost per unit of nutrient
Forages

• May be defined as vegetable feed for domestic animals

• Relatively useless as nutrient source for humans and monogastrics

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 • Since the entire plant is consumed, the cost per unit of nutrient from forages

is usually much lower than the cost of unit nutrient from concentrate feeds

 Pasture

 Soilage

 Silage

 Hay

• Primary constituent of dairy rations for physiological and economic reasons

• They can make up to 60-70% of total dry matter intake of dairy cattle

• Dairy cattle must consume adequate amounts of fiber (min 15% of DM) to

ensure adequate rumen function

• Low consumption of fiber may result to decrease in milk fat percentage and

decrease ration digestibility

• Primary constituent of dairy rations for physiological and economic reasons

• They can make up to 60-70% of total dry matter intake of dairy cattle

• Dairy cattle must consume adequate amounts of fiber (min 15% of DM) to

ensure adequate rumen function

• Low consumption of fiber may result to decrease in milk fat percentage and

decrease ration digestibility

• Second step involves supplementing the available forage with a combination of

concentrate feeds that will provide the cow with a balanced ration at the lowest

total feed cost per unit of milk produced

• The ration should

1. Contain ad libitum amount of fresh, clean water

2. Contain a total ration crude fiber level on DM bais of 15-24%

 15-19% for early lactation or high producing cows

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 3. Contain a total ration crude protein on a DM basis of 12-16% for early lactation

cows and 12-14% for late lactation

4. Be within the DM intake capacity of the cow.

Varies widely with individual cows but generally ranges from 1.5-3.6% of BW

depending on milk production leve19-25% for late lactation or low producing cows

Ration Formulation

1. Estimate the daily nutrient needs or requirements

 Dairy cattle requires nutrients for maintenance, growth, reproduction,

and for production

 Nutrient requirements for growth are for laying down new muscles

and bones

 Pregnant animals need additional requirements for reproduction or

growth of fetus

 Lactating cows requires additional nutrients for milk production

2. Determine the nutrient content of the available forage

3. Determine the forage intake

4. Calculate the nutrient intake from forage

5. Calculate the nutrient needs from concentrates

6. Balance the ration for energy with concentrates

7. Balance for protein, calcium, phosphorus and other micronutrients

3. HERD HEALTH

• Milk secretion is a process which can be carried out by the female with

maximum efficiency only if she is healthy

• Dairy cattle are susceptible to a wide variety of diseases

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  Foot-and-Mouth disease

 Tuberculosis

 Brucellosis

 Mastitis – most troublesome condition, the inflammation of the udder

destroys tissues and impedes milk production

• Objective is to minimize culling and mortality while maintaining a healthy herd

• Herd health programs are centered on the prevention of diseases rather than

treatment

• Basic principles for an effective herd health program includes:

1. Prevention of disease problems

o More effective and profitable than treatment

 Can be achieved by

• Preventing exposure to disease-producing organisms

• cleanliness and good sanitation

• isolation of incoming animals

o Maintain high level of resistance

 Vaccination

 Good nutrition

 Comfortable environment

2. Reducing the spread of diseases

 Isolation of animals that contract or suspected of contracting

contagious disease

 Accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment

 Keen observation to detect minor abnormalities before they become

serious problems

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 3. Maintain accurate health record system

 Aids in diagnosis of problems

 Alert potential problems

4. MILK PRODUCTION

• After parturition, the level of milk production rises rapidly

• Peak of lactation is reached in 2 – 6 weeks

• Then slowly declines until drying off

• Milk yield is closely dependent upon lactation length

• In an ideal cow whose calving annually and provided with

necessary annual vacation should milk for 300 days

• Depending on the number of cows, farmers milk their cows either

by hand or by machine

Length of actual milking

• It will take an average of 1 ½ to 2 hours to milk 10 cows by hand depending

on the skill of the milker

• Using a herringbone system of machine milking, a dairy man can milk 40

cows in an hour

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Task I:

Prepare online presentation that show price and production trends for milk in the

Philippines.

Task II

Conduct a survey of dairy production in the community to determine what dairy

breeds are used locally.

arch

Directions: Discuss the following items. Each item is 10 points. Write your answer
on the space provided.

1. What kinds of products are made from milk?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2. How much of the milk produced in the Philippines is used for each general class of

product?

___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
3. Describe trends in the consumption of dairy products here in the Philippines.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
4. Search different methods are being used to try to increase the demand for dairy

products?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
[Link] is government involved with the dairy industry?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
6. Does the dairy farming industry in the the Philippines is progressing?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

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___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
[Link] is the importance of dairy industry in the Philippines?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________

RUBRICS FOR ESSAY TYPE TEST

Point Description
9-10 Well written and very organized. Excellent grammar mechanics.
Clear and concise statements. Excellent effort and presentation
with detail. Demonstrates a thorough understanding of the topic.
7-8 Writes fairly clear. Good grammar mechanics. Good presentation
and organization. Sufficient effort and detail.
5-6 Minimal effort. Good grammar mechanics. Fair presentation. Few
supporting details.
3-4 Somewhat unclear. Shows little effort. Poor grammar mechanics.
Confusing and choppy, incomplete sentences. No organization of
thoughts.
1-2 Lacking effort. Very poor grammar mechanics. Very unclear.
Does not address topic. Limited attempt

MODULE 2

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 LESSO
N

2 BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION

15
HOURS

Improved pasture may consist of an introduced grass, an introduced legume or a

mixture of both, sown on cleared land in a well-prepared seedbed. Its success
hinges on the availability of adequate soil moisture, soil fertility, care at planting, a
proper sowing rate and good quality seed. It can be difficult and costly to establish
and maintain an improved pasture.
Why then, do we plant improved pastures? What benefit do they provide?

At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:

1. Discuss management practices in establishing pasture;
2. Determine proper time of sowing;
3. Identify the types of silo;
4. Discuss the process of silage and hay making.

[Link] Analysis
Direction: Identify which forage is GRASS or LEGUME. Write your answer in the
space provided. (2 points each)

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1. 2. 3.
_______________ __________________ ________________

4. 5.
___________________ ___________________

This lesson will give an idea about pasture management. You can also read
here the process of forage preservation, silage making as well as the proper use
of forage.

I WOULD HIGHLY ADVICE YOU THAT YOU WILL STUDY THE TEACHING
INPUTS AND ANSWER THE LEARNING ACTIVITIES FIRST BEFORE
ANSWERING THE ASSESSMENT PART. I AM ENCOURAGING YOU TO
ANSWER THE ASSESSMENT PORTION OF THIS LESSON WITH CLOSED
NOTES AND NOT ASKING YOUR CLASSMATES, SO THAT WE CAN ASSESS
FAIRLY YOUR LEARNING AND YOU CAN OBTAIN THE QUALITY OF
LEARNING YOU DESIRED DESPITE THIS NEW NORMAL TEACHING METHOD.
PLEASE STUDY TO LEARN, NOT JUST PASSING THE TESTS, BECAUSE THIS
IS WHAT EDUCATION IS ALL ABOUT. WHAT IS THE USE OF HAVING HIGH
GRADES IF IT DOES NOT DIRECTLY REFLECT THE AMOUNT OF LEARNING
YOU WILL OBTAIN, HOWEVER, ALL OF THIS WILL BE UP TO YOU. IF YOU
CHEAT ON THIS METHOD, THEN THERE WILL BE A CHANCE THAT YOU WILL
GET A HARD TIME IN YOUR PROFESSIONAL LIFE SOMEDAY AND PASSING
YOUR LICENSURE EXAM. GODBLESS AND ENJOY LEARNING.

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 THE NEED FOR IMPROVED PASTURE

The need to replace native pastures with improved species stems from the
pressure to increase animal productivity when the margin between returns and
operating costs is narrowing on properties.

Attempts to increase herd productivity will increase grazing pressure on native

species through:
 the use of urea and mineral supplements which stimulate appetite and
increase feed intake;
 the use of adapted tropical cattle breeds, with greater foraging ability;
 the adoption of intensified herd management practices.

 Native pasture species are not capable of withstanding increased grazing

pressure because of their:
 low dry matter production;
 short growing period;
 low nutritive quality, particularly during the dry season;
 low to medium palatability;
 inability to stand frequent or intense defoliation.
 Improved pastures on the other hand can provide:
 pasture stability under higher stocking rates;
 a full sward of palatable species;
 greater dry matter production to accommodate stock on small areas;
 better nutritive quality, especially during the dry season;
 species adapted to intense and frequent defoliation.

Furthermore, with a range of introduced species to select from, pastures can be

established for special purposes such as:
 standover feed for special classes of stock;
 conservation as hay or silage;
 reclamation of degraded areas;
 protection of holding paddocks and laneways that are subjected to heavy
grazing;
 ley legumes in rotation to fix nitrogen;
 seed production;
 grass ley in rotation to control broadleaf weeds.

Direct Benefits From Improved Pastures

The direct benefits from improved pastures are:
 increased carrying capacity on established improved pasture of 14 to 40
times compared with that on native pasture, that is 14 to 40 or more
animals/ha on improved pasture compared with one animal/ha on native
pasture;
 growth rates of 90 to 160 kg/year (0.25 - 0.44 kg/day) compared with 40 to
80 (0.1 - 0.24 kg/day) on native pasture;
 breeder pregnancy rates of 85% compared with 55%;
 branding rates of 80% compared with 40 to 50%;

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  death rates in each class of stock of only 2% compared with 5% to 15% or
higher;
 weaner weights up to 180 kg at five to six months compared with 120 kg
on native pasture.

Indirect Benefits From Improved Pasture

Indirect benefits which arise from improved pasture development include:
 quieter stock leading to better marketability because of less bruising and
higher quality meat;
 better control of stock, making mustering easier and quicker with less
damage to equipment such as fences, yards and vehicles, thereby
reducing operating costs;
 easier adoption of herd husbandry practices;
 greater value of cull stock because they are better fed and heavier;
 more animals reaching market because of fewer deaths;
 a higher turnover of stock as steers can be marketed 1½ - 2 years earlier
and heifers mated a year earlier, allowing faster up-grading of herd
quality;
 a more even cash flow over the year because of the greater marketing
options;
 a substantial increase in the value of the property;
 an opportunity to fence, water and maintain smaller areas to carry the
same number of stock.

Disadvantages Of Improved Pastures

 Initial development costs are high at $200 to $500/ha, depending on the
amount of clearing and land preparation needed.
 Large amounts of capital can be tied up in such items as machinery and
plant unless contractors are used.
 The improved area will be out of production for at least the first wet
season and most of the first dry season to allow pasture to establish.
 Land clearing, classed as a capital improvement, is not tax deductible.
 There may be a need for extra fencing and watering to subdivide the
improved pasture into manageable areas.
 Annual or regular maintenance costs will be incurred for fertilizers and
weed control.
 Soil erosion is a risk during the establishment phase.
 Ecological disruption, which may have long term detrimental effects, must
be minimized.
 Woody shrubs and regrowth may have to be controlled.
 There may be selective grazing by stock on areas sown with some
species, with resultant pasture damage.
 Variations in soil type will affect the establishment and persistence of
sown pastures; grazing management will have to be adapted to cope with
these variations.
 Improved pasture needs improved management. More intense planning,
budgeting and organizing are needed to successfully adopt and utilize an
improved pasture grazing system.
 There have been no reports of increased disease incidence or mortality of
stock on improved pasture except on Kazungula setaria which contains

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 oxalates and has caused illness in horses, particularly when heavily-
dressed with nitrogen.

The Decision
The decision to embark on pasture improvement therefore needs to be carefully
considered in terms of:
 the long term aims of the property;
 the ecological and erosion problems that may occur;
 the net economic benefits in the longer term;
 the costs of establishment and maintenance, to ensure that they are
within the scope of the property resources.

It is important to have a detailed property plan well in advance of planting so that

the development program can proceed within the limits of your cash flow.

The Process
 Do not attempt to sow improved pasture in an area that is too large for the
available resources during the wet season.
 Make sure that the sown area has every chance to establish; do not try to
cut corners to save costs.
 Do small areas and do them properly.

Warning
Pasture plants have the potential to become weeds in certain situations. To
prevent that, ensure that pasture seeds and/or vegetative materials are not
inadvertently transferred to adjacent properties or road sides.

BASICS OF PASTURE MANAGEMENT

Pasture management must emphasize utilization of all feed grown.

Productivity of livestock as individuals and productivity on a per unit area basis
both originate from the combined effects of (i) efficient capture of solar energy
(sunlight), (ii)efficiency in forage harvested by the animal(s), and (iii) efficiency in
conversion of the forage into animal growth or production. The first two of these will
be discussed in more detail below. Feed grown does not benefit the animal or
become profit until it is utilized by grazing animals.

Sufficiently high stocking rates are necessary to graze the whole area of a
paddock.
Poor utilization results in selective overgrazing of the most palatable species,
wasted feed, poor regrowth, and opening up of the sward with establishment of
weeds. Continuous heavy grazing may cause a reduction in legumes because of
reduced energy reserves for regrowth. High producing pasture species, on
productive soils, have highest production with rotational grazing that allows a resting
period for forage growth, and full recovery of reserves for regrowth. When growth is
slower, the recovery period between grazings is lengthened.

The length of the rest period between grazings must be varied.

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 The rest period may be only 12‐15 days after grazing in mid‐April, but should be
lengthened to 30‐36 days after grazing in late August (Table 1). To be able to
manage
pastures and to provide animal‐free rest periods there must
a sufficient number of paddocks. This is illustrated in Table
2 with the number of paddocks required at the season’s
end. Earlier in the season when rest periods are shorter
fewer paddocks would be needed to complete one rotation
of grazing. Surplus forage from paddocks not included in
this first grazing may be harvested as haylage or hay, thus
conserving feed for winter. Too often dairy farmers in New
England adopt a modified version of set stocking or lax form of rotational
grazing. With set stocking there is difficulty in matching feed supply to animal
requirements and as a result many farmers under‐stock continuously grazed
areas. Figure 1 shows the effect of grazing pressure on animal productivity.

Figure 1. Influence of available pasture on animal production.

Productivity of pastures is influenced by the availability of a soil nitrogen

source.
This most economically can be provided by legumes fixing atmospheric nitrogen
in
root nodules. Fertility and grazing management must be designed to promote the
growth and persistence of legumes in mixed grass and legume pastures. Other
nutrients also must be in balance and are best checked by using a soil test.

Correct height of grazing of varies with species.

Continually grazing tall growing species such as orchardgrass to one inch will
depress yield and cause a decline in plant vigor because of low residual leaf area
and because tillers that store energy for regrowth are also partially grazed. Such
management of alfalfa, which depends on the root reserves for regrowth, would soon
lead to a stand decline, both in vigor and number of plants. Shorter growing species
such as white clover, Kentucky bluegrass and perennial ryegrass can withstand
grazing to one inch. For legume‐grass mixtures, light grazing over a prolonged

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period may lead to a reduction in legumes because of competitive growth of the
grass. Continuous heavy grazing may also cause a reduction in energy reserves in
roots that are needed for regrowth. Rotational grazing, with a short grazing period
followed by an adequate regrowth between grazings, will promote persistence of
legumes, and increase growth and quality of grasses. It may also increase
profitability of the farm enterprise.

Maintaining an adequate quantity of available pasture will influence animal

performance (Fig 1). If overgrazed animals cannot consume sufficient forage while
undergrazing leads to much wasted feed through plant avoidance and trampling.

Figure 1. Influence of available pasture on animal production.

Other Considerations:
Adequate fencing is needed to control animals being managed particularly for
rotational grazing. The animal type and temperament will dictate the style and
needed strength of the fence. There are many fencing options including permanent
multi‐strand high‐tensile boundary fences, with or without being electrified, where

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reliability in containing animals is essential. The other extreme is a temporary single
electrified polywire fence which is movable depending on size of paddock needed for
grazing. Electrified tape and rope are sometimes used for making fences more
visible.

Animals also need access to water. On average a dairy cow requires 20 gallons
of water daily, a horse 10 gallons and one sheep 2 gallons. Research has shown
that as the distance to the water source increases above 900ft the amount of pasture
forage decreases. Access to water is needed in each pasture. If animals have to
travel back to a centralized water tank near the barn then they are less likely to
return to the pasture
to continue grazing. Nutrient transfer is also influenced by location or portability of
water.

PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT

Establishing a new pasture is a time-consuming and expensive process. Careful

attention should be paid to proper plant material selection; soil tilth and seedbed
preparation; soil fertility and the addition of compost or manures; green manure
plow-down;
Proper seedbed preparation is very important for establishing a productive
pasture.
There are essentially three ways to plant pasture grasses and legumes: planting into
a prepared seedbed, no-till planting into the stubble of a prior crop or interseeding
into an existing stand. Seed-to-soil contact is of extreme importance when planting
by any method. The seed must remain in contact with moist soil for the first month
after germination or the seedling will whither. There are various methods for
achieving seed-to-soil contact while planting. Drilling with a grass drill is the most
effective, as it allows for better control of seed placement. Many times packer wheels
follow the drill to firm the seedbed and ensure seed-to-soil contact.
Broadcasting seed can be effective for some species, especially if the soil is
packed after planting. Pulling a roller or dragging a harrow behind a tractor or four-
wheeler is an
effective tool to increase the germination of broadcast plantings, especially for
ryegrass and clover seeds. Other grass seeds such as timothy, orchard grass and
most warmseason native grasses do not establish well by broadcasting and should
be drilled. Be careful not to plant too deep or the seeds might not germinate. Follow
local Cooperative Extension Service recommendations for seeding rate and depth.
Another method of planting new pastures is frost seeding. Frost seeding works well
in areas that experience a freeze-thaw pattern in the spring before green-up.
Broadcast seeds after snow melt and allow the natural freeze-thaw action that
occurs each day to work the seed into the ground. If the timing is right, this can be an
effective way to achieve seed-to-soil contact and incorporate legumes into a grass
pasture. For the humid areas of the South or drier areas of the West, fall-seeding of
legumes is more appropriate so that seeds can establish during the winter rainy
season.

Rotational grazing and paddock size

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 If given a choice, livestock will only eat the highest-quality, most palatable plants
in a
pasture. In order to ensure that plant biodiversity is maintained in the pasture, it is
necessary to set up a grazing management system to better control livestock
grazing.
The elements of grazing to control are the timing and the intensity. This means
controlling the number of animals and how long they are in a pasture.
Rotational grazing systems take full advantage of the benefits of nutrient cycling
as
well as the ecological balance that comes from the relationships between pastures
and
grazing animals. High-density stocking for short periods helps build soil organic
matter and develops highly productive, dense, resilient pastures.
A rotational grazing management plan need not be complex. It merely has to
direct the grazing animal to eat when and where you want them to in order to keep
the plants in their growing, or vegetative, stage. Rotational grazing allows for more
effective forage utilization by increasing herd size on smaller paddocks for a shorter
time, thereby decreasing grazing selectivity and giving the farmer more control of
what and when the
livestock eat. The basic principles of rotational grazing management include: proper
timing of grazing corresponding to plant physiological stage;proper intensity of
grazing, or duration on the pasture;residue or plant height after grazing; and duration
of rest.
Allow the pasture plants to get to sufficient height prior to turning the cattle onto
the pasture. By waiting until the grass is from 8 to 12 inches high, depending on
species, the roots have become well developed and the plants can handle
defoliation. Grazing intensity, or duration, can be taken care of by designing a
suitable rotational grazing system. Rotational grazing, as the name implies, involves
moving the cattle periodically from pasture to pasture or paddock to paddock. For
instance, a good rule of thumb is to split a pasture into 10 or more paddocks with
electric wire or electric tape and stock each paddock heavily for a short amount of
time. See Table 2 for determining the number of paddocks and paddock size. By
doing this you are forcing the animals to eat all that’s there, including weedy plants
they might otherwise not eat.
However, before the animals eat the plants to the ground, move them to the next
pasture. This takes into account the third principle. It’s important to leave several
inches of grass to allow adequate leaf area for subsequent regrowth.
Depending on the species, you will need to leave from 2 to 6 inches of plant
stubble at moving time. An 11-paddock rotational grazing system that allows animals
to graze each pasture for three days will give each paddock 30 days of rest. These
figures are for planning purposes, and it is recommended to move according to
forage height rather than by the number of days on pasture.
Grasses need from 15 to 50 days of rest between grazing events to allow
adequate
regrowth, depending on season, moisture and plant type. The accompanying chart
shows typical rest times for various pasture plants, realizing that water and moisture
will have a large effect on plant regrowth.

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Management of Improved Pastures

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Forages are the foundations of a successful cowcalf program. In general, the better
the ranch’s forage system, the greater the resulting animal production. Forage
systems provide the QUANTITY and QUALITY of feed needed to meet the cattle’s
nutritional needs by a sustainable year round program.

Successful forage systems require both long and short term management, and
are constructed with emphasis on maintaining forge quality as well as quantity in
grazed pastures with extra forages harvested as hay or silage.

The key to a successful forage program is balancing the following throughout the
year:
 Quantity and quality of forages available.
 Seasonal requirements of forages available.
 Optimal supplemental feeding programs.

The success for matching these three aspects on a day-to-day basis will result in
optimal animal performance. Animal performance is partly a result of the intake of
digestible nutrients by the cow and calf. Intake of digestible nutrients depends on the
quantity or availability of the forge and the quality or digestible nutrient component of
the forage eaten. Management to maintain forage quality, while at the same time
providing forage quantity and matching both with animal requirements to minimize or
eliminate supplemental feeding, should be the goal of forage production.

Plant Species and Variety

Forage quality refers to digestible nutrient content (i.e.,energy, protein),
palatability and digestibility of the forage plant. Legumes (alfalfa, medics, cloves,
vetch) are the highest quality group of forage grown in pastures. They are high in
protein, energy (digestibility), and minerals. They also “fix” nitrogen fertilizer, making
them very economical to grow.
Incorporating legumes into our pastures increases forage quality, increases
animal performance, and reduces pasture costs per animal. Although forage
legumes can require more management than grasses, their high quality can make a
big difference in animal performance even if legume production is limited. I often
point out that a limited stand of legumes will be equal to feeding range cubes for
cattle using dormant grass or dry [Link] varieties can be region and soil
specific.
Next to legumes, the highest quality group of forage plants are the cool season
annual grasses such as oats, rye, ryegrass and wheat. These are very high in
quality, but can be fairly expensive to plant. They should be managed to produce
forage in the December thru February months. They typically will produce forage in
March thru April and will stay ahead of grazing animals during that period.
Management to produce early forage for winter use includes planting from
September 15 to October 1, utilizing prepared seedbed along with overseeded
pastures, using proper seeding rates, proper
fertilization, and grazing management to stretch winter forage in the fall. Grazing
management to stretch fall forage includes limit grazing, creep grazing, and feeding
hay with the winter pasture. In southern Texas,ryegrass will produce as early grazing
as oats, will have better disease resistance and cold tolerance, and will last from 2 to
6 weeks later in the spring than oats or wheat. All are very high in quality during the
growing season.

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 Warm season perennial grasses (bermuda, bahia, klein, bluestem) are typically
the group of forages with the lowest quality grown in Texas pastures. They are,
however,the group that is suited to our climate and are the most productive.
Management for increased forage quality is especially important for these warm
season perennial grasses. Quality (energy value) of these grasses often just barely
meets the animal’s requirements, or is below requirements of the beef animal during
the season. Hence a 1% increase in digestibility or energy will result in a 5%
increase in animal [Link] to increase forage quality includes
variety selection, harvesting at proper maturity, weed control, proper fertilization and
utilizing grazing plans for optimal utilization.
New grass varieties have often been released because of high quantities of
production (pounds per acre, more hay per acre than other varieties). While this is
important, it is even more important to know when production occurs, and what
quality the forage contains. Tifton 9 bahia grass, for example, produces more tons
per acre
during the year than Pensacola bahia grass, yet quality(energy content) is the same.
Bermuda grass dry matter production occurs primarily from mid- to late- April
through October in Texas. Actual beginning and termination of growth is controlled
by temperature (night lows above 60-65°F) and day length (13 plus hours of daylight
per day). Bermuda grass production decreases or even stops when conditions are
below these thresholds. Growth during the season is a response to nitrogen fertilizer
and rainfall with high and low production periods occurring and reoccurring often
during the season. The response to moisture and fertility will depend on the species
of summer pasture grass and, to a lesser extent, the variety utilized. The better “the
fit” between the grass variety and the soil, climatic and management conditions, the
better the sustained
production.

Season Variations
Warm season grasses vary greatly in quality during the growing season.
Typically these grasses are highest in quality in the spring, declining from June
through August, then increasing to October or November and rapidly declining after
a freeze. This pattern can result in low or negative animal gains in midsummer (July
through
August). Plants also become mature more rapidly during July and August, which
further decreases quality. Higher quality varieties do not decrease as far as lower
quality varieties.

Plant Maturity
As forage plants mature, forage quality decreases. Immature plants are
composed of mostly leaves, which are very highly digestible. Nutrients found in
young, immature, leafy forages are in a simple, easily digested form.
As the plant matures, vegetative growth gives way to reproductive growth and
seed heads appear. More mature plants are thus composed of more stem and older
leaves, which are not as digestible as the immature forage. Nutrients found in old,
mature, stemmy forages are in a complex, less digestible, fiber form. Coastal
bermuda grass which is 12 inches tall, for example, can be 58% digestible in the top
one-third of the plant, 54% digestible in the middle one-third, and only 50% digestible
in bottom one-third of the plant. In result demonstrations, Coastal hay harvested at

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six weeks of age had only 50% of the crude protein content and 80% of the energy
as hay harvested at four weeks of age.
Bermuda grass should be harvested every four to six weeks to optimize the
quantity/quality relationships. Harvesting every 21 to 28 days is done if quality is
desired but at a reduced quantity level.

Fertilization
Pastures should be fertilized according to a recent (within 2 to 3 years) soil test
recommendation. Proper fertilization will enhance vigorous plant growth. A ton of
forage
with 10% crude protein contains 50 pounds of nitrogen, 10 pounds of phosphorus,
40 pounds of potassium and varying amounts of the other chemical elements
needed for growth (r.e., sulfur, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, copper, boron,
manganese, molybdenum, and chlorine).
A ton of forage will not be produced if any of these nutrients are lacking. Most
soils have enough nutrients and nitrogen to produce one to two tons of forage per
acre.
Improved grasses were selected for higher yield potentials and need additional
nutrients (especially nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) to produce at an
economical level. Increasing the amount of nitrogen fertilizer along with other
nutrients has increased production for various summer grass species (Table 1).

Increased nitrogen fertilization will increase the forage’s protein percentage, but
will not change the energy content. The amount of fertilizer recommended based on
a soil
test depend on the nutrient content of the soil, the desire of production level
(tons/acre, stocking rate) and whether the pasture will be used for hay, grazing or
both.
In grazing systems only a small amount of the nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassium contained in the forage that a cow eats is retained in the animal’s body
(Table 2). Most is recycled by urine and/or feces back to the soil. This in grazing
systems, once phosphorus and potassium levels are brought up to a high level, they
should remain there without extra fertilization. Nitrogen will still be required.
In hay systems, every ton removed from the field will remove 50 pounds
nitrogen, 10 pounds phosphorus, and 40 pounds potassium. This will eventually
have to be replaced by fertilization. Therefore, the best system is rotational grazing
and harvesting hay from the excess growth in the spring and fall.

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 EFFICIENT PASTURE USE

The manner in which a pasture is grazed will have a marked influence on

pasture productivity, persistence, quality and animal performance. Very light grazing
pressure (few animals per unit area) results in high production per animal because
animals can graze selectively. Low production per acre will be obtained because
forage is wasted. Very heavy grazing pressure {many animals per unit area) may
force animals to consume low quality plants or plant parts. If this occurs for very
long. production per animal will be low. but production per acre may be increased
because little forage is wasted. Also. persistence of desirable plants will be reduced
by extended heavy grazing. A conflict often exists between production per
animal and production per acre. If you want to obtain optimum production per acre
and per animal you should plan the best grazing system or systems to more
completely utilize pasture on your farm. With the pasture plants commonly used and
seasonal growing conditions prevalent in Kentucky.

There are several grazing systems or techniques which could be considered.

 Continuous Grazing

Continuous grazing is a system in which animals graze one area for long periods
of time. perhaps even the entire grazing season. Because it requires little movement
of animals and less fencing, this system is most widely used by farmers. If
continuous grazing pressure is too heavy, yields of both pasture and animal products
may be low because there are never enough leaves to make maximum use of
sunlight. If grazing pressure is too light, individual animal performance may be high
because the large amount of available forage permits animals to selectively graze
only the highest quality plant parts or species. Production per acre may be low
because much of the pasturage is wasted. Also, if the pasture is a mixed stand of
grass and clover, taller grass growth and selective grazing of clover encourage grass
domination.

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 Figure. 1

Most pastures with white clovers may be grazed continuously with moderate to
heavy grazing pressures without loss of clover stands (Figure 1). but continuous
close grazing of red clover may reduce stands. Alfalfa stands will always be reduced
if they are grazed continuously
If grazing pressure is such that 3-4 inches of top growth are present all the time,
productivity of both pasturage and animal products may be more acceptable than
with either very heavy or very light grazing. It would be hard for most farmers to
maintain an animal population which would keep this 3-4 inches growth on a pasture
throughout the growing season. Very high animal populations would be required in
spring. much lower populations in summer and intermediate animal numbers in fall.
Fields newly renovated with legumes should be grazed continuously to suppress
grass growth. When the young legume plants are big enough that animals begin
biting plant tops, animals should be removed from the pasture to permit legumes to
become established. This will usually require 4-6 weeks for clovers and 8-10 weeks
for alfalfa. After the establishment period, a rotational grazing system can be used.

 Rotational Grazing

Rotational grazing requires dividing large fields into small areas such that
animals will rapidly graze plants down to a 2-3 inch height. Animals are then moved
to another field or area and the first area is permitted to recover. Clover-grass
mixtures should regrow 4-5 weeks or 8-10 inches high before they are grazed again.
Alfalfa regrowth should be permitted for 30-35 days before the next grazing. This
system allows a comparatively short grazing period and thus forage is more
completely utilized. Less forage is wasted by trampling and selective grazing.
especially during peak growth periods. It is desirable to size fields so that pasturage
is removed in 10 days or less. Rotational grazing favors persistence of legumes such
as alfalfa. red clover and bird's-foot trefoil. Also, yields of forage and amount of
animal products per acre are more nearly optimized when this system is used than
when either continuous very light or very heavy grazing is practiced.

Figure 2. Rotational Grazing

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 Strip Grazing

Strip grazing is really a form of rotational grazing. It is accomplished by using

temporary electric fences, allowing grazing animals access to only a small area
(strip) of pasture at any time. More labor is required than with other systems, but it is
especially desirable if one wants to achieve high utilization. It is most often used
when grazing summer annuals such as Sudan grass, grain crop residues, stockpiled
fescue or bluegrass, growth on alfalfa and other hay fields which accumulated after
the last cutting, and fields where big hay packages have been left for winter feeding.

Figure 3. Strip Grazing

 Restricted Grazing

Restricted grazing is a practice which can be used with any system. Animals are
restricted to small areas when plant growth is rapid and have access to larger areas
when plant growth is slow.
Cool season grasses such as tall fescue, orchard grass, bluegrass, bromegrass
and timothy usually produce about two-thirds of their seasonal growth during the first
third of the growing season. Light stocking during spring to ensure a summer feed
supply allows much of the spring growth to become mature. This results in wasted
feed since
cattle usually refuse to eat the mature seed shoots. Spring growth can be more
efficiently utilized if animals are restricted to small fields which they can keep grazed
to 2-4 inches high during April, May and June. Animal intake and quality will be high
when plants are kept in a young. leafy stage of growth. Forage which is not used for

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grazing during spring should be harvested and stored as hay or silage. For best
quality and yield. harvest grass plants in the boot to early flowering stage and
legumes in bud to early bloom stage of growth. Early-cut hay will be leafier, more
digestible, and consumed with less waste than late cut hay.

Figure 4. Restricted Grazing

 Advance Grazing

Advance grazing (also called "forward grazing," "top grazing," or "first grazing")
embodies a concept which can be used in many different situations. It simply permits
animals which need highest quality feed (e.g. calves, yearlings, lactating dairy cows
or horses) to have first access to a pasture or feed source (first grazers). Animals
with lower nutritional requirements (e.g. dry, mature pregnant cows) graze or clean
up the remaining lower quality material (second grazers).
The first grazers get highest quality feed before being moved to another area,
which results in higher production per animal. Animals with lower requirements are
brought in as second grazers and forced to clean up the remaining pasturage,
resulting in more complete forage utilization.

Figure 5. Advance Grazing

Table 1 shows research results from Virginia in which this technique was used
with steers as both first and last grazers. First grazers had 1.36 lbs average daily
gain (ADG) and a total of 238 lbs of gain per acre. Second grazers had only 0.81 lbs

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ADG and total gains of 144 lbs. Rotationally grazed steers had ADG (1.07 lbs) which
was about the average of the first and last grazers. Total gains per acre were not
different for the steers rotationally grazed in one group (371 lbs/acre) and those split
into first and last grazers (238 + 144 = 382 lbs/acre). The higher production was,
however, obtained on first grazers where high individual performance was wanted.

 Creep Grazing

Creep grazing is an advance grazing technique in which calves are permitted

access to higher quality pasture by passing through "creeps" or slots in the fence
which are too small to admit cows. Weaning weights may be increased by 50 or
more pounds per calf by creep grazing. When using this technique, calves should be
permitted to "creep" in any direction where higher quality feed is available.

Figure 6. Creep Grazing

Year Round Forage Availability Through Forage Preservation

Silage-making is an important method of conserving green fodder by converting

it into silage. It is something like ‘Pickle green fodder’(achar). Silage can be called
the fermented product of green forages where the acids produced by anaerobic
fermentation of the sugars present in this forage. The basic function of silage-making
is to store and preserve feed for later use with minimal loss of nutritional qualities.
Silage making is less dependent than hay-making on good weather conditions and
can be extended to a great variety of forage crops (Maize, sorghum, immature cereal
grains, etc.) and locally available agro-industrial by products (sugar beet pulp,
brewers grain, etc.). Silage making has become an important tool for producers to
manage crop production and dairy herd feeding programs in many production
systems around the world. However, silage making requires considerable capital and
labour investments on the farm; it also demands a fairly high level of technical

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expertise. The understanding of how ensiling works to preserve a crop by
fermentation is important.
Forage preservation as silage is a key component of high input systems. It has
allowed producers to intensify the productivity of the land and the productivity of the
cows independently from each other. As silage making allows storage and
preservation of feed resources for months, if not years, producers can focus on two
separate objectives: 1) To maximize yield of digestible nutrients (energy, protein,
etc.) per hectare of land; 2) to maximize milk production per cow throughout the
year.

Advantages of Silage Making

Silage making has some distinct advantages compared to hay-making:
 Silage is produced in both cold and cloudy weather;
 It is less at risk from the weather than haymaking;
 Improvement of the producer’s control over cutting dates and optimal stage
of maturity at harvest;
 Minimization of loss of leaves and other small plant parts of high quality in
the field;
 Storage of non-forage feeds that cannot be preserved as hay, such as
agro-industrial by products;
 Plants can be harvested at the optimal phase of development and are
efficiently used by livestock.
 Reduction of nutrient loss (below 10%) which in hay may amount to 30% of
the dry matter.
 More economical use of plants with high yield of green mass;
 Better use of the land with 2-3 crops annually; Requires 10 times less
storage space compared to hay;
 The fermentation in silage reduces harmful nitrates accumulated in plants
during droughts and in over-fertilized crops.
 Allows by-products (from sugar beet processing, maize straw, etc.) to b
optimally used;
 Silage preserves 85 percent of feed energy. Hay under best condition
preserves
 Maize silage has 30-50% higher nutritive value compared to maize grain an
maize straw;
 2 kg of silage (70% moisture) has the equal nutritive value of 1 kg of hay.

Limitations of Silage Making

 Silage making requires high capital investment. Harvesters are needed to
chop the forage, tractors or other heavy equipment are used to pack the
silage, storage facilities (silo structures) may be expensive, and additional
equipment may be required to remove silage from a silo;
 The management of silos is sometimes difficult on the farm because once a
silo is opened, silage should be removed on a daily basis (to minimize loss
of nutritive value)
 Adjusting the number of silos and their dimension to the expected feed out
rate for a given herd size is difficult. Usually, only large herds can afford to
feed out of different silos of varying forage qualities for different groups of
animals on the farm (heifers, dry cows, lactating cows, etc.);

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  Once silage is removed from a silo, it becomes unstable (because of
exposure to oxygen) and tends to spoil within a day or two (especially in
warm weather conditions with well-preserved silages);
 Silage cannot be marketed easily (difficult to transport long distances);
 Loss of nutrients during storage in a silo is unavoidable and may be high if
the silage is not prepared properly.

Suitable Forage Crops to be Preserved as Silage

The chemical composition of a forage crop or agro-industrial by-product plays an

important role in determining the ease with which lactic acid fermentation can take
place; and thus the ease with which a particular feed can be preserved as silage. It is
easier to ensile forages that have: A high level of fermentable sugar; a low level of
protein; a low buffering capacity; ideal dry matter content at ensiling time. Corn is
preserved as silage more easily than grasses or alfalfa because of its high sugar
content, low protein content and low buffering capacity. In contrast, alfalfa is more
difficult to ensile well because of its low sugar content and high buffering capacity,
which is due in part to its high protein content (Table). Thus the higher the quality of
alfalfa, the more challenging it is to ensile successfully.

Stage of Crop Growth

Crops should be cut at a proper stage of maturity as it is the most important
factor for controlling the silage quality. The appropriate stage of growth for cutting
different fodder crops for silage making is Sorghum - Flowering to dough stage;
Maize - Milk to dough stage; Oat - 50% flowering to dough stage; Grasses - Early
flowering stage.

The “Ideal” Dry Matter Content

The “ideal” dry matter content of the forage depends on the type of silo. The
recommended levels of dry matter in forages at ensiling are- 30 to 40% for bunker
silos; 35 to 50% for tower silos; 40 to 50% for wrapped round bales. Often, wilting a
green forage for 24 – 48 hours to increase dry matter is highly desirable, because
wilted silage requires less lactic acid production and will stabilise at a higher pH level
than silage that has a lower dry matter content. This is the case because higher dry
matter content increases the concentration of soluble dry matter in the silage, and
the resulting increase in osmotic pressure inhibits bacterial growth. Thus
fermentation stops in wilted silage because of the high acidity, high osmotic pressure
combination (rather than high acidity alone in silage with lower dry matter content).
Thus wilting has a “sparing” effect on the level of sugar and the level of fermentation
needed to stabilize the silage. As a result, wilting is particularly important when the

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ensiled forage is a legume, which has a relatively low level of fermentable sugars as
compared to grass or corn.

Additives for Effective Ensiling of Nutrients

Various types of additives can be used to improve or inhibit the fermentation or
supplement nutrients needed by ruminants to be fed as silage. Propionic acid,
formaldehyde, etc. have been used to increase the rate of lactic acid fermentation
and produce stable silage. Carbohydrate sources such as molasses, whey, yeast
and other energy-rich ingredients have also been used as additives to increase the
fermentation and feeding value of silage. Common additives are as follows,
 Molasses: Legumes and certain grasses are rather low in sugar content.
Adding molasses definitely, improves the quality of silage by increasing
lactic and acetic acid production. It also increases the palatability and
nutritive value of the silage. Molasses may be added (3.0 to 4.0 per cent of
the green weight of the forage) in either liquid or dehydrated form. Molasses
and starches, when added in the form of grains, supply the silage bacteria
with ample food so that fermentation proceeds normally.
 Urea: Adding urea at a level of 0.5 per cent of fresh forages is
recommended. The very idea of adding urea is to enrich the silage with
nitrogen as cereal forages are mostly deficient in this element.
 Limestone: This is calcium carbonate and may be added at a level of 0.5 to
1.0 per cent to maize silage to increase acid production. It neutralises some
of the initial acids as they are formed allowing the lactic acid bacteria to
perform longer and to produce more desirable acids. Sodium
metabisulphite: Sulphur dioxide (SO2 a gas) is a very good antibacterial
preservative. It also improves carotene content.
 Organic acids: Propionic and formic acids are used for enhancing
preservation of forages without the loss of palatability. These are costly and
when added, the following guidelines may be observed: Add 1 per cent
propionic acid to the forage in the field at the time of harvest or at the
chopper. Limit the presence of oxygen by using a sound well-built
[Link] dilution of organic acid treated silage by rain and cover it with
plastic when it is stored outside.

Silos
The different types of silos generally used are:
 pit silo
 tower silo
 trench silo
 Bunker silo
 Clamp silo
 Plastic silo
 Silage bag.

The silo must provide a solid surface to permit consolidation of the ensiled
material and elimination of air. It must protect the silage from the water. In India, pit
silo is the most common.

Process of Silage

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  Chopping: The crop should be chopped before ensiling. For good silage, the
shorter the chop length, the better is the quality. Chopped silage is more
palatable to livestock and has little chance of secondary fermentation.
 Filling of silo:Silo should be filled rapidly and should not be left open. It
should be sealed as soon as possible. Packing is important to create
anaerobic conditions. It should be thoroughly pressed so that no air pocket
is left in the silo otherwise chances of mould formation will be there which
will spoil the silage. After filling, silo should be covered with polythene sheet
followed by that of a layer of soil, etc.
 Removal of silage: After 45 days of ensilage, the silage can be removed for
feeding to animals. Care should be taken in removing the silage from the
silo. It should not be allowed to deteriorate after the silo is opened for
feeding. Covers should be kept firmly in place as long as possible and the
minimum face should be exposed at one time.

DAIRY PRODUCTION TERMS

 Artificial insemination
Farmers have options for breeding their cows. Most choose to have their cows
artificially inseminated to protect the animals and workers as bulls(males) are large,
powerful and can be dangerous. Studies show that AI is safer and more efficient
than natural insemination, and the method allows farmers to breed animals that are
healthier and produce higher quality milk.
Artficial Insemination (A.I): A standard practice on most dairy farms today,
involving a dairy producer or trained technician inserting frozen semen into a cow’s
uterus. This is a common procedure as it is quick and easy to perform, allows
dairymen to utilize a wide variety of high quality genetics in their herd, and avoids the
health and safety risks involved with keeping a mature bull on the farm. Commonly
abbreviated as “A.I”

 Ayrshire
A breed of dairy cattle that originated from the County of Ayr in Scotland. The
average mature Ayrshire cow weighs between 1,000 and 1,300 pounds and has red
markings that can vary in color from orange to brown.

 Bovine
Of the biological subfamily Bovine. This diverse group features about 24 species
of medium-sized to large ungulates (animals with hoofs), such as domestic cattle.
Other members include bison, water buffalo and yak.

 Bovine Leukosis
A viral disease of cattle that cannot be transferred to humans. The virus is
destroyed in milk through pasteurization.

 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

Also known as Mad Cow Disease, BSE is an infection of brain and neurological
tissues with rogue proteins called prions that kills cattle as it causes degeneration in
the brain and spinal cord. BSE is not contagious and does not spread from cow to
cow. BSE has never been detected in muscle meat or milk, and transmission does
not occur into cow’s milk.

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 Bovine Tuberculosis (Tb)
A contagious animal disease that does not pose a threat to human health.
Pasteurisation effectively destroys the bacterium that causes bovine TB.

 Brown Swiss
A breed of dairy cattle that originated in the Swiss Alps and produces the second
largest quantity of milk annually of any dairy breed. Their milk averages 4 percent
butterfat and 3.4 percent protein, which makes it ideal for cheese production. Brown
Swiss are gray-brown in color and are known for their docile temperament.

 Butter
Butter is produced by churning the fat from milk or cream until it solidifies. It may
then be salted.

 Butterfat
Also known as milkfat, the fatty portion of milk. Milk and cream are often sold
according to the amount of butterfat they contain. In the United States, there are
federal standards for butterfat content of dairy products.

 Casein
The dominant protein (80 percent) in cow’s milk. Casein is vital to cheese-
making and has a variety of uses in manufacturing.

 Colostrum
The first milk given to calves in the first 24 hours of life by a dairy cow following
birth. Colostrum is rich in fat and protein and has immunity elements.

 Cream
The high-fat portion of milk that is separated during processing. Cream is used to
produce products such as ice cream, half and half, and whipping and heavy cream.
Cream also is dried and powdered, and some is condensed by evaporation and
canned.

 Cud
The partially digested food that is regurgitated from the first compartment of the
cow’s stomach into the mouth to be chewed again. A cow may spend seven hours a
day eating food and an additional 10 hours a day chewing her cud.

 Curd
The clumps of protein and other milk components that are formed during the
cheesemaking process. Curds are pressed into blocks or barrels for proper aging
and curing of cheese.

 Dairy Nutritionist
Professionally trained and educated animal health consultants who specialize in
the nutritional needs of dairy cows. Nutritionists recommend the optimal, scientifically
balanced diets that are designed for the specific needs of different cows. Nutritionists
work with farmers to monitor how cows respond to their customized feeding
program.

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 Dairy Sustainability
The practice of continuous improvement to provide consumers with nutritious
dairy products in a way that makes the industry, people and the earth more
economically, environmentally and socially better – now and for future generations.
Since 1970, the Kenya dairy industry has reduced its carbon footprint 63 percent.
Compared to nearly 70 years ago, a gallon of milk today is produced using 90
percent less land and 65 percent less water from cows that produce 76 percent less
manure.

 Dry Cows
A period of time during which a cow is not producing milk. The “dry” period lasts
between 50 and 70 days when a cow is preparing to give birth to a calf, which then
begins a new lactation period.

 Foot-And-Mouth Disease (Fmd)

Partially severe, highly contagious viral disease of cattle and other livestock
including sheep, goats and other cloven-hooved ruminants. FMD is not a health
threat to humans. The Kenya has been free of FMD since 2005.

 Forage
Cow feed that is high in fiber, such as whole plants of corn, small grains (such as
oats, barley, or wheat), legumes, and grasses.

 GMO (Genetically Modified Organism)

The process of intentionally making a copy of a gene for a desired trait from one
plant or organism and using it in another plant. Fluid milk is not genetically modified
nor are the cows that produce the milk.

 GMO Feed
The feed for cows on dairy farms can be grown from genetically modified seeds.
Genetically modified crops allow farmers to grow feed and foods more efficiently
using the same amount of land to maximize crop yields and minimize use of water
and other natural resources. Scientific experts have confirmed that the crops are
safe and provide the same nutrition, for animals and people, as other crops.

 Guernsey
A small, cream-and-brown breed of dairy cattle that produces more milk per unit
of body weight than any other breed. Guernseys are renowned for the high butterfat
content of their milk. The Guernsey was bred on the British Channel Island of
Guernsey and descended from cattle stock brought from nearby Normandy.

 Hay
Dried feed such as rye, alfalfa, clover, grass and oats, which is used as a food
source for dairy cows. A hay field is mowed and the trimmings dry in the sun for two
to three days.

 Holstein
A black and white dairy cow (though there also are “Red Holsteins”) that is the
most predominant breed of dairy cattle worldwide, and represent approximately 90

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percent of dairy cows in the United States. The Holstein originated in the province of
Friesland, The Netherlands. They are known for having the highest milk production
of all dairy cattle breeds.

 Homogenization
A process applied to milk that results in fat globules being reduced in size to
allow a smooth consistency.

 In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

A form of assisted reproduction of dairy cows used by farmers.

 Jersey
A breed of dairy cattle that is renowned for the high butterfat content of its milk.
Jersey cows are smaller than other breeds (800 to 1,200 pounds) and are known for
their big eyes, honey-brown color and docile natures.

 Johne’s Disease
A bacterial infection in the intestines of ruminant animals, including cattle and
certain other domesticated and wild animals worldwide. While not known to be
transmissible to humans, the Kenyan government and the dairy industry are working
to control/manage Johne’s because it affects the productivity of dairy cows.

 Lactation
The secretion of milk from the cow’s udder.

 Mastitis
An inflammation of a dairy cow’s milk ducts while she is lactating. Mastitis is
usually caused by bacteria and can be treated with antibiotics.

 Milking Machines
Machinery used on the farm to extract milk from cows. Electronic milking
machines use a pulsating vacuum that simulates the effect of a suckling calf. The
machines do not cause any harm or discomfort to the cows and they keep the milk
safe from external contamination.

 Milking Parlor
A specialized area on the dairy farm where cows are milked two or three times a
day. Equipment delivers the milk directly from the cows to a refrigerated holding tank
to preserve freshness and safety. The milk is then quickly transported to the dairy
plant. Parlors come in many types, including flat barn, herringbone, parallel, swing,
walk-through and rotary.

 Milking Shorthorn
A breed of reddish-brown and white dairy cattle that originated in Britain. They
are large in size.

 Organic Milk
Milk and milk products that are labeled “ organic.” This is products deriving from
milk that comes from farms that meet Organic Program standards. Organic milk is

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one of many options in the dairy case – and all pasteurized milk is safe, delicious
and nutritious, no matter which variety people choose.

 Pasteurization
A simple, effective method to kill harmful pathogens through heat treatment
without affecting the taste or nutritional value of milk. Pasteurization is recognized
around the world as an essential tool for protecting public health since it was first
introduced in 1864. The process was named after French scientist Louis Pasteur.

 Raw Milk
Milk that has not been pasteurized before consumption. The dairy industry has
long endorsed pasteurization in killing potentially harmful microorganisms as a major
public health protection. Pasteurization does not affect the nutritional value of milk in
any meaningful way.

 RBGH OR RBST
A synthetic version of bovine somatotropin that some farmers opt to use to
increase milk production. rbST is a naturally-occurring protein hormone in cows. A
trace amount of this hormone is present in all milk, including organic products, and is
digested when humans eat it, just like other proteins. rbST has been in use for more
than 20 years, and its safety has been affirmed and reaffirmed by government
agencies in the United States and around the world.

 Silage

Fermented, high-moisture forage that is eaten by grazing animals such as dairy

cows. Silage is most often made from grass crops such as corn or sorghum and
retains a great deal of the nutrients present in the plant.

 Silo
A storage facility on farms that is designed to store silage.

 Skim Milk
The product left after the cream is removed from milk. Skim or skimmed milk also
is called fat-free milk.

 Ultra-Filtered Milk
A process by which milk is passed through a thin, porous membrane to separate
its five components: water, vitamins and minerals, lactose, protein, and butterfat.
Dairy companies then recombine those parts in different percentages to make
beverages that contain, for example, more protein and calcium or less sugar. Ultra-
filtration also makes cheese manufacturing more efficient.

 Ultra-Pasteurization (UP)/ Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) Pasteurization

The process of heating milk to approximately 280° F for 2 seconds and then
rapidly chilling it. This process results in milk that is 99.9 percent free from bacteria
and creates an extended shelf life for products that is up to three times the length as
normal pasteurization.

 Whey

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 The watery part of milk that separates from the curds during the cheese-making
process. The composition of whey varies considerably, depending on the milk source
and the manufacturing process involved. Typically it is rich in lactose, minerals,
vitamins, and protein.

Name: _______________________________Course, Year and Section:________

General Instruction: Write your answers on the space provided ONLY! A deduction
will be given for not following instructions.

Task 1. Silo Type

Direction: Compare and contrast the types of silo by providing its pictures and
descriptions.
Types of Silo Picture Description
1. Pit silo

2. Tower silo

3. Trench silo

4. Bunker silo

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 5. Clamp silo

6. Plastic silo

7. Silage bag

Name: _______________________________Course, Year and Section:________

General Instruction: Write your answers on the space provided ONLY! A

deduction will be given for not following instructions.
: PLEASE ANSWER THIS WITH CLOSED NOTES AND REFERENCES. DO NOT
ASK FROM YOUR CLASSMATES. GOD IS WATCHING YOU :

Test 2. Read and understand the each question. Explain and answer briefly. (10
Points each)

1. What is the importance of nitrogen in pasture productivity?

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2. How can you get the paddock size?

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___________________________________________________________________
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3. Why is it important to preserve forage?
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4. What are the advantages of growing legumes as forage?
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5. What is rotational grazing?
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6. Which is more better, improved pasture or native pasture? Why?
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7. Why is it important to determine the proper height of the grazing pasture?
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For numbers 8-10.
Rotational grazing is the best system in managing a pasture. It allows more efficient
cycling of nutrients and maximize pasture productivity while minimizing animal health
problems and contamination. Assuming that you decide to go for rotational grazing,
so you need to establish paddocks in your 4.3 hectare lot.
How big and many paddocks will you need for 145 heads dairy buffalo with an
average of 450 kg body weight?
The ideally stay in a paddock for 2 days. Please choose the forage you want and
make a realistic assumption on herbage yield per year.

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