Chapter 8

BREEDING FOR ABIOTIC & BIOTIC STRESSES

1. Introduction

Stress in plants refers to external conditions that adversely affect growth, development or
productivity of plants. Stresses trigger a wide range of plant responses like altered gene
expression, cellular metabolism, changes in growth rates, crop yields, etc.

Plant stress can be divided into two primary categories namely

1. Abiotic stress -. Abiotic stress is imposed on plants by environment may be either

physical or chemical.

2. Biotic stress-Biotic stress in plants is caused by living organisms, specially viruses,

bacteria, fungi, nematodes, insects, arachnids and weeds.

Abiotic stress :

Abiotic stresses such as drought (water stress), excessive watering (water logging),
extreme temperatures (cold, frost and heat), salinity and mineral toxicity negatively
impact growth, development, yield and seed quality of crop and other plants.

Drought

Drought Among all abiotic stresses, drought stress is considered to be a major threat to
sustaining food security under current and more so in future climates.

Salt

Soil salinity poses a global threat to world agriculture by reducing the yield of crops and
ultimately the crop productivity in the salt affected [Link] primary effects are
imposed on crop plants by salt stress; osmotic stress and ion toxicity.

Cold

Cold stress as abiotic stress has proved to be the main abiotic stresses that decrease
productivity of agricultural crops by affecting the quality of crops and their post-harvest
life

Heat.

When plants encounter heat stress the percentage of seed germination, photosynthetic
efficiency and yield declines. Under heat stress, during the reproductive growth period,
the function of tapetal cells is lost, and the anther is dysplastic.
Toxin

The increased dependence of agriculture on chemical fertilizers and sewage waste water
irrigation and rapid industrialization has added toxic metals to agriculture soils causing
harmful effects on soil-plant environment system.

DROUGHT RESISTANCE

Mechanisms of drought resistance

There are 4 mechanisms of drought resistance.

1. Drought Escapes : It is due to ability of a genotype to mature early, before

occurrence of drought. Drought escape is most common is plants grown is desert region.
Eg. Early maturing varieties of sorghum, maize, bajra, wheat, rice etc; give
 more yield than late maturing under drought.

2. Drought Avoidance (Dehydration avoidance) : is due to the ability of plants to

maintain favourable water balance even under stress. The plants which avoid drought
retain high moisture content is their tissues and lose less water.

3. Drought Tolerance (Dehydration tolerance) : Ability of plants to produce higher

yield even under ‘low water potential’. In cereals drought tolerance generally occur
during reproductive phase. Tolerant cultivars exhibit better germination, seedling growth
and photosynthesis.

4. Drought Resistance : It is the sum total of avoidance and Tolerance. It refers to the
genetic ability of plants to give good yield under moisture stress conditions.

Sources of drought resistance

1. Cultivated varieties 2. Land (old or desi primitive varieties)

3. Wild relatives (reported in several crops) [Link]

Breeding Methods and Approaches

Breeding for drought resistance refers to breeding for yield under moisture stress, i.e.
developing varieties which can give high yields under stress. The common methods are

1. Introduction

2. Selection

3. Hybridization

4. Mutation

5. Biotechnology

BREEDING FOR SALT TOLERANCE

Mechanisms of salt tolerance :

1. Salt Tolerance : Plants respond to salinity stress by accumulating salt, generally in their
cells or glands and roots etc.
 2. Salt avoidance : plants avoid salt stress by maintaining their cell salt concentration
unchanged either by water absorption eg. Rice, chenopodiaceae family or by salt
exclusion eg. Tomato, soybean, citrus, wheat grass Glycophytes (Non-halophytes) plants
owe their resistance primarily to avoidance. Eg. Barley

Hallophytes (plants that grew in salty or alkaline soils) show tolerance by ion
accumulation mechanism

Breeding methods

Breeding methods are same but breeding strategies are

1. Breeding for yield potential should have greater emphasis than breeding for salt
resistance per se (As screening is done on the basis of yield reduction in stress
environment as compared to non-stress Environment.).
 2. Selection should be done is stresses target environments (As abiotic stress resistance
is an important part of Environ. Fitness & is bound to be location specific i.e. it is related
to narrow adaptation.

BREEDING FOR COLD TOLERANCE

When temperatures remain above-freezing i.e. >00C to <100-150C it is called chilling.

When temperatur remain below freezing i.e.<00C it is called Freezing. Chilling sensitive
plants are typically tropical plants. Temperate plants are generally tolerant to chilling
injury

Mechanisms of chilling tolerance:

1. Membrane lipid un-saturation

2. Reduced sensitivity of photosynthesis

3. Increased chlorophyll accumulation

4. Improved germination

5. Improved fruit / seed set

6. Pollen fertility

Sources of chilling Tolerance :

1. Late adopted breeding populations eg. maize

2. Germplasm (eg. That collected from high altitude, low temperature geographic regions)

3. Induced mutants for cold tolerance

4. Cold tolerant somaclonal variants

5. Related wild species eg. Tomato

B. Freezing Resistance Freezing injury / Frost injury / cryo injury Freezing Stress :

Dormant state is conducive to freezing resistance, while resistance in actively growing

tissue is rare : Thus Freezing resistance largely involves surviving freezing stress in such
a manner as to enable subsequent regrowth when the temperature rises. As water in plants
cools below 0 0C, it may either 1. Freeze i.e. form ice or 2. Super cool without forming
ice.

Mechanism of Freezing resistance.

1. Freezing avoidance : The ability of plant tissues / or genes (but the whole plants) to
avoid ice formation at sub zero temperature is called freezing avoidance

Supercooling is a mechanism of freezing avoidance it is controlled by

1. Lack of ice-nucleators 2. Small cell size

 3. Little or no intercellular space

4. Low moisture content

5. Barriers against external nucleators

6. Presence of antinucleators

2. Freezing Tolerance : Ability of plants to survive the stresses generated by extra

cellular ice formation and to recover and regrow after thawing is known as freezing
tolerance. The various components of freezing tolerance are as follows:

1) Osmotic adjustment

2) Amount of bound water

3) Plasma membrane stability

4) Cell wall components properties

5) Cold-responsive proteins Eg. ABA

Sources of freezing tolerance

1. Cultivated varieties

2. Germplasm lines

3. Induced Mutations

4. Related wild species Eg. Wheat Agropyron sps; rye Barley – H. jubatum,
[Link] x [Link], [Link] x [Link] Oats – Avena sterilis

5. Transgenes : Eg. chemical Synthesized antifreeze protein gene, ala 3, in tobacco

BREEDING FOR BIOTIC STRESS RESISTANCE DISEASE RESISTANCE

MECHANISMS OF DISEASE RESISTANCE:

There are different ways of disease resistance viz., disease escape, disease endurance or
tolerance disease resistance and immunity
1. Disease escape : The ability of susceptible host plants to avoid attack of disease due to
environmental conditions factors, early varieties, charge in the date of plating, change in
the site of planting; balanced application of NPK etc. Eg. Early varieties of groundnut
and potato may escape ‘Tikka’ and ‘Late blight’ diseases respectively since they mature
before the disease epidemic occurs

2. Disease endurance or tolerance : The ability of the plants to tolerate the invasion of
the pathogen without showing much damage. This endurance is brought about by the
influence of external characters

Wheat varieties when fertilized with potash and phosphorus are more tolerant to the rust
and mildew infection
3. Disease Resistance : The ability of plants to withstand, oppose or overcome the attack
of pathogens. Resistance is a relative term and it generally refers to any retardation in the
development of the attacking pathogen.

Resistance is largely controlled by inherited characters i) may be controlled by single

dominant gene in Ottawa 770 B, Newland flax variety, wheat all rusts NP 809

4. Immunity: When the host does not show the symptoms of disease it is known as
immune reaction. Immunity may result from prevention of the pathogen to reach the
appropriate parts of the host

5. Hypersensitivity: Immediately after the infection several host cells surrounding the
point of infection are so sensitive that they will die. This leads to the death of the
pathogen because the rust mycelium cannot grow through the dead cells.

Sources of Disease Resistance

Resistance to diseases may be obtained from four different sources :

1. A known variety: Disease reactions of most of the cultivated varieties are

documented and a breeder may find the resistance he needs in a cultivated variety.
Resistant plants were also lated from commercial varieties as in the case of cabbage
yellows in cabbage curlytop resistance etc. These provide the basis for new resistance
varieties.

2. Germplasm collection : When resistance to a new disease or a new pathotype of a

disease is not known in a cultivated variety germplasm collection should be screened.
Several instances disease resistance were found from the germplasm collections. Eg.
resistance to neckblotch in barley resistance to wilt in watermelon

3. Related species : Often the resistance to a disease may be found in related species and
transferred through interspecific hybridization. Eg. Resistance to stem, leaf & stripe rusts
of wheat 4. Mutation : Resistance to diseases may be obtained through mutation arising
spontaneously or induced through mutagenic treatments. Eg. 1. Resistance to Victoria
blight in oats was induced by irradiation with x-rays or thermal neutrons / also produced
spontaneously 2. Resistance to stripe rust in wheat
3. Resistance to brown rust in oats 4. Resistance to mildew in barley

Methods of Breeding for Disease Resistance

The methods of breeding for disease resistance are essentially same as those used for
other agronomic traits. .

1. Introduction : Resistant varieties may be introduced for cultivation in a new area.

 Eg. • Early varieties of groundnut introduced from USA have been resistant to leaf spot
(Tikka)

• Kalyanasona and Sonalika wheat varieties originated from segregating material

introduced from CIMMYT, Mexico, were rust resistant

. • African bajra introductions have been used in developing downy mildew resistant cms
lines.

2. Selection : Selection of resistant plants from commercial varieties is easiest method.

Eg. • Kufri Red potato is selection from Darjeeling Red round

• Pusa Sawani behind (yellow mosaic) selection from a collection obtained from Bihar

• MCU I was selection from CO4 for black arm resistance in cotton

3. Hybridization : Transfering disease resistance from one variety or species to the

other. a. Pedigree method is quite suitable for horizontal resistance. Artificial disease
epiphytolics are produced to help in selection for disease resistance.

Eg. In wheat Kalyana Sona, Sonalaka, Malvika 12 Malvika 37, Malavika 206, Malavika
234 Laxmi in Cotton (Gadag 1 x CO2) for leaf blight resistance b. Backcross method is
used to transfer resistance genes from an undersirable agronomic variety to a susceptible,
widely adoptable and is agronomically highly desirable variety. If the resistant parent is a
wholly
unadapted variety, backcross method is a logical choice. If resistant variety also possess
some good qualities then chose pedigree method of handling segregating material.

4. Budding & Grafting : The disease resistance in vegetatively propogated material is

transferred by adopting either by budding or grafting. By grafting or budding the resistant
material, the resistance can be transferred.

5. Mutation Breeding : When adequate resistance is not available in the germplasm ;

Mutation breeding is resorted to induce resistance. This is also used to break the linkages
between desirable resistant genes and other desirable genes.

Varieties resistant to different diseases

Rice : Blast Co25, Co26,

Wheat : all three rusts : NP 809 Yellow rust : NP 785, NM86 Black rust : NP 789 Brown

rust : NP 783, NP 784 Sugarcane : Red rot Co 419, Co 421, Co 527 Cotton : Wilt

Vijay, Kalyan, Suyog

Groundnut : Tikka leafspot Ah 45 Chilli : Mosaic resistant Pusa red, Pusa orange

Insect Resistance

Mechanism of Insect Resistance : Insect resistance is grouped into four categories :

1. Non preference : Host Varieties exhibiting this type of resistance are unattractive or
unsuitable for colonization, oviposition or both by an insect pest. This type of resistance
in also termed as non-acceptance and anti-xenosis. Non preference involves various
morphological and biochemical features of host plants such as – color, hairness, leaf
angle, taste etc

. 2. Antibiosis : Antibiosis refers to an adverse effect of feeding on a resistant host plant

on the development and/or reproduction of the insect pest. In severe cases, it may even
lead to the death of the insect pest. Antibiosis may involve morphological, physiological
or biochemical features of the host plant; some cases of insect resistance involve a
combination of features. Eg. Resistance to BPT is due to antibiosis & non preference.

3. Tolerance : An insect tolerant variety is attacked by the insect pest to the same degree
as a susceptible variety. But at the same level of infestation, a tolerant variety produces a
higher yield than a susceptible variety. Ability of the host plant to withstand the insect
population to a certain extent which might have damaged a more susceptible host.
Tolerance is mainly a host character and it may be because of greater recovery from pest
damage. Eg. Rice varieties tolerant to stem borer/gall midge produce additional tillers to
compensate yield losses (as in stem borer in sorghum) or due to the ability of host to
suffer less damage by the pest eg. aphid tolerance in Sugarbeet & Brassica sps. And
green bugs tolerance in cereals. Inheritance of tolerance is complex in many cases and is
supposed to be governed by polygenes

. 4. Avoidance : Pest avoidance is the same as disease escape, and as such it is not a case
of true resistance Mostly insect avoidance result from the host plants being at a much less
susceptible developmental stage when the pest population is at its peak. Eg. 1. Early
maturing cotton varieties escape pinkboll worm infestation, which occurs late in the
season.

Sources of Insect Resistance

1. Cultivated variety : Resistance to many insect pests may be found among the
cultivated varieties of the concerned crop. Varieties SRT 1, Khand waz ; DNJ 286 and B
1007 of G. hirsuturn are good sources of resistance to Jassids.

2. Germplasm collection : Eg. 1) In apples for rosy apple aphid, green apple, apple
maker and apple saw-fly. 2) In cotton, several strains resistant to Jassids.
 3. Related wild species : Eg. 1) Resistance to both the species of potato nematodes has
been transferred fro Solanum vernei to potato 2) Jassid resistances is known in wild
relatives of cotton G. tomentosum; [Link] and [Link]

4. An unrelated organism : It is done through recombinant DNA technology a) The

‘Cry’ gene of Bacillus thuringiensis is the most successful [Link] genes of
importance are the b) Protease inhibitor encoding genes found in many plants eg. the
cowpea pea, trypsin inhibitor (cp TI) gene.

Breeding Methods for Insect Resistance

1. Introduction : Eg. Phylloxera vertifoliae resistance grape root-stocks from U.S.A. into
france

2. Selection : Eg. 1) Resistance to potato leaf hopper 2) Resistance to spotted alfalfa aphid

3. Hybridization : Pedigree oligogenic characters Back cross Polygenic characters 4.

Genetic Engineering : [Link] (cry gene) resistance in maize, soybean, cotton etc.

INSECT RESISTANT VARIETY

1. India – cotton varieties – G 27, MCU 7, LRK 516 – resistant to boll worms.

2. Rice – variety vijaya – resistant to leaf hopper Rice – TKM 6, Ratna – Stemborer 142

Rice –Vajram, chaitanya, Pratibha – BPH

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Chapter 9

SEED PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES TOMATO

(Lycopersicum esculentus)

 Tomato is one of the most important vegetable crops grown extensively in the tropical
and subtropical belts of the world. It is grown mainly fresh market and to a little extent
for processing. Increased attention is now being bestowed to breeding and production of
tomato. Production of tomato can further be increased if improved cultural practices are
combined with good quality seeds.
 The quality seed production techniques in tomato comprises:-
1. Botany-

Tomato is a typical day neutral plant. It requires temperature of 15-20° C for fruit
setting. Tomato is self pollinated crop. Self fertilization is favoured by the position of
receptive stigma within the cone anthers and the normal pendant position of the flower.

2. Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

3. Stages of seed production :

Breeder seed - Foundation Seed I - Foundation Seed II – Certified

4. Varieties :
 Indeterminate varieties-

Pusa Ruby, Solan Gola, Yaswant (A-2), Sioux, Marglobe, Naveen, Ptom-9301, Shalimar-
1, Shalimar-2. Angurlata, Solan Bajr, Solan Sagun, Arka Vikas. Arita Saurbh.

 Determinate varieties -

Roma (EC-13513), Rupali, MTH-15, Ptom-18, VL-1, VL-2, HS 101, HS 102, HS

110, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Sheetal, Floradade, Arka Meghli, Co.1, Co.2, Co.3
(Marutham), PKM.1, Py1,

 Hybrids -

COTH-1, Pant Hybrid-2, Pant Hybrid-10, Kt-4. Pusa Hybrid-l-4, Arka Shreshta, Arka
Vardan, Arka Abhijit, Navell 1 &2 (Sandoz), Rupali, Sonali, MTH 6

5. Season :
May - June and November - December
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6. Land requirement :

Selection of suitable land for tomato seed production is important where the previous
crop should not be the same variety to avoid the contamination due to the volunteer
plants.

7. Isolation requirement :

For Seed production of tomato, varieties require minimum of 50 M for foundation seed
and 25 M for certified seed. For hybrid seed production, it requires minimum of 200 M
for foundation (parental line increase) and 100 M for certified hybrid seeds.

8. Seed rate :

For i) Varieties - 300- 400 g/ha

ii) For F1 hybrid - Male parent 25 g/ha; Female parent 100 g/ha.

9. Sowing :

Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5 cm gap and covered
with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg
of DAP 10days before pulling out of seedling.

10. Transplanting :

Transplanting should be done with the seedlings are 20-25 days old, preferably at
evening time. Spacing is 60 x 45 cm (90 x 60 cm for female parent and 60 x 45 cm for
male parent of hybrids).

11. Manuring :

After thorough preparation of a field to fine tilth, apply 25 tons of FYM per ha. Apply
100 : 100: 100 Kg of NPK/ha of which, 50% of the N is applied as

12. Roguing :

The roguing should be done based on the plant characters (determinate / indeterminate),
leaf, branching and spreading characters and also based on fruit size, shape and color.
The plants affected by early blight, leaf spot and mosaic (TMV) diseases should be
removed from the seed production field.

13. Planting ratio :

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For hybrid seed production, the female and male parents are normally planted in the ratio
of 12:1 or 12:2.
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14. Pest and disease management :

The major pests attacking tomato crop are leaf eating caterpillars and fruit borers, which
can be controlled by spraying. The major diseases in tomato are early blight and mosaic
virus. The early blight rot can be controlled by spraying Benlate or Dithane M-45.

Harvesting seed extraction and processing

The fruits are harvested after full maturity of the fruit when turn in to red color fruits
from first and last one or two harvests should not be used for seed extraction.

Stages of maturation:

Mature green, Breaker, Turning, Pink, Red, Dark red / over ripe

The fruits from in between 6-7 harvest should be used for seed extraction. The seed
viability is depends on the method on which the seeds were extracted and hence, it is
more important to choose proper methods of seed extraction. Before seed extraction, the
fruits are to be graded for true to type and selection of medium to large size fruits for
getting higher recovery of quality seeds.

Seed extraction:

The acid method of seed extraction is the best method for tomato seed extraction. In this
method, the fruits are to be crushed into pulp and taken in a plastic containers (or) cement
tank. And then add 30 ml of commercial Hydrochloric acid per kg of pulp, stir well and
allow it for ½ hour. In between this duration the pulp may be stirred well for one or two
times. This facilitates the separation of seed and pulp. After ½ hour, the seeds will settle
down at the bottom and then the floating fraction is to be removed. The collected seeds
should be washed with water for three or four times.

While following acid method we must use only plastic or stainless steel containers or
cement tank.

Care must be taken to avoid the usage of iron or zinc containers, which will affect the
viability potential of the seeds and as well damage to the containers due to chemical
reaction with acid.

The seeds extracted by this machine may again be treated with commercial
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Hydrochloric acid @ 2-3 ml/kg seed with equal volume of water for 3-5 minutes with
constant stirring. And then seed should be washed with water for to four times.
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It is easy to dry the seeds extracted by acid method and also remove the fungus growth
over the seed coat, thus seeds possess golden yellow colour and high vigour.

The seed extracted by fermentation method posses poor vigour and off colour due to
fungal activity.

Comparison of different seed extraction methods Fermentation Acid Alkali

Method

Mix fruit pulp with water - 24 - 48 h

HCl @10ml / Kg of pulp - 20-30 minutes

Washing soda @ 900mg/4 l of water- equal volume – overnight soak Salient features

• Low cost. • Unskilled labour. • More Time taken • Low Seed recovery
(0.5 to 0.6 % • Dull seed colour. • Seed..borne.. pathogens

• Cost is more. • Skilled labour • Lesser Time • High seed recovery (0.8 to
1 %) • Bright colour market value higher. • Seed borne pathogen – removed • Improper
washing leads to injury to seeds

• Recovery 0.7 to 0.8 per cent • Luster of the seeds will be lost. • Improper
washing leads to injury to seeds

Drying and grading :

Seeds are to be dried in the shade. It should never be dried in hot sun. the safe moisture
content of the seed for grading is 8 to 9 per cent. Seeds can be graded using 6/64’’ round
perforated sieve. Storage The seeds dried to safe moisture content after treating either
with captan or thiram @ 2 g/kg can be stored for 15 months in moisture vapour pervious
containers, while it can be stored in moisture vapour proof containers for 30 months.

15. Hybrid seed production:

In tomato the hybrid seed production is normally done by 'Emasculation and Hand
Pollination'. However use of chemical hybridizing agents (MH-1000 ppm) or CMS lines
are also practiced

Emasculation and dusting

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1. Emasculation is done before the anthers are mature and the stigma has
become receptive to minimize accidental self pollination.

2. Thus emasculation is generally done in the evening, between 4 PM and

6 PM one day before the anthers are expected to dehisce or mature and the stigma is
likely to become fully receptive.

3. Emasculate the bud by hand with the help of needle and forceps.
Remove the calyx, corolla and staminal column or anthers, leaving gynoecium i.e.,
stigma and style intact in the flower.

4. Emasculated flowers should be covered immediately with red coloured

paper cover to protect against contamination from foreign pollen and also for easy
identification of emasculated bud during dusting.

5. Remove the red paper cover of the emasculated bud and dust the pollen
gently over the stigmatic surface using cotton or camel brush, etc.,

6. After dusting, the emasculated flowers are again covered with white or
other coloured paper cover for two to three days.

7. Pollen collected from one male flower can be used for dusting 5 to 7 emasculated
flowers.

Seed Yield : 100 -120 Kg/ha Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify

isolation, volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check

isolation, offtypes and other relevant factors
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3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to

verify true nature of plant and other relevant factors
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Specific requirements -

Factors foundation Certified

Off types – variety 0.1% 0.2%
Hybrid 0.01% 0.05%
Plants affected by seed borne 0.1% 0.5%
diseases

Seed standard (variety and hybrid) -

Factors Foundation certified

Pure seed (mini ) 98% 98%
Inert matter (max) 2% 2%
Other crop seed (maxi) 5/kg 5-10/kg
Weed seed( max) None none
Germination (min) 70% 70%
Moisture (max) 8% 8%

BRINJAL

(Solanum melongena)

Brinjal is one of the most important vegetable crops grown extensively in

the tropical and subtropical belts of the world. It is grown mainly fresh market and to a
little extent for processing. Increased attention is now being bestowed to breeding and
production of Brinjal. Production of brinjal can further be increased if improved cultural
practices are combined with good quality seeds. The quality seed production techniques
of brinjal comprises of the following steps.

1. Botany :

Brinjal is often cross pollinated crop. Brinjal flower opens mainly in morning. A few
flower open at 16 hr. Anther dehiscence occurs 15-20 minutes after flowers have opened.
The period of receptivity ranges from a day prior to flower opening to 4 days after
opening.
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Brinjal produces 4 types of flowers with different style length. (Long style, short style,
medium style and pseudo short style). For seed production and better yield, the long and
medium style is desirable. To increase the production of long and medium style
application of more nitrogen or spraying of growth regulators during pre-flowering and
flowering stages may be followed.
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2. Method of seed production : Seed to Seed.

3. Stages of seed production

Breeder seed Foundation Seed Certified Seed.

4. Varieties

Co.1, Co.2. MDU.1, PKM.1, KKM.1, PLR. 1. AU1, Pusa purple long, Arka nidhi, Pant
smart, Arka neelkanth, Arka shrish.

5. Hybrids :

CoBH1,Arka Navneet (IIHR 22-1 x supreme), Pusa H-5, Pusa H-6, MHB 10, MHB 39
(Mahyco), Azad Hybrid.

6. Season

The brinjal seed production can be taken up in the following 2 seasons. May-June and
December- January.

7. Land requirement : The land should be free of volunteer plants.

8. Isolation

For varieties, 200 M or 100 M of isolation distance is required for foundation and
certified seed, respectively.

For hybrid seed production minimum of 200 M isolation distance should be maintained.

9. Seed rate

Varieties - 400 - 500 g/ha Hybrids - 200 g/ha (Female)

50 g/ha (Male)

10. Nursery

Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5 cm gap and covered
with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg
of OAP 10days before pulling out of seedling.

Transplanting
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Seedlings are transplanted when they are 30-35 days old (12-15 cm height) preferably in
the evening time. Spacing of 75 x 60 cm (non spreading) and 90 x 60 cm (spreading)
varieties, 90 x 60 cm for female parent and 60 x 45 cm for male parent of hybrids.

11. Manuring

The field should be thoroughly ploughed for fine filth and apply 25 tons of FYM/ha. The
other fertilizer requirement for brinjal variety and hybrid are same as followed for tomato
seed production.

12. Roguing

The roguing should be done based on the plant characters, leaf, branching and spreading
characters and also based on fruit size, shape and color. The plants affected by Phomopsis
blight, leaf spot and little leaf virus disease should be removed from the seed production
field.

13. Pest and disease management

The pests like fruit borer, shoot borer, beetles, aphids, mealy bug and jassids can be
controlled by spraying Nuvacron or Methyl parathion. The red spider mite can be
controlled by spraying in Kelthane. The important diseases are

damping off and little leaf which can be controlled by spraying fungicide and systemic
insecticides, respectively. Powdery mildew, leaf spot and anthracnose diseases can be
controlled by spraying Benlate.

14. Hybrid seed production

The planting ratio of female and male parents adopted for hybrid seed production is
normally 5:1 or 6:[Link] production of hybrid seeds, crossing programme is done using
emasculation and dusting methods as followed in tomato.

Harvesting and processing

Harvesting is done when fruits are fully ripe (when the fruits turn into yellow colour)
i.e., 405 days after flowering. The harvested fruits are to be graded for true to type and
off type and fruit borer infested fruits are discarded. The graded fruits are cut in 2-3
pieces or whole fruits will be put in a cement tank with water and crushed manually and
then allow it for fermentation for 1-2 days. Then the floating pulp portions are to be
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removed, the seeds settled at the bottom should be collected and washed with water and
then the seeds with equal volume of water is treated with commercial Hydrochloric acid
@ 3-5 ml/kg of seed. The mixture is kept for 10-15 minutes with frequent stirring. Then
the treated seeds are to be washed with water for 3-4 times. Afterwards
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seeds are dried under shade for 2-3 days over a tarpaulin and followed by sun drying for
1-2 days to reduce the seed moisture content to 8 per cent. Then the seeds are cleaned and
graded with BSS 12 sieve. The processed seeds are treated with fungicides or Halogen
mixture @ 5g/kg of seed.

Storage The seeds dried to safe moisture content after treating either with captan or
thiram @ 2 g/kg can be stored for 15 months in moisture vapour pervious containers,
while it can be stored in moisture vapour proof containers for 30 months.

Seed Yield : 100-200 Kg/ha Seed Certification

Number of Inspections

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify

isolation, volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check

isolation, off types and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to

verify true nature of plant and other relevant factors

Specific standards

Factors
Foundation Certified
Off types – Variety
0.1% 0.25
Hybrid
0.1% 0.05%
0.1%
Designated diseased 0.5%
plant

The designated diseases in brinjal are Phomopsis blight caused by Phomopsis vexans
and little leaf caused by Datura virus -2.

Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)

Factors
Foundation & Certified
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Pure seed
98%
Inert matter
2%
Other crop seed
None
Weed seed
None
Germination
70%
Moisture content 8%

Genetic purity - tomato & brinjal hybrids is 90%

CHILLI

(Capsicum frutescense)

Chillies widely used as vegetable and spice is an often cross pollinated crop, where the
extend of cross pollination is upto 7 to 36 per cent. It belongs to the family solanaceae. It
is also known as hot pepper and botanically it is known as capsicum annuum. The quality
seed production techniques of chillies comprises of the following steps.

1. Botany: Often Cross pollinated vegetable. The flower is protogynous. Anther dehisces
only half to 5 ½ hr after stigma becomes receptive. Anthesis in chilli occurs between 6.00
and 9.00 hr. Flower remains open for 2 to 3 days, receptivity of stigma was the highest at
the day of flower anthesis.
2. Method of seed production : Seed to seed
3. Stages of seed production : Breeder seed

Foundation seed Certified seed.

4. Varieties:
K.1, K.2, K.3, Co.1, Co.2, PKM.1, MDU.1, Bagyalakshmi.

Hybrids:

KT.1, (Pusa Deepti), Solar Hybrid 1, Solar Hybrid 2. Early Bounty, Indira, Lario, Hira,
Bharat.

5. Season :
June-July, February-March, September- October.
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6. Land requirement :
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There are no land requirement as of previous crops, but the land should be free from
volunteer plants. Generally areas affected by wilt or root rot may be avoided. Crop
rotation must be followed to avoid endemic Solanaceous pests.
7. Isolation requirement :
Minimum isolation distance of 400 M for foundation and hybrid seed and 200 M for
certified seed production are necessary.
8. Seed rate :
Seed required for one hectare is 500 g to 1 kg for variety; for hybrids - Female = 200 g and

male = 50 g

9. Nursery :
Sow the seeds in raised nursery bed of 20 cm height, in rows of 5 cm gap and covered
with sand. Eight and ten nursery beds will be sufficient to transplant one acre. Apply 2 kg
of DAP 10 days before pulling out of seedling.

Transplanting: The seedlings of 30-35 days old are ready for transplanting. Transplanting
may be done on the ridges in the evening.

Foliar spray: To arrest the flower drop, NAA (Planofix) can be sprayed @ 4ml/L. Very
light irrigation is also done arrest the flower drop.

10. Manuring : Apply 50 tones of FYM/ha for irrigated crop. Basal 0:70:70 kg of NPK and
50 kg of N at 15 days after transplanting and 50 kg N at 45th days after transplanting.
11. Roguing: Field inspection and roughing should be done both for varieties and hybrid at
different stages based on the plant height and its stature, flower colour and pod
characters. The plants affected with leaf blight, anthracnose and viral diseases should be
removed from the seed field.
12. Pest and disease management: The important pest attacking chilli and capsicum are
thrips, aphids, pod or fruit borer and mites. The thrips and aphids can be controlled by
spraying Dimecron (systemic pesticide), pod borer can be controlled by spraying
Nuvacron and the mites can be controlled by spraying Kelthane. The major diseases
affecting the plants are die back or fruit rot, powdery mildew and bacterial leaf spot.
Spray Dithane M-45 for control of die back, Karathane for powdery mildew and
Agromycin for leaf spot disease control.
13. Hybrid seed production:

The crossing operation can be performed as per the methods outlined for tomato and
brinjal hybrid seed production. However, hand emasculation and pollination is somewhat
difficult since the flowers are minute. Hence use of male sterile lines can also be
employed for hybrid seed production.
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Harvesting and processing: Harvesting should be done in different pickings. First and last
one or two pickings can be harvested for vegetable purpose. The well ripened fruits with
deep, red colour alone should be collected in each picking. After harvest, fruit rot
infected fruits are to be discarded. The harvested pods are to be dried under shade for one
(or) two days and then under sun for another 2 or 3 days. Before drying pods are to be
selected for true to type and graded for seed extraction. The seed are extracted from
graded dried pods. The pods are taken in gunny bag and beaten with pliable bamboo
sticks. The seeds are cleaned by winnowing and dried to 10% moisture content over
tarpaulin. Then seeds are processed with BSS 8 wiremesh screens. For large scale seed
extraction, the TNAU model chilli seed extractor may be used.

Seed Yield : 50-80 Kg/ha Seed Certification Number of Inspections

A minimum of three inspections shall be made as follows:

1. The first inspection shall be made before flowering on order to verify

isolation, volunteer plants, and other relevant factors,

2. The second inspection shall be made during flowering to check

isolation, offtypes and other relevant factors

3. The third inspection shall be made at maturity and prior to harvesting to

verify true nature of plant and other relevant factors

Specific standards:

Factors
Foundation Certified
Off types
0.1% 0.2%
Designated diseased 0.1%
plant 0.5%

The designated diseases are caused by Collertotictum capsici and leaf blight caused by
Alternaria solari.

Seed standards (Variety & Hybrid)

Factors Certified
Foundation
Pure seed 98%
98%
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Inert matter 2%
2%
Other crop seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Weed seeds 10/kg
5/kg
Germination 60%
60%
Moisture content 8% 8

BHENDI

(Abelmoschus esculentus)

1. Botany: Anthesis is between 9 and 10 hr and is preceded by maximum anther dehiscence

between 8 and 9 hr. The stigma remains receptive on the day of anthesis. Bhendi is an
often cross pollinated crop. Cross pollination to an extent of 12 per cent is due to
protogynous.

2. Method of seed production : Seed to seed

3. Stages of seed production : Breeder seed

Foundation seed Certified seed.

4. Varieties : Co.1, MDU.1, Parbhani Kranti, Arka Anamika, Pusa

A-4, Pusa Sawani Hybrids:CO2,CO 3, Mahyco hybrid, Shoba

5. Season : June-July, September- October and February- March

6. Land requirement : Select field on which bhendi crop was not grown in the previous
season, unless the crop was of the same variety and certified. Field should be free from
wild bhendi (Abelmoschus sp.)
7. Isolation requirement: Seed field must be isolated from other varieties at least by 400 M
for foundation and hybrid seed production and 200 M for certified seed production.

Seed rate : Varieties : 8-10 kg/ha

Hybrids : 4 kg/ha (Female); 1 kg/ha (Male)

8. Manuring: Apply 12.5 tons of FYM/ha before ploughing.

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Apply 150:75:75 kg NPK/ha

, of which

50% of the N should be applied as top dressing in two split doses at flowering and 10
days later.

Planting ratio: For hybrid seed production, female and male parents are normally planted
in the ratio of 4:1.

9. Roguing: Minimum of three inspections for varieties and 4 inspections for hybrids, one
at vegetative, two at flowering and one at fruit maturity stages. The rouging should be
based on the plant characters, hairiness, fruit character like fruit colour, number of ridges,
fruit length etc., and the off type and mosaic attacked plants should be removed from the
seed field. Wild bhendi if present should be removed before flowering.
10. Pest and disease management: The major pest attacking bhendi are jassids, aphids and
white fly, which can be controlled by spraying Rogar or Dimecron or Endosulphon. The
pod borer and red spider mites can be controlled by spraying Endosulphon and Kelthane,
respectively. The diseases such as yellow vein mosaic and powdery mildew can be
controlled by spraying systemic insecticides and Karathane, respectively.
11. Hybrid seed production: In bhendi, since the flowers are large in size, hand
emasculation and pollination is the best suitable method for seed production. The
emasculation and dusting can be done as per the methods outlined in tomato. The male
and female parents are raised in blocks at the ratio of 9:1 (Female: Male).

Harvesting: Fruits should be harvested when they have dried (30-35 days after crossing).
The pods which expose hairline crack and turn to brown colour on drying alone are cut
using sickle manually.

Threshing:

The pods are dried and threshed using pliable sticks. Separated seeds are winnowed to
remove plant debris and dried over a tarpaulin to 10% moisture content. Dried seeds are
subject to water floatation in which, good seeds sink while poor seeds float. The floaters
are removed, while sinkers are dried under shade followed by sun drying. Then the seed
are cleaned, dried and treated with Captan/ Thiram.

Seed Yield: 1000-1200 Kg/ha Specific standards:

Factors Certified
Foundation
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Off types 0.2%

0.1%
Objectionable weed None None
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Disease affected plants 0.1% 0.5%

Designated diseases: Yellow Vein Clearing Mosaic (Hybiscus virus-1) Seed standards

Factors Foundation Certified

Pure seed 99% 99%
Inert matter 1% 1%
Other crop seed None 5/kg
Total weed seed None None
Objectionable weed None None
Other Distinguishable 20/kg 10/kg
Varieties
Germination 65%65%
Moisture 10%
10%

ONION

(Allium cepa)

Onion is one of the most important commercial vegetable crops in India. Maharastra,
Gujarat, Uttra Pradesh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh are the major onion growing states.
The total annual area is estimated to be about 3 lakhs hectare and production is about
35.37 lakh tonnes. It is grown mainly in rabi season. Three crops viz., Kharif, late Kharif
and rabi are taken in Nasik division of Maharashtra whereas Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Punjab, Harayana, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu take up two
crops that is Kharif and rabi. Kharif onion is a recent introduction in Northern, Eastern
and Central India.

1. Botany :

Onion is the biennial crop and takes two full seasons to produce seeds. In the first year
bulbs are formed and in the second year stalks develop and seed are produced. It is a
long-day plant. The day length influences bulb onion, but has little effect on induction of
seeding. It appears to be day-neutral for seed production. It requires cool conditions
during early development of the bulb crop and again prior to and during early growth of
seed stalk. Varieties bolt readily at 10 to 15 degree C. In the early stages of growth, a
good supply of moisture is required and temperatures should be fairly cool. During
bulbing, harvesting and curing of seed, fairly high temperatures and low humidity is
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desirable. Seed production is widely adapted to temperate and sub-tropical regions.

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2. Stages of seed production : Breeders seed

Foundation seed Certified seed
3. Varieties

A. RED

1. Punjab Selection PAU, Ludhiana

2. Pusa Ratna NBPGR, New Delhi

3. Pusa Red IARI, New Delhi

4. Pusa Madhavi IARI, New Delhi

5. N-2-4-1 MPAU, Rahuri

6. Arka Niketan IIHR, Bangalore

7. Arka Kalyan IIHR, Bangalore

8. Agrifound Dark Red NHRDF, Nasik

9. Agrifound Light Red NHRDF, Nasik

B. WHITE

1. N-257-9-1 MPAU, Rahuri

2. Pusa White Round IARI, New Delhi

3. Pusa White Flat IARI, New Delhi

4. Punjab-48 PAU, Ludhiana

C. Aggregatum Onion

1. CO 5 TNAU, CBE

• Bellary Red, Rampur local, and Kalyanpur,

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4. Season

The optimum sowing season is middle of June to Middle of July in the plains.
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5. Isolation Requirements :

Onion is largely cross-pollinated crop with up to 93 per cent natural crossing but some
self- pollination does occur.

It is chiefly pollinated by honey-bees.

For pure seed production, the seed fields must be isolated from fields of other varieties of
onion and fields of the same variety not conforming to varietal purity requirements for
certification atleast by 1000 metres for foundation seed production and 500 metres for
certified seed production.

Method of Seed Production

There are two methods of seed production

1. Seed to seed method:

In this method, the first season bulb crop is left to overwinter in the field so as to produce
seed in the following season. 2. Bulb to seed method: The bulbs produced in the previous
season are lifted, selected, stored and replanted to produce seed in the second year.
Mostly the bulb to seed method is used for seed production because of the following
advantages over the seed to seed method. a) It permits selections of "true-to-type" and
healthy bulbs for seed production. b) Seed yields are comparatively very high. The seed
to seed method, however, can be practiced for varieties having a poor keeping quality.

Bulb to seed method

A. Bulb Production stage

a) Climatic requirement Though it is possible to produce bulbs in different climatic

conditions, mild climate is reported to be very good.

For better bulb production a temperature of 15.5 to 210C and

about 70% relative humidity required.

6. ) Land requirement : Fields in which onion was grown should be selected unless it was
of the same variety and was certified

. The onion can be grown on various types but it grows best in soils which are able to
retain moisture for longer time
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. Heavy soils do not permit proper bulb development and many times bulbs are
misshapen.
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6-8 pH range are considered better for onion.

7. Isolation requirement : Onion is highly cross pollinated crop

with upto 93% natural crossing.

It is mostly pollinated by honeybees.

For pure seed production the seed fields must be isolated from field of other
varieties of onion of the dame colour at least by

1000 meters for foundation seed 500 m for certified seed.

The isolation distance between colour particularly white and red colour must be
much more which needs to be decided.

d) Seed
8-10 Kg per hectare
rate

e) Sowing and transplanting time Season Sowing Transplanting

Kharif June-July July-August

Rabi Oct-Nov Dec-Jan

In kharif 6-7 weeks old seedling and in rabi 8-9 weeks seedlings should be transplanted.
Over aged nursery should not be planted otherwise premature bolting may be there.

8. Manures and fertilizers : FYM 50 tonnes

CAN 400Kg

Or Urea 200kg

Super phosphate 300 Kg Muriate of Potash 100 Kg

Nitrogen should be applied as basal and top dressing in two splits. Top dressing may not
be delayed otherwise thick necks may be a problem.
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g) Spacing

15 x 10 cm.

More spacing between plants results in thick necked plants.

h) Irrigation

Irrigation should be given at fortnightly interval or weekly interval as the case may be.
Field should not be left dry for long otherwise splitting problem is more.

i)Weeding

i) 2-3 weedings and hoeings are done.

Ii) Stomp @ 3.51 / ha may be applied 3 days after transplanting to manage the
weeds economically. One weeding by hand is, however, necessary.

j) Plant protection

Malathion @ 0.1% along with tritone against thrips. 4-5 spraying may be necessary.
Indofil M45 @ 0.25% along with tritone against purple blotch and stemphylium blight, 5-
6 sprayings may be done.

k) Roguing Remove off type plants on difference in colour of leaves or

plant type. Remove resprouted plants or premature bolters.

l) Harvesting

Harvesting the crops one week after 50% of tops falling and keep in windrow upto 3-5
days for field curing. After that bulbs are cured in shade to remove fields heat before
keeping in store. In kharif bulbs are ready for harvesting within 90-100 days after
transplanting while tops are still erect. Bulbs are allowed for field curing upto 3-5 days
then again cured were in shade or in field depending upon the temperature for 12-15
days. Tops are cut leaving 2.5 cm neck.

B. Seed Production Stage

a) Selection of bulb True to type bulbs are selected based on colour, size
and shape kept in ventilated storage in rabi crop and in kharif crop bulbs are planted after
curing for 15 days. 4-6 cm size bulbs are selected for getting good crop.

b) Climate Conditioning of plants / bulbs is necessary for seed stalks

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formation. Temperature of 4.50c to 140C are favourable for this conditioning. Longer
this prevails, more stalks each plant will produce and more flowers will be in each umbel.
Low humidity gives good seed development. While plants are in flowering clear bright
sunny days are necessary for good insect activity.
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c) Bulb rate 25 quintal / ha

d) Spacing 45 x 30 cm

e) Fertilizer and manures 200 kg urea / ha.50% as basal and rest as top
dressing 300 Kg super phosphate (single) / ha 100 Kg muriate of potash / ha

f) Irrigation Irrigation at an interval of 15 days in winter and 7-10 days in

summer is necessary for proper seed development. Fields should not be kept saturated for
long as this facilities development of diseases.

g) Rouging Remove plants based on foliage, colour inflorescence and flower characters.

h) Plant protection 1) Spray Indofil M45 @ 0.25% against purple blotch

and stemphylium blight. 2) Endosulfan @ 0.20% against thrips and head borer.

i) Harvesting and curing

When capsules become brown and seeds inside become black the umbels are then cured
and dried.

j) Threshing and cleaning

Threshing is done manually. Pre-cleaning is done by brushing machine and scalper.

Cleaning and grading are done by Air screen cleaner by using 1/14x1/2 as grading screen
and then upgrading is done by gravity separators.

k) Drying and Packing

Seeds are dried upto 6-8% moisture depending upon packaging requirements. If seeds are
required to be packed in Aluminium foil and other moisture proof containers, seed are
dried upto 6% otherwise upto 8%.

l) Seed yield 5-7 q / ha Certification Standards

I. Field Standards

A. General requirements

1. Isolation Onion seed fields shall be isolated from the contaminants shown in column 1
of the Table below by the distance specified in columns 2,3,4 and 5 of the said Table:
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containments Minimum distance (meters)

Mother bulb production Seed production stage

stage

foundation certified foundation certified

5 5 1000 500
Fields of the same variety not

conforming to varietal purity

Fields of the same variety not 5 1000 1000

5
conforming to varietal purity

B. Specific requirements

Maximum
Factors
Foundation Certified
* Bulbs not 0.20% (by
conforming to the 0.10% (by number) number)
varietal characteristics
* Off types 0.20%
0.10%
,

* Maximum permitted at second inspection at mother bulb production stage.

** Maximum permitted at and after flowering at seed production stage.

II. Seed Standards

Factors Standards for Foundation

each class Certified
Pure seed (minimum) 98.0%
98.0%
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Inert Matter 2.0% 2.0

(maximum)
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Other crop seed 5 / Kg10 / Kg

(maximum)
Weed seeds 5 / Kg10 / Kg
(maximum)
Germination (minimum) 70%
70%
Moisture (maximum) 8.0%
8.0%
For vapour-proof 6.0%
containers (maximum) 6.0%

WHEAT –

Triticum sp. ( x =7 )

Wheat is the most important cereal in the world, giving about one-third of the total
production, followed closely by rice. In temperate regions it is the major source of food.
The chief use of wheat is, the flour for making bread.

Chromosome number:

Diploid : 2n = 14 Tetraploid : 2n = 28

Hexaploid : 2n = 42

Place of origin:
Diploid : Asia minor

Tetraploid : Abyssinia, North Africas Hexaploid : Central Asia

Fourteen
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Breeding objectives

1. High yield High yield depends on a) The number of heads / unit area b)
The number of grains / head. c) The average weight of grain

While breeding for high yielding varieties all the above three components must be
looked into. Omitting any one of them may not yield results. Further while breeding for
high yield it is necessary to combine into a variety a favourable combination of genes
influencing all yield process.

2. Breeding non- lodging varieties: This is achieved after the

identification of dwarfing gene in Japanese variety Norin 10. Most of our dwarf wheats
are two gene dwarfs. E.g. Sonara 63, sonara 64, kalyan sona. Emphasis is now on triple
gene dwarfs.

3. Breeding for disease resistance Rust is the major disease. Both stem
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rust and leaf rust are important ones. There are different races of rust. So while breeding
for rust resistance horizontal resistance is to be looked into. Back cross method of
breeding and development of multi lines are the methods.
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4. Breeding for insect resistance Hesisan fly is the major pest. Resistance
in most varieties is thro’ Antibiosis.

5. Breeding for quality. Different wheat varieties vary greatly in their

chemical composition which is considerably influenced by environment. The varieties of
hard wheat or bread wheat which have higher gluten content. The soft wheat contain
lesser gluten content which is suitable for cake making, pastries. The durum wheats are
unsuited for either cakes or bread but they are suitable for making macaroni. So
depending upon the use the quality breeding objective is to be fixed.

Methods of breeding :

1. Introduction : Semi dwarf wheat from Mexico, Sonara 63,

Sonara 64, Mayo 64, Lerma Roja 64

2. Pure line selection : Earlier varieties like P4, P6, P12 evolved at pusa
institute are result of pure line selection from local population.

3. Hybridisation and selection a) Inter varietal: A number of successful

derivatives were developed at IARI New Delhi and Punjab.

NP 809 - New pusa multiple cross derivative.

However all these varieties were lodging and poor yielder when compared to other
countries. Hence the wheat hybridization programme was changed by Dr. M.S.
Swaminathan during 1963. Borloug was invited to our country and he suggested for
introduction of semi dwarf varieties from Mexico. As a result four commercial spring
wheat varieties viz., Sonara 63, Sonara 64 Mayo 64 and Lerma Roja 64 were introduced.
However they had red kernel hard wheats. These were utilised in our breeding
programme and amber colour wheat varieties like Kalyan Sona, Safed Lerma, Sharbati
Sonara were released, these are double gene dwarfs.

b) Inter specific crosses To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for rust resistance.

c) Back cross method of breeding Rust resistance in Chinese spring from Thatcher.

4. Hybrid wheat : At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile lines
were identified by crossing [Link] x T. aestivum Bison variety By repeated back
crossing a male sterile line resembling Bison was evolved. At present USA and Canada
are doing work on this.
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5. Mutation breeding Dr. M. S. Swaminathan did extensive work on this

with gamma rays. Sharbati, Sonara with increased protein content was evolved.
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6. Development of multilines Borlaug developed multilines against rust.

MLKS 15 was developed at IARI. Multi line is a mixture of pure lines which are
phenotypically similar but genotypically dissimilar. Each line is produced by separate
back cross method of breeding. Each line having resistance against a particular race of a
disease. COWPEA Vigna unguiculata (2n = 22)

Place of origin : India Putative parent : Wild sub species [Link] SSP. dekindtiana
or SSP. menensis

Classification : According to Faris 1965 three subspecies are recognised. 1. Vigna

unguiculata subsp. unguiculata (Syn V.u. subsp. catjang) - grain cowpea : Primitive of all
cowpea types. Pods 8 to 13cm long. Neither flabby nor inflated. Pods remain erect at
maturity. 2.
[Link] subsp. sinensis - Grain type cowpea. Pod length 20 to 30 cm. Pods are not
inflated. Pods fibrous when green. The stature of pods are pendent when matured. Seed
size medium 6-9 mm. Seeds are closely packed in the pod. 3. [Link] subsp.
sesquipedalis - Yard long bean - vegetable cowpea: Pod size may be 30 to 100 cm,
pendent. No fibre content is geeen pods. Seeds are sparsely arranged, kidney shaped and
usually double coloured. Pods inflated when green, shriveled on drying.

Distinguishing feature : * Kidney shaped seed * White hilum

surrounded by brown or black ring. * Pubescant througout plant body.

Breeding objectives.

1. Breeding for medium duration high yielding varieties for dry land
conditions Co1 old variety resistance to YMV. Indeterminate Plant habit. Co4 - 85 days
duration. Seed colour mottled C 152 - 85 days, buff color seed.

2. Breeding for short duration varieties suited for irrigated and mixed
cropping conditions. Pusa do fasli - Short duration variety Co6 - 70 days durations.

3. Breeding for vegetable cowpea Co 2 - (C 521 x C 419), VBN 2

Selection from IT 81-D- 1228-1 mottled seed. 4. Breeding for disease resistance Aphid
borne mosaic virus Co6 - (Ms 9804 x C 152) Cercospora leaf spot Fusarium wilt YMV -
Co1 resistant.

5. Breeding for pest resistance Leaf hopper - Antibiosis and tolerance

Aphids - Antibiosis and tolerance Pod borer - Antibiosis

6. Breeding for Forage cowpea. Var. Co5 from Co 1 by gamma

irradiation Breeding Methods :

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1. Introduction Iron cowpea Russian giant.

2. Selection : PLS cowpea Co1 is PLS from C 57 a local collection from Shirgali
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3. Hybridisatioin and selection a) Intervarietal Co6 (Ms 9804 x C 152 Co2 ( C 521 x C
419) b) Interspecific V.u x [Link] - (having tuberous roots which is edible) V.u x
[Link].

4. Mutation breeding Co5 Forage cowpea

5. Embryo rescue technique For inter-specific crosses.

Ideal plant type Short duration : Determinate plant with high harvest index The branching
must be erect. Flower drop to be minimum. Bushy plants are ideal Long duration types.
Indeterminate plant habit with steady growth rate. MUSTARD and RAPE SEED

Brassica sp

(2n = 16, 18, 20, 22, 36, 38 and 48)

Three allopoly ploids

1. [Link] - Rape seed of Europe

2. [Link] - Indian mustard

3. [Link] - sthipplam mustard (veg / oil seed)

The genetical relationship between the oilseed brassicas are diagramaticaly represented
as follows
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[Link] will cross readily with [Link] but with extreme difficulty in case of

[Link]. Rape seed

Botanical name 2n Economic characters

[Link] compestris , 20 Indian Rape Seed. Self sterile
nature.
Important oil seed crop of No
India.

3 Cultivated types. [Link]

var. Brown sarson

[Link] [Link] sars

[Link] var. toria

2. [Link] , 38 European Rape Seed. Self

. fertile
.

Mustard
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1. [Link] , 16 Black mustard : Native

[Link] as a medic
pungent due to glucoside
2. [Link] . 24 White mustard : Young
seedling used as Salad,
yellowish seed 30 % oil. ,
3. [Link] , 36 Indian mustard. RAI 35% o
Leaves used as herb
contains sinigrin. ,

MUSTARD

Breeding objectives :

1. Seed yield : Yield is the end product of many biological processes which are under
control of complex polygenic systems. An ideal plant type is having increased branch
number, pods per plant, seeds per pod and seed size. Further yield increase could result
from increase in biomass and harvest index. Increased biomass can result from reduced
photo respiration and increased light saturated rate of photosynthesis.

2 Early maturity : For use in various multiple cropping sequence.

3. Resistance to abiotic factors Frost resistance is needed to prevent yield

losses. Winter hardiness is very important.

4. Resistance to biotic stress Powdery mildew Black leg Sclerotinia rot,

alternaria blight mustard aphid - so far no resistance source identified.

5. Herbicide resistance : (Atrazine simabine) A few sources of resistance is available.

6. Shattering resistance [Link] - highly shattering B. juncea - tolerant.

Introgressive breeding done.

7. Increased oil content and quality High oil content 45% yellow seed
varieties > oil. For industrial purpose > Erucic acid. Development of low erucic acid
cultivars for edible purpose. Reduced linolenic acid content is also desirable.

8. Meal quality Meal having less Glucosinolate content.

Breeding methods :
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1. Introduction - Regina from Sweeden

2. Simple selection E.G. Seeta, Krishna, Kranti.

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3. Hybridization and selection Intervarietal a) Bulk method b) Pedigree

method c) single seed descent Inter specific

4. Back cross method

5. Population improvement R S, mass selection

6. Heterosis breeding CMS lines

7. Mutation breeding Eg Regina, RLM 198

8. Tissue culture technique for production of homozygous diploids Saline

resistance screening. Induction of mutation in haploids.

9. Embryo rescue technique for inter specific crosses.

HORSE GRAM

Macrotylema uniflorum (2n = 24) Place of origin : Hindusthan centre Putative parent :

Not known

Breeding objectives : 1. Increased yield : Co1 Mudukalathur local 2. Non - Photo

sensitive, short duration varieties 3. Varieties with low trypsin inhibitors

Methods of breeding :

1. Introduction HPK varieties from Himachal Pradesh.

2. Pure line selection Co1 from Mudukalathur local. Paiyur 1 from Mettur local.

3. Hybridization and selection a) Intervarietal b) Interspecific Dolichos

lab lab x M. biflorum Crossable.

4. Mutation breeding

SOY BEAN
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Glycine max (2n = 40)

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Place of origin : China.

Probable ancestors : Glysine usuriensis Slender, viny plant with small seeds grows wild
is Japan, Manchuria and korea. It is considered to be the progenitor for [Link] Another
view is that [Link] arose form natural hybridization between [Link] and
[Link] which grows wild in china. A fourth species Glycine gracilis is intermediate
between [Link] and G. usuriensis. Cultivated types of [Link] are found in Manchuria.
All the above species are crossable with each other. Many other species in Glycine have
been identified but the exact classification of most of them is still in doubt.

Breeding objectives :

1. Breeding for short duration high yielding varieties The yield of soy
bean plant is determined by size, number of seeds per pod and number or pods / plant.
The number of pods/ plant is determined by no of nodes / plant, number of pods / node.
Each of the above components of yield are polygeneic in inheritance and so it is complex.
The duration is also determined by multiple genes. Maturity is correlated with height or
the plant. Early varieties will be short is stature.

2. Breeding varieties suitable for rice fallows Short plants 65 -70 days
duration. Suitable for inter cropping also in banana and sugarcane.

3. Breeding for quality a) Seed color and quality b) Oil content and quality c) Protein
content

a) Seed coat color : May be yellow, green black, brown or combination of

all the above colours. For oil extraction yellow color is preferred because of high oil
content where as black seeded varieties are low in oil content but high is protein content.
Seed coat color other than yellow will give unattractive oil cake which is not preferred.

b) Oil content and quality : Oil content greatly determined by

environment : Yellow seed coat varieties are rich in oil. Complex character determined
by poly genes.

c) Protein content and quality : Ranges from 35 to 50% protein content is

negatively correlated with oil content so white breeding for high protein content a
compromise is to be made.

4. Breeding for vegetable type AVRDC, Taiwan has evolved vegetable types

5. Breeding for forage type of soy bean

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6. Breeding for non-shattering type E.g. Lee, Co2

7. Breeding for YMV resistant lines Co 2

Breeding Methods:
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1. Introduction : Ec 39821 from Taiwan - released as Co1 2. Pure line

selection Co1 3. Hybridization and selection Clark, Co 2 (AS 335 x UGM 21)YMV
tolerance 4. Mutation breeding.

SUN FLOWER

Helianthus annuus

Place of origin : North America.

Classification : The genus comprises nearly 67 species - all native to America. Of these
two are cultivated.

a) [Link] - diploid 2n = 34 Oil seed crop.

b) [Link] - Hexaploid
2n = 102. Jerusalem
artichoke - cultivated for
tuber.

Wild species : [Link], [Link] moderately resistant to Alternaria.

Putative parent : Weed sunflower gave rise to cultivated one. The weed sunflower was
modified by introgression with [Link].

Cultivars of sunflower :

a) Giant types : 6 - 14 feet tall. Late maturing, Large heads 12 - 30” in

diameter, seeds large, white or grey or with black stripes. Oil content is very low. E.g.
Mamoth Russian.

b) Semi dwarf varieties : Medium tall - 4 ½ to 6 feet, Early maturing.

Heads 7 - 9” in diameter. Seeds smaller, black, grey or striped. High oil content 35%.
E.g. Jupiter, Pole star.

c) Dwarf types 2 to 4½ feet tall. Early maturing. Head size 5½ - 6½ “

diameter. Small seeds, high oil content 37%. E.g. Sunrise, Morden, Co1, Co2

Breeding objectives
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1. To develop short duration varieties suitable for dry land and irrigated
conditions. Dryland successful in black soils only. In red soil under rainfed it is not
successful.

2. Breeding varieties with high oil content : Ranges 38 to 48%. Complex

character yield and oil content are negatively correlated. To increase oil content the shell
must be thin.

3. Breeding for self fertile lines. Protoandry and self incompatability

mechanism operates in sunflower. Hence hand pollination is necessary. To avoid this self
fertile lines can be evolved.
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4. Breeding for disease resistance. Maharastra hybrid susceptible to

powdery mildew. Hence ban is there. Powdery mildew, rust, charcoal rot, Alternaria.
Wild species like [Link] are moderately. resistance to Alternaria.

5. Resistant to pests Heliothis , Grass hopper Jassids. Breeding

Methods:

1. Introduction : Morden from Canada.

2. Mass selection: Ec 68414 from Russia. Co1 mass selection from

Morden. Useful for characters which are highly heritable. E.g. Plant height, disease
resistance.

3. Hybridization and selection a) Intervarietal : E.g. Co2 Derivative of

multiple cross Co4 - (Dwarf x Surya) b) Interspecific : Wild species of North
American origin and best Soviet varieties were crossed and number of varieties were
evolved. E.g. Progress. Novelty Jubilee 60- They are resistant to Verticillium wilt also

4. Mutation Co3 (Mutant from Co2 thro’ gamma rays)

5. Head to row and remnant seed method Developed by Pustovoit in

Russia. By this method oil content is increased. In this method the following are the
steps:

a) From open pollinated type a large no (10,000 to 12,000) plants are

selected based on Head size. b) The selected lines are analysed for oil content and high
oil content lines are isolated (1000 plants). c) Part of the seed reserved and the part is
sown in progeny rows along with check to estimate yield. d) Second season testing is also
done. The best lines are identified. e) The remnant seed of elite plants which give high
yield were raised in isolation and multiplied for crossing interse next season. f) The
multiplied lines also tested for oil content and high yielding high oil content lines were
raised in isolation and crossed interse.

6. Population improvement By mass selection, recurrent selection and use

of male sterile lines population can be improved and utilised for breeding.

7. Heterosis breeding : Development of inbred lines and crossing them to

harness heterosis was first done as early as 1920 in Russia. During 1970 cytoplasmic
geneic male sterility was identified in wild types and obsolete cultivars. Now this system
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is being extensively used for production of hybrids. First hybrid BSH 1 CMS 234 A x
RHA 274 BSH 2 BSH 8. A number of CGMS lines were bred by Government as well as
private seed growers and are utilised now. Male sterility can also be inducted by GA 100
ppm.
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Steps 1. Development of inbreds.

2. Evaluation of inbreds for combining ability.

3. Conversion of inbreds into CGMS lines and R lines.

4. Production of hybrids.

Varietial renovation In sun flower the varieties released are renovated annually to
produce super elite (Breeder seed) and Elite Seed (Foundation seed).

SAFFLOWER

Carthamus tinctorius (2n = 24) Place of origin : Africa

Related species : The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in many parts of
Punjab. It is a dwarf bushy plant, very spiny, forming small achenes. The oil content is 15
to 16 percent

Classification of safflower : Safflower can be grouped in to two broad categories.

1. The outer involucral bracts spinose, lanceolate mainly cultivated for

oil. Flowers yellow in colour.

2. Involucral bracts moderately spined or spineless which are cultivated

mostly for the dye than the spiny types. Flowers orange in colour.

Breeding objectives :

1. Breeding for high oil content : Normal oil content is 32% of which
72% is linoleic acid, the factor which reduces blood cholesterol. Oil content is negatively
correlated with yield. Wild species of [Link] having 28% oil were utilised in
hybridization programme to increase yield and oil content but success was not achieved.

2. Breeding for non-spiny varieties with high oil content. A very limited
success was achieved Co1 safflower is an example for this.

3. Breeding varieties having thin shell Thin shelled varieties have high oil content.

4. Breeding varieties for dry land conditions. Under dry land conditions
the spiny nature will be more pronounced. How ever dry land varieties with less
pronounced spines were evolved. E.g. K.l.
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5. Breeding varieties resistant to pest and diseases : Pests like Prodenia

and Heliothis are important pests. The wild species [Link] is moderately resistant
to pests. This is being utilised in breeding programme.

SUGAR CANE

Saccharum sp

Six species of perennial grasses all of which originated in old world. Of these six two are
occurring in a wild state. They are [Link] with a wide distribution from North
East Africa thro’ Asia to pacific. [Link] confined to New Guinea and neighbouring
islands. The other four species are cultigens 1. [Link] - Noble cane of New
guinea. 2. [Link] - North Indian canes 3. [Link] - Chinese cane. 4. [Link] -
Melenesian cane.

Systematics, origin and distribution

1. Saccharum spontaneum (2n = 40 - 128)

A perennial grass, free tillering, often with Rhizomes. [Link] represents a
polyploid series. Forms with the smallest chromosome numbers are found in North India
which is probably the centre of origin. Natural hybridization with [Link] would
have produced [Link] and [Link] [Link] is widely used in breeding of
modern commercial hybrids by a process of nobilisation with [Link]. Spontaneum
provides vigour, hardiness and resistance against diseases.
2. Saccharum robustum : (2n = 60 - 19)
Origin New guinea vigorous perennial. robustum would have given rise to [Link]
with which it is interfertile. [Link] is highly susceptible to mosaic virus and leaf
scale and because of this its use in breeding programme is very much limited.
3. Saccharum officinarum (2n = 80)
Origin : South pacific. Chewing cane. Noble cane This cane is suited to tropical
conditions and requires favourable soil and climate for its performance. The stems are
stout thick high in sucrose, low in fibre and with soft rind. The noble canes are
susceptible to most of the diseases. Some of the earlier cultivars are Bourbon, Cheribon,
noble canes.

4. S. barberi 2n = 82 – 124

[Link] is short medium to slender in thickness, with high fibre content, medium
sucrose content and poor yielder.
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5. [Link] : (2n = 18)

Chinese cane. Tall vigorous, slender, high fibre content. Poor juice quality.

6. [Link] : Polynesian cane (2n = 118)

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Slender, weed like form. Seeds are edible. Not much used.

Nobilisation in Sugar cane. Nobilisation is crossing the noble cane S. officinatum with
[Link], [Link] and infusing disease and pest resistance in the noble cane. The
first successful use of nobilisation was made and variety cheribon was crossed with
[Link] variety and progenies having resistance to sereh disease were evolved. But they
were susceptible to mosaic and inferior in sucrose content. By subsequent crossing with
[Link] i.e. second and third nobilisation good varieties like POJ 2878 were
evolved. In India,
nobilisation of local spontaneum was begun by Barber and Venkata raman in 1912 at SBI
Coimbatore. At coimbatore crosses were initially made between local strains of [Link]
(Which is unproductive but adapted to climates of North India) and tropical noble cane
(thick soft stem, high sucrose content but unsuited to climates of North India). Later on
by crossing these resultant hybrid with wild cane [Link] canes with high sucrose
content suitable for North India were evolved. In this way a large number of tri hybrid
canes were developed.

Breeding objectives

1. Breeding varieties suitable for Jaggery making. Co 853, Co 62175, CoC67

2. Breeding varieties for factory purposes - high Brix value and recovery
%. Co 658, Co 772, Coc 8001

3. Breeding varieties suitable for all the three seasons Early - Dec - Jan Mid - Feb - March
Late
- April - May.

4. Breeding varieties resistant to shoot borer.

5. Breeding varieties resistance to disease shoot disease, Rust, Brown spot.

6. Breeding varieties with high ratooning ability.

7. Breeding varieties with drought resistance

. 8. Breeding varieties with more number of productive tillers

. 9. Varieties with shorter duration without yield less. COC 671

POTATO
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Solanum tuberosum (2n = 48)

Tetraploid

Place of origin : South America.

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Ancestry : a) Natural doubling of diploid cultivar S. stenotomum (2n = 24)

b) By a natural crossing of diploid wild species [Link] and [Link]

Classification : According Hawkes (1992) in addition to solanum tuberosum some six

other cultivated species and over 230 wild species of potato are generally recognised.

Diploid (2n=24)

1. [Link] - Frost resistant

2. [Link] - Sort duration. 4 month no dormancy

3. [Link] - Longer in duration 6 months dormancy. Triploid (2n =

36)

4. [Link]

5. [Link]

Tetraploid (2n = 48) Solanum tuberosum

6. subspecies [Link] tuberosum [Link] andigena - High altitude potato

Pentaploids

7. [Link] - Frost resistant. Breeding objectives :

1. Breeding for high yield Yield of tubers decided by number of tubers,

tuber size and distribution of tuber.

2. Breeding for varieties having better morphology of tuber Better

morphology of tuber is determined by a) Eye depth b) flesh colour c) Growth cracks d)
Hollow heart e) Shape f) Skin colour 3. Breeding for better quality: Depends on many
factors a) After cooking blackening

b) Dry matter. c) Enzyme browning. d) Glycoalkaloid level e) reducing sugar content f)

storage properties

4. Breeding for disease resistance Early blight, late blight, powdery scab.,
verticillium wilt, virus diseases. Resistant source : [Link], [Link] ssp. andigena

5. Breeding for pest resistance Nematode is the major pest [Link] -

tolerant. [Link] resistant to Aphids, Colorado beetle.
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Breeding methods

1. Clonal propagation ; Useful in case of inter-specific crosses where low

fertility is often seen in the progenies. Further fixing of heterosis is easy. The
disadvantage is keeping the stocks free from disease. But by following invitro
propagation this can be over come.

2. Controlled pollination : In potato it is some what easy because the

anthers do not dehisce before or soon after flower opening. The pollen is not easily
distributed by wind. If we raise crossing block in insect proof screen house use of selfing
and crossing covers not needed. Only difficulty is crossing in percentage of seed set.
Crossing is to be done at 220C. Pollen and ovule sterility occur.

3. Population breeding This is followed to improve the base population.

4. True potato seed (TPS) Propagation thro' use of seed - practiced in

China. By this method virus diseases can be avoided.

5. Production of diploids and monohaploids Originally diploid was

produced by crossing tuberosum with diploid [Link] and allowing for parthenogenesis.
But now by anther culture it is easily produced.

6. Mutation breeding To change the skin colour it is extensively used.

 CHAPTER 10

IDEOTYPE CONCEPT

 Introduction

The concept of ideotype in plant breeding was introduced by Donald in 1968 to describe
the idealized appearance of a plant variety. The term ideotype was first proposed by
Donald 1968 working on wheat.

In broad sence an ideotype is a “ biological model which is expected to

perform or behave in a predictable manner within a defined
environment.”
More specifically, crop ideotype ia a plant model which is expected to yield greater
quantity of grains, fiber, oil or other useful product when developed a a cultivar.

According to Donald(1968), ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform

or behave in a particular manner within a defined environment.
Features:- Ideotype breeding is a method of crop improvement which is used to enhance
yield potential through genetic manipulation of individual plant characters are chosen in
such a way that each character contributes toward increased economic yield.
Main features are given below:-

1. Emphasis on individual trait:

In Ideotype breeding, emphasis is given on individual morphological and physiological
trait which enhances the yield. The value of each character is specified before initiating
the breeding work.
2. Includes yield enhancing traits:
Various plant characters to be included in the Ideotype are identified through correlation
analysis. Only those characters which exhibit posistive association with yield are
included in the model.

3. Exploits physiological variation:

Genetic difference exists for various physiological characters such as photosynthetic
efficiency, nutrient uptake etc. Ideotype breeding makes use of genetically controlled
physiological variation in increased yield, besides various agronomic traits.

4. Slow progress:
Because incorporation of various desirable characters from different sources into a single
genotype takes long time. Moreover, sometimes undesirable linkage affects the progress
adversely.

5. Selection:
In Ideotype breeding selection is focused on individual plant character which enhances
the yield.

6. Designing of model:
In Ideotype breeding, the phenotypes of new variety is specified in terms of
morphological and physiological traits in advance.

7. Interdisciplinary approach:
Ideotype breeding is in true sense an interdisciplinary approach. It involves scientist
from the discipline of genetics, breeding, physiology, pathology, entomology etc.

8. Steps in Ideotype breeding:-

1. Development of conceptual theoretical model
2. Selection of base material
3. Incorporation of desirable characters into single genotype
4. Selection of ideal or model plant type
[Link] of conceptual theoretical model:
 Ideotype consists of various morphological and physiological traits. The values of various
morphological and physiological traits are specified to develop a conceptual theoretical
model.
For example,
 Plant height is important in fodder crops.
 Maturity duration is important in rainfed.
 Similarly leaf number, leaf angle, leaf size, photosynthetic ratio etc are specified for each
crops and situation.
[Link] of base material:-
 Selection of base material is an important step after development of conceptual model of
Ideotype.
 Genotype to be used in devising a model plant type should have broad genetic base and
wider adaptability so that the new plat type can be successfully grown over a wide range
of environmental condition with stable yield.
 Genotype for plant stature, maturity duration, leaf size, and angles are selected from the
global pool of the concerned crop species.
[Link] of desirable traits:-
 The next step is combining of various morphological and physiological traits from
different selected genotypes into single gemotype.
 Linkage between procedure, viz single cross, three way cross, multiple cross, backcross,
composite crossing. Eg. Mutation breeding
, heterosis breeding, etc are used for the development of ideal plant type in majority of
field crops. Back cross technique is commonly used for transfer of oligenic traits from
selected germplasm lines into the background of an adapted genotype.
4. Selection of ideal plant type:-
 Plant combining desirable morphological and physiological traits are selected in
segregating population and intermated to achieve the desirable plant type.
 Screening for resistance to drought, soil salinity, alkalinity, disease and insects is done
under controlled conditions.
 Morphological features are judged through visual observation and physiological
parameters are recorded with the help of sophisticated instruments.
 Finally, genotypes combining traits specified in the conceptual model are selected
multiplied, tested over several locations and released for commercial cultivation.

Ideotype breeding for wheat:-

1. A short strong stem to prevent lodging.

2. Erect leaves, such leaves provide better arrangement for proper light distribution resulting
in high photosynthetic rate.
3. Few small leaves to reduce water losses due to transpiration.
4. Larger ear to produce more grains per ear.
5. Single culm

Ideotype breeding for chickpea:-

Rainfed condition Irrigated condition

Early vigour High input responsiveness

More number of pods per plant Synchronous flowering, delayed

senescence and determinancy
Podding from 10 th node Pod bearing from 20 cm above the
ground
 Long fruiting. Branches and short
internodes
Lodging resistance

50-60cm plant height with 9-10 secondary Tall(75-90) and erect habit with
branches broom shaped branching

Differences between traditional and Ideotype breeding

[Link]. Traditional breeding Ideotype breeding

1. The main objective is defined before initiating The conceptual theoretical model
the breeding work before initiation of breeding work
2. Selection is focused on yield and some other Selection is focused on individua
characters. characters.
3. It usually includes various morphological and It includes various physiological,
economic and biological plant
characters. characters

4. Value of each character is not fixed in advance. Value of each trait is defined in a

5. This is a simple and rapid method This is a difficult and slow metho
of cutivar development. of cultivar development.
6. The phenotypic of a new variety is Phenotype of new variety to be
not specified in advance. developed is specified in advance

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CHAPTER 11

CLIMATE RESILIENT CROP VARIETIES

The development and identification of climate resilient crop varieties, with enhanced
tolerance to heat, drought, flooding, chilling and salinity stresses are essential in order to
sustain and improve crop yields to cope with the challenges of climate change. It is
essential to bridge the yield gaps, enhance the productivity and profitability, minimize
risk and improve the livelihoods of millions of people
dependent on agriculture. Among various abiotic stresses, drought, heat, salinity, cold
and flooding are the major factors that adversely affect plant growth and productivity.

All these adverse environmental conditions have potential to drastically reduce yields in
warmer regions. To develop stress tolerant cultivars, it is essential to identify the traits
that maintain and promote the growth and development of plants during the stress period.
The tolerance to a particular stress is related to the plant’s ability to withstand adverse
conditions, survive, and reproduce successfully. The tolerance to abiotic stress is
manifested in terms of the ability to cope with resource limitation under stress as well as
the ability to recover along with high production potential when the stress is relieved.
Several crop improvement programs are focused on improving productivity with
tolerance to various abiotic stresses viz.,drought, heat, cold, salinity, flooding etc. The
sufficient quantities of quality seeds of climate resilient crop varieties need to be
available to the farmers for sustaining the production system and meeting the increasing
demand of food grains. The farmer requires cultivars that produce a satisfactory yield
when subjected to stress conditions but that have a high productivity potential under
favourable conditions.
Crop vareties suitable for cultivation under different abiotic stresses
Drought and delayed monsoon
Number of adaptive traits have been studied and used for improvement of drought
tolerance like early vigour, osmotic adjustment, leaf senescence, stay green etc.
Stay-green trait in plants, usually refer to tolerance against drought-induced post-
flowering senescence. Roots also play an important role in the adaptation of several crop
to

drought actress.
crop variety suitable for cultivation under heat
stress :-
Crop variety suitable for cultivation under cold stress:-
Crop variety suitable for cultivation under salinity stress:-
Crop variety suitable for cultivation under flooding and submergence:-
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