Chapter 2 Materials for Electronic Applications 2.1 Nanomaterials , Introduction (Nanomaterials are materials whose characteristic length scale lies within the nanometric range (1-100 nm) at least in one dimension) “The word ‘nano’ has the origin from the Greck meaning ‘Dwarf". It is one billionth of a nietre (1/10" m), (Nanomaterials are ob- with any one of the three external dimensions at the nanoscale’) Nanoparticles that are he incidental byproducts ly Ily naturally occurring (eg; voleanic ash, soot from forest fires) or are U of combustion processes (eg; welding, diesel engines) are usually physically and chemica heterogeneous and often termed ultrafine particles. Engineered nanomaterials are intention produced and designed with very specific properties related to shape, size, surface properties and chemistry. These properties are reflected in aerosols, colloids, or powders. area than particle composition ignificantly from ‘The behavior of nanomaterials may depend more on sui itself. Two principal factors cause the properties of nanomaterials to differ s other materials: increased relative surface area, and quantum effects. These factors or enhance properties such as reactivity, strength and electrical characteristics. As a particle decreases in size, a greater proportion of atoms are found at the surface compared to those inside. For example, a particle of size 30 nm has 5 percentage of its atoms on its surface, at 10 nm 20 percentage of its atoms, and at 3 nm 50 percentage of its atomsy Thus nanomaterials have a much greater surface area per unit mass compared with la tices) As growth and catalytic chemical reactions occur at surfaces, this means that a given mass 6f material in nanoparticulate form will be much more reactive than the same mass of material made u p of larger particles. 2.1.1 Classification There are several ways of classification of nanomaterials. Here we discuss two types This ig the classification based on the number of 1. Classification based on dimensio1 dimensions, which are not confined to the nanoscale range (< 100 nm). : Here all the three dimensions are in the nanometric range (a) Zero dimension (0-D) eg; Nano particles. ybor (b) One dimension (1-D): Here one of the dimensions is outside the nanometre range and the other two are within the range eg; Nano wires, fibers and tubes. 47~ Chapter 22" jons are oul e dimensions are layers and coal (©) Two dimension (2-D): Here wo of lms. and one is within the range eg: Nane o dim (@) Three dimension (3-D): Here all the tubes, (> 100 nm) eg: Bundles of nano wires nsions are outst 2. Classification based on materials defined as mater! (@) Carb (CNT), wires. SP Ponent i grephene. ese are based nanomaterials: These af °° pure carbon eg; Carbon nano tbes ide the nanoMettic fap ultinano Inyers. de the nanomettie ray, ~ Nee ee n which the nangg pheres (fullerenes) go Ml are materials made g r etal-based nanomil re = dias (b) Metal based nanomaterials: Metal-base' etc. For example, titaniy, silver, metal oxides metallic nanoparticles like gold, dioxide (TiO). a erials contain (©) Nanocomposites: Composite nanomaterials cot ticles or compounds such as nanosized clays Wii™ @ cles gi 1, mechanical, and/or chem materi better physi (d) Nano polymers or Dendrimers: Dendrimers are ae branched units. These are tree-like molecules with de functionalized at the surface and can hide mole application of dendrimers is for drug delivery. (c) Biological nanomaterial: a mixture of simple nanopa., ik material. The nanoparg, properties to the initial buy scules in their cavities. A direo, These nanomaterials are of biological origin and are The i atures of these particle: used for nanotechnological applications. ‘The important feat Particles are i) self assembly properties and ii) s particles, nanostructured peptides. Various be designed to release compounds under specific cond delivery systems. 2.1.2 Synthesis of nanoparticles cific molecular recognition eg; DNA nang if assembled peptide structures cay jons and are used in drug There are many methods available for synthesis of nano-particles. Physical methods include Laser ablation, spluttering techniques etc. Some chemical methods are disc Chemical synthesis of nano particles 1. Hydroly: ssed below Nano particles of metal oxides can be prepared by the hydrolysis of their alkoxide solutions under controlled conditions. Commercially important nano particles of silica (S#O2),titania (T#O2), alumina (Al,O3) are prepared by this method. Hydrother- mal method and sol-gel method come under this category. Ti(OR)s + 2H2O + TiO, + 4ROH Sol-Gel method: The sol-gel method is based on the phase transformation of a sol into a gel. A sol is colloidal system of nano-solid particles di loidal system in which liquid droplets are dispersed in Hydrolysis of metallic alkoxides or metal salts can give and pH. The sol contains many other impurities persed in a liquid. A gel is col- network of solid nanoparticles. a sol at a suitable temperature In order to remove impurities sol is Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B) iii: se naaacaaalaaiilililia aChapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications 49 teansformed into a get by by filtration and washing nanoparticle. For example aluminium alkoxide by sol changing the pH or other factors. The gel can be purified with suitable solvents. The purified gel on drying give solid aluminium oxide nano particles are obtained by hydrolysis of -gel technique. ates +3H,O + Al(OH); + 3ROH ZA\CowwW, 2 Alo 2u.0 . Reduction: Nano parti Hy Al, 0, + BUC . Passi Particles of gold and silver can be prepared by the reduction of their mivcoseleie ; Hons using reducing agents, such as sodium borohydride, ascorbic acid, Tivided fing tae & With 4 protective agent like thyol, glucose etc. This method can be }© (Wo, reduction using reducing agents and electro reduction. Agt +07 > Ag Reduction using reducing agents: Silver nano particles can be prepared by the following method. 60 mL of 1 mM AgNO, solution is taken in a beaker, covered with a watch glass and heated in hot plate, ‘The solution is then stirred using a magnetic stirrer. On boiling the solution, omL of 10 mM of trisodium citrate is added dropwise, about one drop per second. The beaker is then closed and kept for some time till the colour of the solution changed to a light golden colour, Then it is allowed to cool. The solvent can be removed by freeze-drying. i 4 Elect al Refer 4 ae § aheel motes of Nanomaterials ‘hysical Properties: Crystal structure of nanoparticles is same as bulk structure with different lattice parameters. The inter-atomic spacing decreases with size and this is due to long range electrostatic forces and the short range core-core repulsion. The melting point of nanoparticles decreases with size. 2. Chemical Properties: A large fraction of the atoms are located at the surface of the anomaterial Which increase its reactivity and catalytic activity. Properties of materials with nanometer dimensions are significantly different from those of atoms and bulks ma- terials, This is mainly due to the nanometer size of the materials which render them: G) large fraction of surface atoms; (ii) high surface energy; (iii) spatial confinement; (iv) reduced imperfections; which do not exist in the corresponding bulk materials. These ma- terials have created a high interest in recent years by virtue of their unusual mechanical, electrical, optical and magnetic properties. Nanophase ceramics are of particular interest because they are more ductile at elevated temperatures as compared to the coarse-grained ceramics. Nanostructured semiconductors are known to show various non - linear opti- cal properties. Semiconductor Q-particles also show quantum confinement effects which may lead to special properties, like the luminescence. Applications: 1. Single nanosized magnetic particles are mono-domains. Magnetic nano-composites have been used for mechanical force transfer (ferrofluids), for high density information storage and magnetic refrigeration. 2, Nanostructured metal-oxide thin films are receiving a growing attention for the realisa- tion of gas sensors (NO,, CO, CO2, CH, and aromatic hydrocarbons). Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B). a ic Applicat; >: Materials for Electroni to Chapter 2: Gece dow layers in solar cells the production of 25 GEht materia, 3 w 3. Nanostructured semiconductors are used as WH 4. Nano sized metallic powders have been used for Cuenta Jectronic devices. , el 5. Carbon nanotube based transistors are used for miniaturizing 6. Carbon nanotube are used for making paper batteries used for making solar cells. TiOz is a semicondy, o-erystalline ! article. Nano TiO can be us. 7. A mixture of carbon nanotubes and fullerenes is 8. Microcrystalline 7:0, is an insulator, whereas nan Its Band gap can be tuned by controlling the size of nano-P- for making dye sensitised solar cells. ae red and functiona| 9. Nanoparticles are used in the fight against tumours, nanostucNONs’, Nye as surfaces and membranes improved diagnosis and more (ATE ts, neuro active implants. tana G: its size. It can 10. Nang Cadmium telluride exhibit different colour depending 4Po? be used for dyeing fabrics, such nano colourants never fades. 2.1.3. Graphene hhene is an allotrope of carbon consisting of mono layer of carbon atom Siranged in a two-dimensional honey comb lattice (fig 2.1). It can be visualized as a single Iyer extracted from the layered structure of graphite. Graphite is three-dimensional whereas graphene is to dimensional with one atom thickness. Graphene is defined 2s “the two-dimensional mono. layer of carbon atoms, which is the basic building block of graphitic materials (1.¢. fullerene, nanotube, graphite)”. c It is considered to Be one of the most promising materials of the century and gained world. ptical, and mechanical prop. wide attention due to its extraordinary charge transport, thermal, ©} | thinnest, strongest material that conducts heat and elec- erties. It is considered to the lighte: ticity. It is stronger than diamond and ten times more conducting than copper. Nobel Prize in Physics 2010 was awarded to Andre Geim and Konstantin Novoselov for the hene. There are various methods available for the ground breaking experiments regarding g1 synthesis of graphene, which includes the following, Mechanical exfoliation method (such as Scotch tape method): Encompasses the repeated tL aphite using adhesive tape. This was the method employed by peeling off layers of Geim and Novoselov. Involves the deposition of carbon atoms onto a substrate of a carbon-containing precursor gas such as methane . Chemical vapor depositio (like copper) in the presenc nv Silicon cxrbide substrate is heated under ultra-high vac- icon atoms and deposition of carbon atoms to . Thermal decomposition on uum which results in the sublimation of form graphene layers on the SiC surface. Graphene oxide reduction method: Graphite oxide, obtained from graphite, is chemically treated to exfoliate into graphene oxide (GO), which is then reduced to graphene. mn Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B) Chemistry for Informatio}Chapter 2: Mi aterials ‘erials for Electronic Applications 3 ferent techni ; : a cae (SEM & Tang 28 optical microscope, atomic force microscopy (AFM), electron mi s EM) are used for the characterization of graphene. Figure 2.1: Honey comb lattice of graphene In graphene the carbon atoms are sp? hybridized and are arranged in hexagonal fashion. Each hexagonal ring comprises of three strong in-plane sigma bonds, with a bond length of 0.142 nm, and a Pz orbitals perpendicular to the plane. These orbitals hybridize together to form two half-filled bands of free-moving electrons, w and x*, which are responsible for most of graphene’s notable electronic properties. [Link] Properties of graphene Electrical conductivity: Graphene has high electrical conductivity. Graphene, being two- dimensional material shows Quantum Hall effect. They behave as massless rel (Dirac fermions) which allows the electron speed comparable to light. They ha mobility compared to metals. ivistic particles e high electron Mechanical strength and elasticity: They possess high clastic modulus and strength. It is 200 times stronger than steel. Graphene is highly is flexible and can be stretched by up to 20% of its original length without undergoing structural damage. Thermal Conductivity: Graphene exhibits excellent thermal conductivity and is highly efti- cient for heat dissipation and thertnal management applications. Optical: Graphene absorbs only 2.3% of incident light over a broad w: hence makes it suitable for applications in transparent electrodes for dis screens ete. welength range and ays, solar cells, touch- Surface area: It has high surface area due to its single-atom thickness and hence useful for applications in energy storage devices. Graphene is chemically inert, stable and biocompatible also. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)Chapter 2; Materials for Electronic Applications 2 Applications of graphene 1, Electronics: (a) Due to its lower resistance and higher transparency, graphene-based thin film can be used in touchscreens, which is found to be superior than indium tin oxide. (b) Smaller size transistors can be developed using graphene which shows better per- formance. 2. Energy storage: (a) Graphene incorporated lithium-ion batteries have longer life span, faster charging time and higher capacity. (b) It can improve the efficiency of hydrogen fuel cell by lowering fuel cross over (fuel permeating through the electrolyte or membrane to the opposite side of the fuel cell). (©) Graphene is used in supereapacitors to provide high energy densi 3. Biomedi al (a) Suitably functionalized graphene can be used to carry chemotherapy drugs to cancer cells. (b) Graphene-based biosensors are highly sensitive when detecting DNA, ATP, dopamine etc, 4. Composites and coatin (a) By combining graphene with paint, a unique graphene coating is formed which will effectively prevent rusting. (b) Graphene in the carbon-fibre coating of aircraft's wing resists impact better and consumes less fuel. (c) Graphene-based composites and coatings could play a significant role in improving sports equipment for skiing, cycling etc. 5. Environmental: (a) Graphene based membranes can purify water in a more efficient, cheaper and envi- ronmental friendly way. (b) It can be used in filters and coatings to remove pollutants and toxins from the air. 2.1.4 Carbon Nanotubes Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with cylindrical nanostructures. They are conceptually graphene sheet rolled into a tube. CNTs were discovered in 1991 by the Japanese electron microscopist Sumio Iijima who was studying the material deposited on cathode dur- ing the arc-evaporation synthesis of fullerenes. There are different methods available for the synthesis of CNTs with different structure and morphology. Are-discharge method, laser ab- lation/evaporation method, chemical vapor deposition method etc. are the commonly used methods for the synthesis of CNTs. . Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)53 Carbon nanotubes are one-dimnan, : and are generally only a fee aamensional nano particles with diameter measuring 1-50 nm nanoscopic hollow fibre or patisrometres in length, They are molecular scale tubes and are acterised by high tensile strempan ceo His 10" tines thinner than hums hairs They are chin, ae arstau lena (oe a ength and according to structure are conductive or semi conductive, ‘ ; es stronger than steel, but i ate fa . but o SAG, ion, the conduct Heat and electricity far better than capper NAH As dense, In wdlition, they [Link] Classification of CNT here are t . 5 ‘There are two types of CNT hamely single-walled (SWCNT, one tube) and multi-walled (MWECNT, several concentric tubes). Both or v S). h of these are typically a a vi and several micrometres to centimetres long a : SWCNT can be visualized as rolled-up tubular shell of graphene sheet, Based on the vari- ations arising from the specific orientation and rolling of g aphene sheets, SWCNTs are clan- rl lr e..:—rt—“itiOCOOC~C*C@COCSC~Ci*Ci*C*SCS exhibit a symmetrical Oe te rll Ge allen ith te hee gona! iniiles oF phene, resulting in maleate Slezad into. on ths aie: lad, gre Gres vic rolling ax along the zigzag pattern of the graphene lattice, leading to edges that consist solely of zig eens he rete Gy oll, ale at tends oe cs Eraphene lattice, resulting in unequal edge lengths and a helical structure, ‘The optoclectronic Properties of carbon nanotubes vary s gnificantly with molecular structure and diameter of the tube. MWCNT is a stack of graphene sheets rolled up into concentric cylinders, There are three different models proposed for MWCNT namely Russian doll model, Parchment model and mixed model. In Russian doll model, sheets of graphene are arranged into concentric cylinders whereas in Parchment model single graphene shect is rolled around itself, similar to a scroll of parchment. Mixed model is a mixture of both Russian doll and Parchment model. Classification of CNTs is shown in figure 2.2 Carbon Nanotubes GP. walled CNTs Multi walled CNTs ee Armchair Zigzag Chiral. Russian doll Parchment Mixed B a) ' model mode! Figure 2.2: Classification of carbon nanotubes Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)telescoping po ufiaterto lescor fea ‘Chapter 2: Ma est materials. Single walled jay, y seit sompressing HALTOM ten” mater fe formed between the ing, P without deformation, My {bit telescoping Property, 2.14.2 Properties of Carbon Nanot Strength and hardness: ‘They are the a otubes (SWNTS) are used for synthesizing super han! Perature. High stre sould be attributed to the covil vidual carbon at ny withstand a pressure UPE walled 1 ed inner ® ptubes (MWNT) without inter connects vest and ells exh aor than metals. ELTON tray, be annel- Ballistic Trang thre F Por, fy vith relatively HID temp, ity is rough sm200! tiv Electrical conductivity: ‘Their clectrical conduc 8 through a CNT behaves like a wave travelling condi MWNTs with interconnected inner shells show superee atures, er than metals. Al nanotubes od insulators laterally tg is found 16 bg 9 is bet tube but arbon nanotubes Their thermal conductivity alse along the stability of € ‘Thermal conductivity: re expected to be very good thermal conductors the tube axis- Ballistic Conduction. The therm upto 2800°C in vacuum and about 750°C in ait, [Link] Applicatio rates nn made that operates at room, ve bee! ‘ electronic devices. 1. Electrical circuits: Nanotube bas temperature, Carbon nanotubes are used for min! _ optimised electrical > applications. and thermal properties 2. Energy storage: Due to high surface a they are widely employed in energy stor: ¢ 1 paper-thin shee A paper battery is a battery engineered £0 use & Paper thin sheet ves a steady power output, 4 quick explode of high (@) Paper Batter of cellulose infused with aligned carbon nanotubes. IC gives 9 functions as a super-capacitor which give 3 This battery energy. ; (b) Solar Cells: CNT-fullerene hybrid s cell is formed by a mixture of carbon nan- otubes and fullerenes, Electrons trapped inside fullerenes are excited by sunlight leading to the flow of this electrons, which produce the current. CNT acts as the conductive pathway. (©) They are used for making ultra-capacitors which provide a large surface to store electrical charge 3. Aerospace and automotive industry: Due to easier molding, high strength, stiffness, and reduced weight, CNT polymer composites are preferred for aerospace and automo- tive applications. ge of hydro- 4. Research is also being carried out to assess the ability of CNTs for the stora gen, 2.1.5 Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) Carbon quantum dots are zero-dimensional small carbon nano particle. It consists of ultra- fine, distributed, quasi-spherical carbon nanoparticles with size less than 10 nm. Recently they have attained much attention due to their good solubility and strong luminescence proper- ties. CQDs are found to be much more superior than traditional semiconductor quantum dots Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)Chapter 2: Matenals for Electronic Applications —_——— due to its lower molecular weight, reduced toxicity, ease of surface functionalization, cost- effectiveness, exceptional fluorescence stability, tunable emission wavelengths, strong biocom- patibility etc. Carbon quantum dot was first discovered by Nu et al. in 2004 accidentally during the purifi- cation of single-walled carbon nanotubes via electrophoresis. It can be synthesised using (wo main methods: "top-down" and "bottom-up", The top-down approach involves breaking down large carbon structures into small CQDs using techniques like chemical oxidation, laser ab- lation. are discharge, and electrochemical synthesis, The bottom-up method invalves building CQDs from small carbon molecules through processes like hydrothermal synthesis, microwave- assisted synthesis, and pyrolysis, which allows control over their size and shape. Synthesised particles can be purified using electrophoresis, centrifugation, dialysis, column chromatogra phy ete. [Link] Properties Optical: CQDs shows absorption mainly in the UV region which can extent to the visible re- gion also. They exhibit strong fluorescence, photoluminescence and chemiluminescence which makes them useful in imaging and sensing applications. They can be excited by various wave- lengths of light and often display tunable emission spectra. Stability and biocompatibility: CQDs show excellent photostability and biocompatible with less toxicity than other quantum dots and hence suitable for medicinal and biological applica tions. [Link] Applications 1. Biomedical: (2) Due to its fluorescence property, better biocompatibility and low biotoxicity they are employed in fluorescent bioimaging. (>) CQDs are used as biosensor carriers because of their solubility in water, tunable ex- citation property, excellent biocompatibility and photostability. CQDs-based biosen- sors can visually monitor various substances including glucose, copper, phosphate, iron, potassium, and nucleic acids. (c) They are used in drug delivery systems also. 2. Optoelectronics: (a) CQDs have shown potential in enhancing the performance of DSCs due to their stable light absorption properties, photostability and low cost. By creating CQD- bridged dye/semiconductor complex systems, CQDs improve the photoelectric con- version efficiency significantly. (b) CQD-based hybrids have been identified as excellent materials for supercapacito: CQD-fuO; hybrid show remarkable electrochemical performance. 3. Lighting: Due to their stable light emitting, low cost and eco-friendliness they are used as LED materials. Switchable electroluminescence behaviour makes it useful for devel- oping colourful LEDs.juyptet ? Mawes Ny chante 56 vataty tie depeilAton af oy a priate tty rate oligo Kone adtyo tinprove t snshit al fae nle Nt aLiYige 4. Knvironmental: CONS ea NT ay 9 ate ay bea clown HAT Orga r 42 , ke pollutants and dyes in water enhances the eftivieney of phot compounds, oe ataly sts Jopa/ti2s) enlanes photowatas py, comptes (CQDS Vig pp8 THO. © «Catalysts: CQDs-moditied P25 hydrogen evolution, a opartietes nto OF CAH00 Htgyys fulaniaated in thelr Nobel Pye ved alter Richatd Huckmninge timex called bucky hay, 2.1.6 Fullerenes a J elosedd cae Fullerenes are zero-dimensional, hollow, aut ep saalley ‘The discovery of fullerenes in LO8S by Cull, cv 2a), are wn in 1996, Fullerenes, or Buckminster rulterene i Fad ate SOUT Faller the architect and designer of the geodesic Figure 2.2: C60 “bucky ball” fullerene toms in the spherical carbon Fullerene molecules are denoted based on the number of carbon nthe § r ball. The smallest fullerene reported with twenty carbon atoms as C20 followed by C24 and C28 analogues. Each fullerene generally contains 12 pentagonal and (n/2-10) hexagonal rings, where n > 20. C60 fullerene, known as the Buckminster fullerene is the primarily discovered and most widely studied form of fullerene. In 1990, a technique to produce larger quantities of C60 was developed by heating graphite rods in a helium atmosphere. ‘The sooty material formed by smaller quantity of C70 (rugby condensation of vaporized carbon consists of mainly C60 with ball shape) sand traces of fullerenes consisting of even number of carbon atoms up to 350 oF above. It is composed of fused pentagonal and hexagonal carbon rin; It contains 12 five membered rings (12 x 5= 60 atoms) and 20 six membered rings, possess perfect icosahedral mmetry. The geometry is same as that of soccer football. Chemistry for InformationChapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications 7 Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive, The sp hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle Strain. The characteristic reaction of fullerenes i: electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp? hybridized carbons into #p? hybridized ones. The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease fron about 120° [Link] sp? orbitals to about 109.5° in the sp? orbitals, This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable, [Link] Properties Physical: | Fullerenes are extremely strong molecules, able to resist great pressures - they will bounce back to their original shape after being subject to over 3,000 atmospheres. This property makes fullerenes become harder than steel and diamond. An inter sting experiment shows that Fullerenes can withstand collisions of up to 15,000 mph against stainless steel, merely bouncing back and keeping their shapes. This experiment demonstrates the high stability of the molecule. Solubility: Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in many solvents. Common solvents for the fullerenes include aromatics, such as toluene, and others like carbon disulfide. Solutions of pure buckminster fullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of C70 are a reddish brown. ‘The higher fullerenes C76 to C84 have a variety of colors. Electrical: Fullerenes are normally electrical insulators, but when crystallized with alkali metals, the resultant compound can be conducting or even superconducting. Light absorption: Fullerenes absorb strongly in the UV and moderately in the visible regions of the spectrum. Chemical: The carbon atoms within a Fullerene molecule are sp? and sp? hybridized, of which the sp? carbons are responsible for the considerably angle strain presented within the molecule. C60 and C70 exhibit the capacity to be reversibly reduced with up to six electrons. [Link] Applications + 1. Coatings and lubricant: (a) Fullerenes are used for making durable, high-performance coatings that resist wear and corrosion. (b) Fullerenes are used as miniature ‘ball bearings’ to lubricate surfaces. C60 can be used used as excellent microscopic ball bearings, lubricant and catalyst. 2. Biomedical: (a) Fullerenes can be used to deliver drugs to specific cells or tissues due to their ability to form stable complexes with various molecules. : (b) Fullerenes can be used as contrast agents in imaging techniques such as MRI or ultrasound. 3. Energy storage: Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)(Cpe tee eer ante Plies ay ny Joyed energy storag eS due to, te ~ tives are empl (@) Fullerenes and their derivate electrical conductivity and s' drogen. (b) They can be used to store hydroge! 4. Environmental: lutants and contaminants, ral of pol (a) Used in water treatment for the remov: ins and pollutants. ' al toxins an (b) Used in sensors for detecting environment 2.2 Polymers sses obtained by the covalent link, rs, The repeating chemical unj, mer in a polymer then it is known ‘The number of repeating units two or more different monoms” Polymers are molecules with large molecular ma: several small repeating chemical units called monome be same or different. If there is only one type of mono! , homopolymer, eg. Polyethylene, Poly propylene ee ie _ called the degree of polymerization. A co-polymer is ma¢ : species, eg. ‘butadiene-styrene (BS) Acrylonitrile Soe ners Fa ©n the types of polymerizations, polymers can be broadly divided into addition (£8: PVC. neoprene gic.) and condensation polymers (PET, bakelite etc). Two special clSSSe5 Of Polymers vg, fire-retardant polymers and conducting polymers will be discussed in .pter. Be of may 2.2.1 Fire-retardant Polymers gee ‘Methylol phenol Novolac Sees Hy Bb oS on Bakelite Poy O KTH Polyimide Polybenzoxazole Figure 2.4: Examples for non-halogenated fire-retardant polymers. Chemistry for Info for Group A & B)Chapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications 59 Most of te Polymers contain organic compounds as monomers and are flammable. [Fire retardant polymers resist ignition and slow the spread of flames. Nitrogen based polymers such as melamine-formaldehyde, inorganic polymers such as silicone polymers ete comes un der the category of fire-retardant polymers. {Phenolic polymers such as novolac, bakelite ete and aromatic heterocyclic polyimid: polybenzoxazoles ete are also examples of intrinsically fire-resistant polymers\(t Inorganic additis such as aluminium hydroxide, magnesium hydroxid phate etc. and organophosphorus compounds (such as DMMP, BDP) polymers to enhance their fire resistance. mmmonium polypho 1 be incorporated into Halogenated polymers are also fire system which contains radicals such a rdant polymers (Fire is a free radical chain reaction i H*, OU", OOH*, CH ete. In the ease of halogenated polymers like PVC, Poly brominated styrene ete halogen radical (Cl, Br*) is also introdt into the fire, which combines with H radical and OH radic HX and HOX (where X can be Cl or Br) respectivel Among halogens Bromine is found to be mote efte s to form stable mole: resulting in quenching of cha ve in quenching fire”) Examples of chlorine containing polymers are polyvinylchloride (PVC) and chloroprene rub: ber (neoprene). Poly(bromo styrene) and brominated butyl rubber are examples of bromine containing polymers. Brominated butyl rubber is synthesised by the bromination of butyl rub- ber. Structures of the polymers are given in fig 2. 5. NCH, ==CHCL —~— for, ont | n Vinyl chloride pve i nCHy-—=E—cH CH, —— -fon— CH—CH, cl cl ‘Chloroprene Neoprene . a — Br Br Bromostyrene Poly bromostyrene CH, \l CHC HoH Br Brominated butyl rubber Figure 2.5: Examples for halogenated fire-retardant polymers. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & BYjmeriats for Bleetonle Apptio,, Chapter 2: MP i 60 yee they FeMAIN HN The egy ¢ tion, abustion oF de; oh recon ducts during not mu Use of halogenated polymers are logenated poly oie DY ment for Jong periods and can releas 1 ‘nt for Jong periods and can rel mpounds, especially tho. “phey will release haloxey, 6% on openated ¢ waited polymer. ieee Janne, Note: Apart from these haloge I as fire retard heen used A® taining bromine or chlorine, and interfere with the combustic process. J dipheny! ethe jolybrominat " ers (py 131). Pe rodosdeeane GIBCD). polyey, rormacture of the COMPOUNS are h hon ols (PI Examples include polybrominated biphenols ( ‘ Biv DEs), tetrabromobisphenol AC BBPA) ond nated biphenyls (PCBs) and trichloroethylene in fig 2.6, ‘TBBPA puts Pape ren 7 Hy cp Figure 2.6; Halogenated fire-retatrdants 2.2.2 Conducting Polymers In general, polymers are found to be insulators. With in the past few years, a new class of organic polymers have been synthesized which possess remarkable ability to conduct electrical current.(A polymer which can conduct electricity is termed as conducting polymer. [Among many polymers known to be conductive, poly acetylene, poly an and poly pyrrole have been studied most} However, the conductive polymer that was actually launched this new field was poly acetylene. ation: Conducting polymers can be classified into following types [Link] Intrinsically conducting polymers ‘These polymers have extensive conjugation in the backbone which is responsible for con- ductance. This is again classified as Chemistry for Information Science and Blectrical Science (Common for Group A & B)Chapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications 41 Conducting polymers Invinsically Conducting Extrinuically Conducting ——J ————aer — Conductive Blended Conducting Dopedcondveting | | clement conducting polymers Raving polymers. filled polymers Conjugated 7 electrons polymers - an 1. Conjugated = - electron conducting Polymers: A key property of a conducting polymer is the presence of conjugated double bonds along the backbone of the polymer. The orbitals of conjugated 7 - electrons overlap over the entire backbone of the polymer, resulting in the formation of valence bands and conduction bands, which extends over the entire polymer molecule. The highest occupied band is called valence band and lowest unoccupied band is the conduction band, “These bands are separated by significant band gap. Thus electrical conduction would occur when electron from valence band are excited to conduction band either thermally or photolytically eg. polyacetylene and polyaniline. Addition polymerisation Xf ~P nu _ acetylene potyacetylene [0] CY o. - n € yin, endl eae it 4 nH,0 cnidaune polymeriation ; a aniline poly aniline rer hamisuy for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)62 Chapter 2: Materials for Electronic Application, 2. Doped conducting polymers: In comparison to conventional polymers the conducting polymers with conjugated x. electrons in their backbone can be easily oxidized or reduced as they have low ionization potentials and high electron affinities, ie; their conductivities can be increased by creating positive or negative charge on polymer backbone by oxidation or reduction. This process is referred to as ‘Doping’ and are of two types (a) p-doping: It is done by oxidation process. In this process some electrons from x ~ bond of the conjugated double bonds are removed and the holes so created can move along the molecule, ie; the polymer becomes electrically conductive. The radical cation produced is called ‘polaron’. The polarons are mobile and can move along the polymer chain by rearrangement of double and single bonds and hence the polymer become conducting. The oxidation process is generally brought about by Lewis acids such as FeCl. , ale WA AA SA FO { poreorte RADA ommestion of «poor thong confit pds chain by shifting of duble bonds Figure 2.7: p-doping (polaron movement) (b) n-doping: In this type of doping some electrons are introduced into the polymer having conjugated double bonds by reduction with Lewis bases like lithium, sodium naphthalide etc. The reduction of polyacetylene by a Lewis base leads to the for- mation of anion called ‘polaran’ and bipolaran in two steps. Pete Propesation of a hpoloran through a conjugated polymer chain by shifting of doubt bonds Figure 2.8: n-doping (polaran movement) or Group A & B) Chemistry for InfoChapter 2; Materials for Electronic Applications ae polymers “Repeating unit Trans-poly acetylene A277 Poly anili . oly aniline iin n BF, ; Pos $~-Os- oe " Helo, |s00-7500 200 [Link]. Extrinsically conducting polymers There are conducting polymers whose conductivity is due to the presence of externally added ingredients in them, 7 1. Conductive element filled polymer: These are polymers which are filled with conduct- ing elements such as carbon black, metallic fibers, metal powders etc. The polymer acts as a binder to hold the conducting elements together. These polymers are, (i) low in cost, (ii) light in weight (iii) mechanically durable and strong, (iv) easily processable in different forms, shapes and sizes. This type is used in making computer key boards. 2. Blended conducting polymers: These polymers are obtained by blending conducting polymers with conventional polymers. These polymers possess better physical, chemical and mechanical properties. 2 pry) _ py - PYC blend 2.2.3 Polyaniline (PANI) The oxidative product of aniline under acidic conditions is known as aniline black from 1862. Since 1980s polyaniline captured the intense attention of the scientific community due to the rediscovery of high electrical conductivity. Chemical synthesis 1. Chemical method: Aqueous solution of ammonium per sulphate is added slowly to a solution of aniline dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid at a temperature of 5°C’ under agitation. After an hour a precipitate is formed, which can be removed by filtration. The polymer thus obtained is washed with ammonium hydroxide solution and dried. 2. Electro-chemical method: When thin film or better ordered polymer is required an elec- trochemical oxidation method is preferred. It is done by dipping platinum foil electrodes on acidified aqueous solution of aniline and a potential of 0.7 V is applied, then polyani- line film is formed on the surface of the positive electrode. Properties Among various conducting polymers, polyaniline (PANI) is a unique and promis- ing candidate for potential applications because of its stability, in air and solubility in some Chemistry for Information Science and aaod aid eee Pe a —— + 1 H,0 ( . —_— a é Ninty oly aniline aniline ah 1 Ir also exhibits dramatic changes in its electronic structure and physical prop- oryumte solvents, [also exhibits drama tracted much attention for its magnetic behaviour tion cently PANI | cities on protonation, Recent : beat vo aveshibity high spin density and ferromagnetic spin-spin inter: the colour change associated with polyaniline in different oxidation states can be used in sors and electrochromic devices. Polyaniline is more noble than copper and slightly less sensors and electrochromic devices e ; ‘ | hohle than silver whieh is the basis for its broad use in printed circuit board manufacturing and good conductor comparable to copper, whereas in corrosion protection, Doped poly at the original form is a ‘ondui Applications \ As electrode material for rechargeable batteries. 2. In the dissipation of static electric charges in metallic containers. \. As shield in complex electronic circuits and electromagnetic radiations. 4. In biosensors and solar energy absorption. 2.2.4 Polypyrotle 0! Polypyrrole is one of the most promising m is an inte ‘terial with multifunctionalised applications. It ducting polymer with conjugated double bonds. Preparation: I can be prepared by electrochemical or chemical polymerization. 1. Electro hemieal method: Polypyrrole can be synthesized by electrochemical technique 4s follows, By the electrolysis of pyrrole (0.06 M) in aqueous acetonitrile solution us- tng platinuny electrodes and tetraethy! ammonium boron tetrafluoride as the supporting electrolyte (0.01 M), the polymer will be precipitated as a blue black film on the anode. 2, Chemical method: Polypyrrole can be synthesized by chemi tion technique using monomer pyrrole and al oxidative polymeriza- ammonium per sulfate as oxidant in the ratio ied out in a beaker by mixing 0.1 M aqueous nd 0.1 M of ammonium per sulfate in 1:1 ratio for 3 hrs. The polymer precipitates out, The PPy tilms can also be deposited on pre-cleaned glass substrate, 11 The chemical polymerization can be e; solution of pyrrole Chemistry for Information Science and Ele ical Science (Common for Group A & B)Chapter 2: Materials fi 0] [0] re \ ee +n 1,0 oxidative polymerisatio Ny dn 8 polypyrrole pyrrole nd mechanical properties. It has good sistance was found to decrease Properties: PPy has excellent electrical, the! environmental stability and higher conductivity. The electrical as temperature increases and hence conductivity increases, The decrease of resistance is due (0 the increase of efficiency of charge transfer in PPy with increase in temperature, PPy films are yellow but darken in air due to oxidation, Doped films are blue black depending on the degre of polmerisation and film thickness. They are amorphous and give weak diffraction, Pare PPy san insulator while its oxidative derivatives are good electrical conductors, Applications of Polypyrrole (PPy) 1. Polypyrrole is used mostly in biosensors and immunosensors, because of its biocomp ibiliy mechanical match Compared with metal and inorganic materials, doped PPy has bette! with live tissue, resulting in its many applications in biomedical field. 3. Ithave applications in issue engineering. sensitized solar cells. 4, Itis also employed as counter electrodes in dy’ 2.2.5 Applications of conducting polymers 1. In Rechargeable Batteries: The conducting polymers can be used as cathodes and solid plications. These batteries have high re small in size. electrolytes in batteries for automotive and other reliability, light weight, non leakage of electrolyte and a niline show different colours in different oxidation 1 be used to produce “smart windows” and cle indows which change colour in ri Some conducting polymers like po! forms. This electrochromic property ca trochromic displays. [Smart windows are the to sunlight or temperature changes} yonse also used in electro-luminascence OLED displays like TV, mobile phone etc: These are 4. Inanalytical sensors: These polymers are used for making sensors for pH, O2, NO; SC and glucose detection. eg. In Al, polymer/Au photovoltaic cells, In photovoltaic device: 6. Inclectronics: It can be used in Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs), electromagnetic shield- ing. electron beam lithography, ete. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)66 chapter 2: Materials for Electronic Application, ee SS 2 ne — 2.3 Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) ng diode (LED) in which the emis. d which emits light in response ,, nic light - emitting diode (OLED) is a light-emitti sive electroluminescent layer is a film of organic compound Whit MTT A ae an electric current. This layer of organic semiconductor is situated DF ATEN A EAN es: a least one of these electrodes is transparent. There are two main famil * (those 5 le. employing conducting polymers (ii) those based on small molecul is HOMO-LUMO transitions) The (Principle: B pancie g: v1 LED 2 (Principle: The principle of conjugated polymer ee iting elecirocheTied ort basic principle of small molecule OLED is the creation of. (LEC) on adding mobile ions to an OLED. OLED employing conducting polymers | A typical OLED is composed of a layer of organic materials situated between two elec. trodes, the anode and cathode, all deposited on a substrate. “The organic molecules are elec. trically conductive as a result of delocalization of 7-electrons caused by conjugation of the molecule. These materials have conductivity levels ranging from insulators to conductors, and are therefore considered organic semiconductors. The highest occupied and lowest unoccu- pied molecular orbitals (HOMO and LUMO) of organic semiconductors are analogous to the valence and conduction bands of inorganic semiconductors like silicon. The organic compounds used in OLEDs include derivatives of poly(p-phenylene vinylene) (PPV) and polyfluorene. Substitution of side chains onto the polymer backbone may determine the colour of emitted light, | RR \ - OO, | Poly(para-phenylene vinylene} polyfluorene Construction: Many modern OLEDs incorporate a simple bilayer structure, consisting of a conductive layer and an emissive layer. A typical organic light emitting diode (OLED) structure consisting of a glass substrate, a indium tin oxide (ITO) anode, and an organic bilayer diffused into a metallic cathode, as given below. The organic bilayer consists of a hole transport layer (HTL) and an emitting/electron transport layer (EML/ETL). The emissive layer and the con- ducting layer is made up of organic molecules (both being different). The emissive layer used in an OLED is made up of n-type polymer molecules, out of which the most commonly used is polyfluorene. The conducting layer is made up of p-type polymer, and the commonly used component is polyaniline. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)layey © Figure 2.9: Schematic of a bil radiation, 4. Conductive layer, 4, Metal cathode ( Working: To make an OLED light up, we simply attach a voltage (potential difference) across the anode and cathode. As the electricity starts to flow. the cathode receives electrons from the power source and the anode loses them, Now we have a situation where the added electrons are making the n-type emissive layer negatively charged, while the p-type conductive layer is becoming positively charged. Positive holes are much more mobile than negative elec~ they jump a the boundary from the conductive layer to the emissive layer. When a gle electron z-bond) meets an electron, the two things cancel out and release a brief burst of energy in the form of a quantum of light or a photon, in other words. This proces: is called recombination, and because it's happening many times a second the OLED produces continuous light for as long as the current keeps Nowing. ‘ Note: In conventional LED like GaAs and GaN electrons are more mobile than holes so p= region is the emissive layer. ‘Small-molecule OLED amdwiched between electrodes. The organic layers adja- cent to cathode and anode are the electron transport layer (ETL) and the hole transport layer (HTL), respectively. Emissive layer (EML) usually consists of light-emitting dyes or dopants dispersed in a suitable host material, Molecules like quinacridone derivatives are often used. Aluminium quinacridone (Alg3) has been used as a green emitter (fig.2.10). It consists of three organic layers Advantages of OLED 1, The manufacture of OLED is highly economical and is more efficient than LCD and flat panel screens. Eo ot 2. OLED display can be printed cloths and fabrics by ink jet printing. This technology will help in carrying huge displays in our hands. 3. There is much difference in watching a high-definition TV to a OLED display. As the contrast ratio of OLED is very high (even in dark conditions), it can be watched from an angle nearly 90 degrees without any difficulty. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B) Ewissive Conducttve layer HTL) deh TL) (Pelyf tnorendMaterials for Electronic Applications 68 Figure 2.10: Aluminium quinacridone (Alq3) 4. No backlight is produced by this device and the power consumption is also very less. 5. OLED has a refresh rate of 100,000 Hz which is almost 9900 Hz greater than an LCD display. 6. The response time is less than 0.01 ms. LCD needs a response time of 1 ms. klitte the applecattons of OLED- 2.4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) Escalation in global population and energy consumption demand the urgent shift towards renewable energy sources. Among various renewable energy sources, solar energy stands out as the most practical due to its efficiency, low fabrication cost, and environmental benefits. A solar cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Conventional solar cells use crystalline silicon semiconductors. It works on the principle of photovoltaic cell. Here photons of light knock electrons from atoms within the semiconductor material, creating an electric current. DSSCs were developed as an efficient and environmentally benign alternative to silicon based solar cells. (A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSCs) is a photoelectrochemical cell. which converts solar light absorbed by the dye to electric energy. It is a thin-film solar cell. ] 2.4.1 Construction of Dye-sensitized solar cells ADSSC mainly consists of a substrate, transparent conductive oxide layer (TCO), semicon ductor metal oxide nano particle, organic / inorganic dye, electrolyte and counter electrode. Substrate is generally made up of glass or flexible transparent plastic, TCO is coated on the substrate. Transparent conductive oxide (TCO): Thin film of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) or Fluorine- doped Tin Oxide (FTO) acts as TCO. Semiconductor metal oxide nano particles: Semiconducting metal oxides with high surface area and wide band gaps are used in DSSCs. TiO; is the commonly used metal oxide. Other metal oxide like ZnO and SnO? are also used. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)Chapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications ba Dye/photo sensitiser: Surface of the metal oxide particle is coated with dye molecules. ese dye molecules are responsible for absorbing sunlight and inject the photoexcited elec trons to the conduction band of the semiconductor, Dye-sensitized metal oxide semiconductor acts as the anode, Ruthenium-based complexes and organic dyes are commonty used. Natural dyes extracted from plants can also be used as photo sensitiser. Electrolyte: Redox couple iodide/triiodide solution is used as the electrolyte. Electrolyte should have good contact with the dye-sensitized metal oxide semiconductor and the counter electrode, Counter electrode: Platinum or graphite-based materials are employed as the counter elec~ which acts as the cathode. It facilitates the reduction of the oxidized dye molecules and he electrical circuit, Schematic representation of DSSC employing titanium dioxide semiconductor and iodide/triiodide electrolyte is given in fig. 2.11, Nano TiO, Ptlayer Oye Figure 2.11: Schematic representation of DSSC (Source: [Link] 133512) 24.2. Working of Dye-sensitized solar cells Sunlight passes through the transparent conductive oxide layer and the dye molecules coated on the metal oxide semiconductor absorb the light. The electrons of the dye molecule then get excited and are injected into the conduction band of the metal oxide semiconductor, These electrons travel through metal oxide and move towards the external circuit to generate electric current. Electrons reach the counter electrode through the circuit and generate electricity, The oxidized dye molecules will get reduced by gaining electrons from the electrolyte and come Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)" Chapter 2: Materials for tronic Application diffuse towards the counte back to thew original form, The ovidized electrolyte spec! Tele trode and get reduced, s tw produce the current Phis process continues of DSSC + The fabrication of DSSCs is simpler processes compared fo conventional sHicon sola, cells. 2.4.3 Advantag 1 can be advantageous for applications on vehicles and portate * They are lightweight whi devices, They are flexible in shape, and size and hence can be implemented on windows, terraces, facades, ete + Naturat pigments and organic dyes can be employed makes them more sust ccottiendly and attordable inable, 2.4.4 Applications of DSSC | g SSCs are mainly used for sunlight harvesting * Since they can be used in window, facades ete... they can generate power while maintain ing aesthetic appearance + They can be used in portable solar chargers for electronic de and tablets due to its lightweight es, such ay smartphones + They can be integrated into the fabric of bags and backpacks, enabling them to charge electronic devices while on the go, This feature makes them particularly popular among hikers and travellers who need a portable and convenient power source + DSSC can be used to power illuminated signs and displays in locations where acces electricity is limited or costly 2.5 Spintronics Spintronies or spin-electronics is an emerging field that exploits the spin of electrons, in addition to charge. t process information in new generation transistors, lasers and integrated magnetic sensors. They act by stonng information in elecuon spins, transmitting this infor- | mation via mobile electrons and reading it at a terminal. Spin orientation lasts longer than charge-based information, making them suitable for memory storage, magnetic sensors and quantum computing. Spintronics is basically connected to magnetism since the magnetic moment of electron is proportional to its spin. Spintronics make use of the magnetoresistive effects for sensing and storing information. The discovery of giant magnetoresistance (GMR) has a crucial role in the development of spintronics. GMR is a phenomenon where a material's electrical resistance changes dramatically when exposed to a magnetic field. This effect is widely used in magnetic storage (eg. Magnetic random-access memory) and sensing technologies. Albert Fert and Peter Grunberg, were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2007 for this ground breaking Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B) eeChapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications a Snare ee suai discovery. Giant magnetoresistive spin-valve sensor have improved the capacity of hard dise rive by more than hundred-fold times. ‘This sensor comprises a metallic stack of ultra-thin ferromagnetic layers separated by a thin copper layer. A spin polarised current can be generated in a very simple way by passing the current through a ferroelectric material. Spintronics materials should retain ferromagnetism practical temper atures. There are metal based, semiconductor based and graphene based spintronics, Metal oxides such as MgO, AlaOg, SrTiO, ete are examples of metal based spintronies materials. Temary alloys such as InAs and GaAs alloyed with Mn, (Co, Fe, B). (Ga, Fe)N ete are used as semiconductor based spintronic materials due to their tunable magnetic and proper ties. Graphenes are also used for development of spintronics duc its efficient spin manipulat properties. jectroni terials in Quantum Computing Technologies 6 Ma Quantum computing is an emerging computer technology that uses the principle of qua tum theory for computation. Quantum computers hamess the properties such as superposition (quantum particles as combination of all possible states), entanglement (ability of quantum particles to correlate their measurgment results with each other) and quantum interference (be~ haviour of a qubit, arising from superposition, which influences the probability of the qubit collapsing to one state or another upon measurement) for computing, In conventional computers using semiconductors, electrons represent binary states (0 or 1), with eight bits covering numbers singly between 0 and 255. Quantum computing uses quan- tum bits (qubits) that are superpositions of ‘spin up" and ‘spin down’ states, allowing them {o represent all numbers between 0 and 255 simultancously. This allows quantum computers to perform many calculations in parallel, Spintronic devices have the potential for quantum computing. The spins of the electrons are expected to play an important role in the quantum computers, as they can be used as qubits or quantum bit. ‘al boron nitride, a material consisting of just a few monolayers of atoms, can be Hexagon: acitors used in superconducting qubits. Di- stacked to serve as the insulating layer in the amonds with nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers, nanowires, including semiconductor, supercon ducting, and topological nanowires are also used in quantum computing. Metals ike Al, ND are Used in used in superconducting circuits. Quantum dots materials like indium arsenide (InAs) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are employed to produce single photons, which are crucial for quantum communication applications. Quantum computing requires very low temperatures to avoid decoherance so that quibts remains in their quantum states and prevents error rates. 2.7. Supercapacitors Supercapacitors or ultra capacitors are energy storage devices having high-capacity, with a capacitance value much higher than solid-state capacitors but with lower voltage limits. Both capacitors and batteries are energy storage devices. The differences between capacitors and batteries are given in table 2.1. Tn supercapacitors energy is stored electrostatically and electrochemically and bridges the gap Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)n Chapter 2: Materials for Electronic Application, ipacitors—_ Capacitor ii Table 2.1; Differences bets Battery = Blectrical energy is stored in the fo | chemi ene! | | ty is low ~ al Cnty oncliy (release See power density (release energy) inergy density is very high Lower power density (release slowly) acitors and batteries. A capacitor contains two metal plates separated by a dielectric material whereas a super capacitor generally consists of electrodes, electrolyte, separator and collector. Electrode: Materials with good conductivity and high stability like porous active carbon coming are generally used as the electrode material. Carbon based nanoparticles (eg. car. bon nano tubes, graphene, carbon quantum dots etc.), metal oxide nanoparticles, nanowires, quantum dots, conducting polymer-based composites etc. are used as the electrode material in supercapacitors. Nanomaterials enhances the performance of the supercapacitors by increasing the capacitance, energy density, and cycling stability of the supercapacitors Electrolyte: Capacity of the capacitor depends mainly on the dielectric constant of the elec- trolyte. Either solid or liquid can be used as the electrolyte. For commercial application solid electrolytes are preferred since they are leak-free and possess high ionic conductivity. Gener- ally, a solvent mixed with conductive salts such as tetraalkylammonium or lithium salts acts as the solid electrolyte. Sulphuric acid, KOH solution etc can act as the liquid electrolyte. Separator: Electrolyte membranes will act as the separator. It prevents short-circuiting be- tween the electrodes but allows the electrolyte ions to pass through. Polymer-based and paper- based are found to be durable and economical. Collector: Electrons are collected at the collector. Carbon fibre, metal like Al, Pt, Cu, Ni ete. are the commonly used collectors. Binders, such as polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and poly- acrylonitrile (PAN), act as adhesives to hold the active material and current collectors together. Advantages of supercapacitor + Longer cycling time and higher service life compared to the battery. * High efficiency, higher charging rates and high power density. + Low resistance which enables them to produce high load currents, *+ Small sizes and lightweight which makes them easily installed in small areas. + Environment friendly. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Com; for Group A & B) mon for Group eeChapter 2: Materials for Electronic Applications 73 pisadvantages of supereapacitor + Higher self discharge rate. = Amount of energy stored per unit weight is considerably lower compared to batteries. + Low voltage limits which demand serial connections to produce high voltage. Applications of supereapacitors * Used in hybrid buses in combination with the battery to increase battery life and decrease the size. « Used in implantable devices and health monitoring devices to supply power. «Used in solar-powered road and farming devices, street light portable traffic light system, wireless security camera etc. « Used in wind turbines to supply power to the pitch control of blade. + Memory devices in laptops, smartphones, tablets etc., are developed using supercapaci- tors. 2.8 Questions 2.8.1 Short answer questions 1. "Properties of nanomaterial differ from bulk material” rationalize the statement with suit- able example. Write a note on sol-gel method of nanoparticle synthesis. 3, Give any three applications of nanomaterials. 4, List any three properties of graphene. 5. Explain the electrical conductivity of graphene based on its structure: 6. List any three applications of carbon nano tubes. 7. What are carbon quantum dots? 8. What are fullerenes? 9, Discuss the structure and bonding in Buckminster fullerene. 10. How halogenated polymers quench fire? 11, Name and write the structure of any two fire retardant polymers. 12, What are conducting polymers? Draw the structure of polyacetylene and polyaniline. 13. Explain doping in conducting polymers. Chemistry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A & B)for Electronic Applic Chapter 2: Mi 140 Why conducting polymers like poly aniline and poly pyrrole ean be doped only wig, , type dopents’? Show how polaron moves ina conducting polynt What are polaran and bipoli 17, Write the synthesis of polypyrrote, IS. Mention any thre Ds over LED and LCD. y advantages of OL ventional inorganic LEDs, 19, Why n region acts as emissive layer in contrast conv red! solar cells, 20. Give any three advantages of dye sensi 21. What do you mean by spintronies. 22. List the materials used for quantum computing, 2.8.2 Es: ‘AY questions js with example. 1. Discuss the classification of nanomate 2. Give the properties and application of nano mater of nano 3, Explain the sol-gel method and chemical reduction methods for the synthesi particles. Discuss the synthesis, properties and application of graphene. 5. Explain the classification of carbon nano tubes. and application of carbon nano tubes, 6, Describe the synthesis, propertic 7. Discuss the properties and application of carbon quantum dots. Explain the structural features and applications of fullerenes. sification of conducting polymet 9, Explain the e| 10. What is meant by doping of polymers? Deser ¢ the different types of doping. 11. How is polyaniline synthesized? List any two properties and applications. 12. How is polypyrrole synthesized? Li any two properties and applications. 13, What are OLEDs? Explain the construction and working of OLED with the help of @ neat labelled sketch. 14, What are dye sensitized solar cel the help of a neat labelled sketch, Explain the construction and working of DSSC with intronics tive sl es on materials used for s : 15. Give short notes ¢ c ed for and quantum computing. 16, Mention the advantages, disidvantages and applications of super capacitors rials used in supercapacitors, plain the mi stry for Information Science and Electrical Science (Common for Group A é eB) af ion for