Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 1

Definition of memory device:

A memory device is a piece of hardware used to store data. Most electronic devices such
as computers, mobile phones, tablets, etc. all have a storage device that stores data and/or
programs.
Basic Concepts of Electronic Memory
An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in response
and compact in size. A semiconductor storage system which can be read and written
when coupled with a central processing unit (CPU, a processor).
The basic goal of a memory device is to provide a means for storing and accessing
binary digital data sequences of “1’s” and “0’s”,
 An electronic memory device is a form of semiconductor storage which is fast in
response and compact in size, and can be read and written when coupled with a
central processing unit (CPU, a processor).
 In conventional silicon-based electronic memory, data are stored based on the
amount of charge stored in the memory cells.
 Organic/polymer electronic memory stores data in an entirely different way, for
instance, based on different electrical conductivity states (ON and OFF states) in
response to an applied electric field.
 Organic/polymer electronic memory is likely to be an alternative or at least a
supplementary technology to conventional semiconductor electronic memory.
 According to the storage type of the device, electronic memory can be divided into
two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile memory
Classification of Electrical (electronic) Memory Devices:
1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory.
2. Capacitor-Type Electronic Memory.
3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory.
4. Charge Transfer Effects.

1. Transistor-Type Electronic Memory

Transistors are made from silicon, a semiconductor. It is converted to p-type and n-
type semiconductor by doping trivalent and pentavalent impurities. Transistors
are made using p-type and n-type semiconductor. A transistor is a miniature
electronic component that can work either as an amplifier or a switch.
A computer memory chip consists of billions of transistors, each transistor is working as
a switch, which can be switched ON or OFF. Each transistor can be in two different states
and store two different numbers, ZERO and ONE. Since chip is made of billions of such
transistors and can store billions of Zeros and Ones, and almost every number and letter
can be stored.

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 2

2. Capacitor-type Electronic Memory

A capacitor consists of two metal plates which are capable of storing an electric charge. It
is used to store data. It is like a battery that holds data based on energy.
If the capacitor is charged, it holds the binary numeral,”1” and holds “0’ when the cell is
discharged.
If the parallel plates of a capacitor are separated by dielectric layer, charges dissipate
slowly and memory would be volatile.
On the other hand, if the medium between the electrodes is ferroelectric in nature can
maintain permanent electric polarization that can be repeatedly switched between two
stable states (bistable) by an external electric field. Thus, memory based on ferroelectric
capacitors (Fe-RAM) is non-volatile memory.

3. Resistor-Type Electronic Memory

Memory devices containing switchable resistive materials are classified as resistor-type
memory, or resistive random access memory (RRAM).
Resistor-type electronic memory usually has a simple structure, having a metal-insulator-
metal structure generally referred to as MIM structure. The structure comprises of an
insulating layer (I) sandwiched between the two metal (M) electrodes and supported on
a substrate (glass, silicon wafer, plastic or metal foil).
Initially, the device is under high resistance state or “OFF” and logically “0” state, when
resistance changed or under external applied field changes to low resistance state or “ON”
logical value “1”.

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 3

4. Charge Transfer Effects

A charge transfer (CT) complex is defined as an electron donor–acceptor(D–A) complex,
characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a partial transfer of
charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety. The conductivity of a CT
complex is dependent on the ionic binding between the D–A components.

Additional Information
Charge transfer is characterized by an electronic transition to an excited state in which a
partial transfer of charge occurs from the donor moiety to the acceptor moiety.
If the donor is characterized by small size and low ionization potential, a strongly ionic
salt forms and a complete transfer of charge (or with the CT degree value, δ > 0.7) occurs
from the donor to the acceptor, making the ionic salt insulating.
When the donor is very large and has a high ionization potential, a neutral molecular solid
(δ < 0.4) forms, which is also insulating.
If the donor has intermediate size and ionization potential, it tends to form a weakly ionic
salt with the acceptor, which possesses incomplete CT (0.4 < δ < 0.7) and thus is
potentially conductive.
There are many problems with traditional methods of data storage
1. Conventional memory devices are implemented on semiconductor-based
integrated circuits, such as transistors and capacitors

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 4

2. In order to achieve greater density of data storage and faster access to

information, more components are deliberately packed onto a single chip.
3. Silicon-based semiconductor devices become less stable below 22 nm, and the
reliability to store and read individual bits of information will be substantially
reduced by severe “cross-talk” issues.
4. Power consumption and unwanted heat generation are also of increasing concern.
5. Silicon based memory devices such as transistors, capacitor and resistors stored
data in the binary form “ZERO” and “ONE”, which requires decoding of the data.
6. The new technologies are based on electrical bistability of materials arising from
changes in certain intrinsic properties, such as magnetism, polarity, phase,
conformation and conductivity, in response to the applied electric field.
7. The efficiency of memory structures is measured in terms of storage capacity and
the speed of functioning. Therefore, Organic memory devices (OMDs) provide an
ideal solution, in being inexpensive, and at the same time promising high
performance.
Definition Organic Memory Devices:
Organic electronic memory device stores data based on different electrical conductivity
states (ON and OFF states) in response to an applied electric field.
The advantages of organic and polymer electronic memory include
 good process ability,
 molecular design through chemical synthesis,
 simple device structure,
 miniaturized dimensions,
 low-cost,
 low-power operation,
 multiple state properties, and
 large capacity for data storage.

Based on materials used Organic memory devices (OMDs) broadly classified as:
a) resistive switch and ‘write once, read many times’ (WORM) devices,
b) molecular memory devices, and
c) polymer memory devices (PMDs)

 Molecular memory devices:

If organic molecular material used to store the data is called organic –based memory
device.
Organic electronic memory devices based on organic molecules were first reported in
several acene derivatives including naphthalene, anthracene, tetracene, pentacene,
perylene, p-quaterphenyl and p-quinquephenyl.

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 5

Organic Semiconductors
Organic semiconductors are π-conjugated polycyclic and heterocyclic systems which
have a certain degree of electrical conductivity. There are two major classes of organic
semiconductors:-low molecular weight materials and polymers.
Organic semiconductors can be divided according to the character of charge carriers into,
 p-type (a positive charge or hole as the major carrier),
 n-type (a negative charge or electron as the major carrier), or
 Am bipolar organic semiconductors (both electrons and holes are involved as
charge carriers).
1. The p-Type Organic Semiconductor Material “Pentacene”
An Organic molecule with π-conjugated system and possess holes as major charge
carrier is called p-type semiconductor.
Example: Pentacene
Pentacene is a linear aromatic hydrocarbon formed by the fusion of five Benzene rings.
The extended π-system allows the continuous delocalization of π-electrons and there is
a lateral overlapping of pi-electrons between the molecules.

To show that Pentacene is a p-type semiconductor:

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 6

Consider OTFT(Optical Thin Film Transistor) as shown above. Source and drain was
made of gold and semiconductor was Pentacene.
When a Positive voltage is applied to the gate, negative charges are induced at the source
electrode (Au). Since, electron flow cannot takes place from LUMO of Pentacene.
When a negative voltage is applied to the gate, holes are injected from source to
semiconductor because Fermi level energy of gold is close to energy of HOMO of
Pentacene.
A conducting channel is formed at the insulator and semiconductor interface and allows
the movement of charge carrier’s holes from source to drain when secondary voltage is
applied.
Therefore, Pentacene is considered as p-type semiconductor.
2. The N-type Organic Semiconducting Material Perfluoropentacene
An Organic molecule with π conjugated system with electron withdrawing substituent
groups and possess electrons as major charge carrier is called n- type semiconductor.
Where a p-type semiconductor Pentacene is modified with electronegative
fluorine atoms to lower the Lowest Unoccupied Molecular Orbital (LUMO) energy
levels of materials for electron injection and transport.
The HOMO-LUMO gaps of per fluorinated pentacene are smaller than those of the
corresponding Pentacene.

To show that Perfluropentacene is a n-Type semiconductor

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 7

Consider OTFT (Optical Thin Film Transistor) as shown above. Source and drain was
made of gold and semiconductor was Perfluropentacene.
When a Positive voltage is applied to the gate negative charges are induced at the source
electrode (Au). The source and drain electrodes inject electrons in its LUMO level.
This charge forms a conducting channel at the insulator and semiconductor interface and
allows the charge carriers electron from source to drain.
Therefore Perflouropentacene is considered as n-type semiconductor.
3. Polymeric material for Organic memory device
A volatile memory is a type of memory which cannot sustain the two distinct electronic
states without an external electronic power supply, that is, the written data will
disappear.
A non-volatile memory can sustain the two distinct states without the power supply, that
is, the written data will not disappear when an external electronic power supply is
removed.
Understanding the relationship between the chemical structure and memory properties
is a subject of utmost importance in the development of polymer memory materials.
One such polymer used for organic memory device is polyimide with donor-
triphenylamine and acceptor-phthalimide.

Donor: Triphenyl Amine group (TPA)

Acceptor: Phthalimide group
Hexafluoroisopropylidene (6F): Increases the solubility of PI
The donors and acceptors of PIs contribute to the electronic transition based on an
induced charge transfer (CT) effect under an applied electric field.
When an electric field more than threshold energy is applied, the electrons of the HOMO
(TPA unit) is excited to LUMO.
The energy of LUMO of donor and acceptor are similar and after excitation the electron
transferred to LUMO (acceptor), generating a CT state.
This permits the generation of holes in the HOMO, which produces the open channel for
the charge carriers to migrate through.
Therefore, Field-induced charge transfer from tri-phenylamine to exhibit the switching
behaviour (bistable states ON/OFF).

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 8

This device exhibits dynamic random access memory (DRAM) behaviour with an ON/OFF
current ratio of up to 105.
4. Organic-Inorganic hybrid materials
Generally organic-inorganic hybrid materials are composed of organic layers containing
inorganic materials. Inorganic materials used are allotropes of carbon like fullerenes,
carbon nanotubes, graphene, metal nanoparticles semiconductor nanoparticles and
inorganic quantum dots (QDs).
a. Organic carbon allotrope hybrid materials
Polymers containing electron donors such as thiophene, fluorine Carbazole and aniline
derivatives can be combined with fullerenes to obtain a charge transfer hybrid material
with donor-acceptor ability and electrical bi-stable states. Fullerenes exhibit high
electron withdrawing ability and can capture up to six electrons. They are used in WORM
memory effect devices.

b. Organic-Inorganic nanocomposites
These are the hybrid electronic memory division with organic polymer with appropriate
functional group is clubbed with metal nanoparticles, quantum dots and metal oxide
nanoparticles.
An example is a composite of eight hydroxyquinoline containing polymer with gold
nanoparticle sandwiched between two metal electrodes bi-stable electronic transition
states are observed when an electric field is applied due to charge transfer between the
Au nanoparticles and 8- hydroxyl quinolone.

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 9

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION

Classification of electronic memory based on storage type of the device:

Electronic memory can be divided into two primary categories: volatile and non-volatile
memory.
Non-volatile memory: Non-volatile memory (NVM) or non-volatile storage is a type of
memory that can retain stored information even after power is removed.
Volatile Memory: Volatile memory is a type of memory that maintains its data only while
the device is powered. If the power is interrupted for any reason, the data is lost.
Further it is divided as shown below:

ROM: Read Only Memory

 ROM is a non-volatile memory.
 Information stored in ROM is permanent.

 Information and programs stored on it, we can only read.

 Information and programs are stored on ROM in binary format.

 It is used in the start-up process of the computer.

WORM (Write Once Read Many times)
 Describes a data storage device in which information once written, cannot be
modified.
This write protection affords the assurance that the data cannot be tampered with once
it is written to the device, excluding the possibility of data loss from human error,
computer bugs, or malware
EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.

 Module-02 Memory Devices Applied Chemistry 10

 EPROM also called EROM, is a type of PROM but it can be reprogrammed.

 The data stored in EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed again by ultraviolet
light.
 Reprogrammed of it is limited.
 Before the eraof EEPROM and flash memory, EPROM was used in
microcontrollers.
Hybrid memories can be read and written as desired, like RAM, but maintain their
contents without electrical power, just like ROM. It is a Non-Volatile memory.
Flash is an electronic non-volatile computer memory storage medium that can be
electrically erased and reprogrammed.
Flash memory is a non-volatile memory chip used for storage and for transferring data
between a personal computer (PC) and digital devices.
EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory)
 Electronically erasable programmable read only memory, is a standalone memory
storage device such as a USB drive.
 It is a type of data memory device using an electronic device to erase or write
digital data.
RAM: Random Access Memory
 It is a computer's short-term memory. It can be read and changed in any order,
typically used to store working data and machine code.
 RAMs consist of ferromagnetic particles embedded in a polymer matrix having a
high dielectric constant. One of the most common RAMs is called iron ball paint,
which contains tiny metal-coated spheres suspended in an epoxy-based paint. The
spheres are coated with ferrite or carbonyl iron.
DRAM (Dynamic random access memory)
 It is a type of semiconductor memory that is typically used for the data or program
code needed by a computer processor to function.
 All DRAM chips manufactured to date use capacitors containing electrodes made
of doped silicon or polysilicon and dielectric films of silicon dioxide and/or silicon
nitride.
SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
 It is a type of RAM that holds data in a static form, that is, as long as the memory
has power.
 SRAM: It is made up of metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors
(MOSFETs).

MAHENDRA M.K. Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry, JCET-Hubballi.