UNIT I – INTRODUCTION – 4 HRS

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Microprocessor and its Application
• Microprocessor is a controlling unit of a micro-computer, fabricated on a
small chip capable of performing ALU (Arithmetic Logical Unit) operations
and communicating with the other devices connected to it.
• Microprocessor consists of an ALU, register array, and a control unit.
• ALU performs arithmetical and logical operations on the data received
from the memory or an input device.
• Register array consists of registers identified by letters like B, C, D, E, H,
L and accumulator (register in which intermediate arithmetic and logic
results are stored.).
• The control unit controls the flow of data and instructions within the
computer.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Microprocessor and its Application

How does a Microprocessor Work?

• The microprocessor follows a sequence: Fetch, Decode, and then Execute.
• Initially, the instructions are stored in the memory in a sequential order. The
microprocessor fetches those instructions from the memory, then decodes it and
executes those instructions till STOP instruction is reached. Later, it sends the
result in binary to the output port.
• Between these processes, the register stores the temporarily data and ALU
performs the computing functions.
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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Features of a Microprocessor
• Cost-effective − The microprocessor chips are available at low prices
and results its low cost.
• Size − The microprocessor is of small size chip, hence is portable.
• Low Power Consumption − Microprocessors are manufactured by
using metaloxide semiconductor technology, which has low power
consumption.
• Versatility − The microprocessors are versatile as we can use the
same chip in a number of applications by configuring the software
program.
• Reliability − The failure rate of microprocessors is very low, hence it
is reliable.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Components of Microprocessor

• ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit) – It performs such arithmetic operations as

addition and subtraction, and such logic operations as AND, OR, and XOR.
Results are stored either in registers or in memory.
• Register Array – It consists of various registers identified by letter such as B,
C, D, E, H, L, IX, and IY. These registers are used to store data and addresses
temporarily during the execution of a program.
• Control Unit – The control unit provides the necessary timing and control
signals to all the operations in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data
between the microprocessor and memory and peripherals.
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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Components of Microprocessor
• Input – The input section transfers data and instructions in binary from the
outside world to the microprocessor. It includes such devices as a keyboard,
switches, a scanner, and an analog-to-digital converter.
• Output – The output section transfers data from the microprocessor to such
output devices as LED, CRT, printer, magnetic tape, or another computer.
• Memory – It stores such binary information as instructions and data, and
provides that information to the microprocessor. To execute programs, the
microprocessor reads instructions and data from memory and performs the
computing operations in its ALU section. Results are either transferred to the
output section for display or stored in memory for later use.
• System bus – It is a communication path between the microprocessor and
peripherals. The microprocessor communicates with only one peripheral at a
time. The timing is provided by the control unit of the microprocessor.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Microprocessor Vs Microcontroller

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Bus organization of Microprocessor
• Bus is a group of conducting wires which carries information, all the
peripherals are connected to microprocessor through Bus.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Bus organization of Microprocessor
There are three types of buses.
• Address bus – It is a group of conducting wires which carries address only.
Address bus is unidirectional because data flow in one direction, from
microprocessor to memory or from microprocessor to Input/output devices (That
is, Out of Microprocessor).
• Data bus – It is a group of conducting wires which carries Data only. Data bus
is bidirectional because data flow in both directions, from microprocessor to
memory or Input/output devices and from memory or Input/output devices to
microprocessor.
• Control bus –It is a group of wires, which is used to generate timing and control
signals to control all the associated peripherals, microprocessor uses control
bus to process data, that is what to do with selected memory location. Some
control signals are: Memory read, Memory write, I/O read, I/O Write.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Evolution of Microprocessor
• The first microprocessor was introduced in the year 1971. It was introduced by Intel
and was named Intel 4004.
• Intel 4004 is a 4 bit microprocessor and it was not a powerful microprocessor. It
can perform addition and subtraction operation on 4 bits at a time.
• However it was Intel’s 8080 was the first microprocessor to make it to Home
computers. It was introduced during the year 1974 and it can perform 8 bit
operations.
• Then during the year 1976, Intel introduced 8085 processors which is nothing but
an update of 8080 processors.
• Intel introduced 8086 pins during the year 1976. The major difference between
8085 and 8086 processor is that 8085 is an 8 bit processor, but 8086 processor is
a 16 bit processor.
• Intel later introduced 8087 processor which was the first math co-processor and
later the 8088 processor which was incorporated into IBM personal computers.
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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Evolution of Microprocessor
• As the years progressed lots of processors from 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486,
Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV and now Core2Duo, Dual Core and Quad core
processors are the latest in the market.

• Apart from Intel, there are some other manufacturers. Such manufacturers are
called second source manufacturers.
• The second source manufacturers include: AMD, Mitsubishi, NEC, OKI, Toshiba,
Siemens, Motorola & many more.
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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Computer Architecture
• Computer architecture is a specification detailing how a set of software and
hardware technology standards interact to form a computer system or
platform. In short, computer architecture refers to how a computer system is
designed and what technologies it is compatible with.

• A very good example of computer architecture is von Neumann architecture,

which is still used by most types of computers today.

• This was proposed by the mathematician John von Neumann in 1945. It

describes the design of an electronic computer with its CPU, which includes
the arithmetic logic unit, control unit, registers, memory for data and
instructions, an input/output interface and external storage functions.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Harvard Architecture
• The Harvard architecture is a computer architecture with physically separate
storage and signal pathways for instructions and data. The term originated from the
Harvard Mark I, which stored instructions on punched tape and data in electro-
mechanical counters.
• These early machines had data storage entirely contained within the central
processing unit, and provided no access to the instruction storage as data. It
required two memories for their instruction and data. Harvard architecture requires
separate bus for instruction and data.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Von Neumann Architecture
• Von Neumann architecture was first published by John von Neumann in 1945.
• His computer architecture design consists of a Control Unit, Arithmetic and Logic Unit
(ALU), Memory Unit, Registers and Inputs/Outputs.
• Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where
instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used
in most computers produced today.
• The modern computers are based on a stored-program concept introduced by John Von
Neumann. In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored in a separate
storage unit called memories and are treated the same. Von Neumann architecture requires
only one bus for instruction and data.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)
Assignment
1. Define microprocessor. Differentiate microprocessor and microcontroller with
example.
2. Explain different components of microprocessor with diagram.
3. What do you mean by system bus? Explain bus organization of microprocessor.
4. Explain brief history and evolution of microprocessors.
5. What do you mean by computer architecture? Explain Harvard and Von Neumann
architecture.

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Notes By: Raju Poudel (Mechi Multiple Campus)