0% found this document useful (0 votes)

12 views79 pages

Educational Management Module Overview

The document is a module from Mukuba University focusing on Educational Management and Administration, structured into five units covering topics such as organizational nature, motivation, management approaches, organizational structure, and leadership. It is designed for distance learning students pursuing a bachelor's degree and outlines expected outcomes, study skills, and resources for support. The module emphasizes the importance of both formal and informal organizations and their components in achieving organizational objectives.

Uploaded by

Bravine Mwaba

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

12 views79 pages

Educational Management Module Overview

Uploaded by

Bravine Mwaba

We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

MUKUBA UNIVERSITY

EDU 431: EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT

AND ADMINISTRATION

Module 1
Copyright
© Mukuba University 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this module may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission.

MUKUBA UNIVERSITY
EDUCATION DEPARTMENT

P.O. Box 20382

Kitwe
Zambia.

Telephone: +260 212 239003

Website: [Link]
Contents
About this Module 1
How this Module is structured .......................................................................................... 1

Overview 3
Welcome to Module 1....................................................................................................... 3
Is this module for you? ..................................................................................................... 3
Outcomes .......................................................................................................................... 3
Timeframe ......................................................................................................................... 4
Study skills ........................................................................................................................ 5
Need help? ........................................................................................................................ 6

Getting around this Module 7

Icons .................................................................................................................................. 7

Unit 1 9
The Nature and Context of Organisations ........................................................................ 9
1.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 9
1.1 Perspectives of the Organisation ..................................................................... 10
1.2 The Formal Organisation................................................................................. 12
1.3 The Informal Organisation .............................................................................. 13
1.4 Basic Components of an Organisation ............................................................ 15
1.5 Organisational Conflict ................................................................................... 16
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 20

Unit 2 21
Motivation in Organisations ........................................................................................... 21
2.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 21
2.1 The meaning of Motivation ............................................................................. 22
2.2 Content Theories of Motivation ...................................................................... 24
2.3 Process Theories of Motivation ....................................................................... 29
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 31

Unit 3 32
Approaches to Organisation and Management ............................................................... 32
3.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 32
ii Contents

3.1 The Classical Approach................................................................................... 32

3.2 The Human Relations Approach ..................................................................... 40
3.3 Systems Approach ........................................................................................... 43
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 45

Unit 4 46
Organisation Structure .................................................................................................... 46
4.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 46
4.1 Meaning and Nature of Organisation Structure .............................................. 46
4.2 Basic Considerations in the Design of Organisation Structure ....................... 49
4.3 Consequences of badly designed structure ...................................................... 51
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 54

Unit 5 55
The Nature of Leadership ............................................................................................... 55
5.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................... 55
5.1 The Meaning of Leadership ............................................................................ 55
5.2 Approaches to Leadership ............................................................................... 61
Unit summary ................................................................................................................. 68
Module summary ............................................................................................................ 69
About this Module
This module has been produced by Mukuba University. All
modules produced by Mukuba University are structured in the
same way, as outlined below.

How this Module is structured

The Module overview
The module overview gives you a general introduction to the
module. Information contained in the module overview will help
you determine:

 If the module is suitable for you.

 What you can expect from the module.

 How much time you will need to invest to complete the module.

The overview also provides guidance on:

 Study skills.

 Where to get help.

 Units.

We strongly recommend that you read the overview carefully

before starting your study.

1
Content
The module is broken down into units. Each unit comprises:

 An introduction to the unit content.

 Unit outcomes.

 Core content of the unit with a variety of learning activities.

 A unit summary.

Resources
For those interested in learning more, we provide you with a list of
references at the end of this module.

Your comments
After completing this module, we would appreciate if you would
take a few moments to give us your feedback on any aspect of this
module. Your feedback might include comments on:

 Module content and structure.

 Reading materials and resources.

 Duration.

Your constructive feedback will help us to improve and enhance

this course.

2
Overview

Welcome to Module 1
There are five units in this module. The first unit looks at the nature
and context of organisations, and the second unit focuses on
aspects related to motivation. The third unit discusses various
approaches to organization and management, and the fourth unit
focuses on issues pertaining to organization structure. The last unit
discusses leadership.

Is this module for you?

This module is intended for people who are studying for a
bachelor‘s degree by distance learning at Mukuba University.

Outcomes
Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

3
 Describe the formal organisation, explain the nature and
importance of the informal organisation, and describe the
sources organisational conflict

 Explain the meaning and underlying concept of motivation,

describe some of the theories of motivation and evaluate
their relevance to particular work situations.

 Describe the main features of different approaches to

organisation and management, and evaluate their relevance of to
the present-day management of organisations.

 Explain the meaning and nature of organisation structure,

identify the main factors to be considered in the design of
organisation structure, and explain the consequences of a
deficient structure.

 Explain the meaning of leadership, and discuss the main

approaches to leadership.

Timeframe
This module is expected to take you a minimum of 80 hours. The
time should be spent on studying the module and doing the
activities.

4
Study skills
As an adult learner your approach to learning will be different to
that from your school days: you will choose what you want to
study, you will have professional and/or personal motivation for
doing so and you will most likely be fitting your study activities
around other professional or domestic responsibilities.

Essentially you will be taking control of your learning

environment. As a consequence, you will need to consider
performance issues related to time management, goal setting, stress
management, etc. Perhaps you will also need to reacquaint yourself
in areas such as essay planning, coping with exams and using the
web as a learning resource.

Your most significant considerations will be time and space i.e. the
time you dedicate to your learning and the environment in which
you engage in that learning. We recommend that you take time
now—before starting your self-study—to familiarize yourself with
these issues. There are a number of excellent resources on the web.
A few suggested links are:

 [Link]

The ―How to study‖ web site is dedicated to study skills

resources. You will find links to study preparation (a list of nine
essentials for a good study place), taking notes, strategies for
reading textbooks, using reference sources, test anxiety.

 [Link]

5
This is the web site of the Virginia Tech, Division of Student
Affairs. You will find links to time scheduling (including a
―where does time go?‖ link), a study skill checklist, basic
concentration techniques, control of the study environment, note
taking, how to read essays for analysis, memory skills
(―remembering‖).

 [Link]

Another ―How to study‖ web site with useful links to time

management, efficient reading, questioning/listening/observing
skills, getting the most out of doing (―hands-on‖ learning),
memory building, tips for staying motivated, developing a
learning plan.

The above links are our suggestions to start you on your way. If
you want to look for more go to [Link] and type ―self-
study basics‖, ―self-study tips‖, ―self-study skills‖ or similar.

Need help?
If you need help, visit the District Resource Centre near you. You
may also visit our website at [Link] if you need more
information.

6
Getting around this Module

Icons
While working through this module, you will notice the frequent
use of icons. These icons serve to ―signpost‖ a particular piece of
text, a new task or change in activity; they have been included to
help you to find your way around this module. A complete icon set
is shown below. We suggest that you familiarize yourself with the
icons and their meaning before starting your study.

Activity Assessment Assignment Case study

Discussion Group activity Help Note it!

Outcomes Reading Reflection Study skills

Summary Terminology Time Tip

7
Unit 1

The Nature and Context of

Organisations

1.0 Introduction
It is worth noting that the process of management take place not in
a vacuum but within the context of a particular organizational
setting and environment. The organization is a complex social
system and is the sum of many interrelated variables (Mullins,
2007). This unit looks at the nature and context of organizations.

There are five sections in this unit. The first section looks at the
perspectives of the organization, and the second section focuses on
the formal organization. The third section discusses the informal
organization, and the fourth section looks at the basic components
of an organization. The last section focuses on organizational
conflict.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

9
 Discuss the perspectives of the organisation, and basic
components of an organisation.

 Describe the formal organisation.

 Explain the nature and importance of the informal organisation.

 Describe the sources organisational conflict

1.1 Perspectives of the Organisation

Before you proceed, explain in your own words, on what you know
about the term ‗organisation‘. Write in space provided.

According to Mullins (2007), all organizations have some function

to perform. They exist in order to achieve objectives and to provide
satisfaction for their members. Organisations enable objectives to
be achieved that could not be achieved by efforts of individuals on
their own. It must be remembered that organizations are structures

10
of people. Organisations are an integral part of society involving
both public and private sectors.

It is worth noting that there are many different types of

organizations which are set up to serve a number of purposes and to
meet a variety of needs. Organisations come in all forms, shapes
and sizes. Not only are there many different types of organizations,
there is some suggestion that cultural differences in countries can
reflect different conceptions of what actually in an organization.
However, despite the differences, there are some common factors
in any organization (Mullins, 2007).

Outline some of the factors that are common in any organization.

List them in the space provided.

According to Mullins (2007), there are at least three common

factors in any organization:

11
 People;

 Objectives; and

 Structure.

It is the interaction of people in order to achieve objectives, which

forms the basis of an organization. Some form of structure is
needed by which people‘s interactions and efforts are channeled
and co-ordinated. Other factor is management. Some process of
management is required by which the activities of the
organization, and the efforts of its members, are directed and
controlled towards the pursuit of objectives. The actual
effectiveness of the organization will be dependent upon the quality
of its people, its objectives and structure, and the resources
available to it (Mullins, 2007). It is important that despite these
common factors, the structure, management and functioning of
these organizations will all vary because of differences in the
nature and type of the organization, their respective goals and
objectives, and behaviour of the people who work in them.

1.2 The Formal Organisation

In the space provided, describe a formal organization in your own
words.

12
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………....

Schein (1988) cited in Mullins (2007) described a formal

organization as the planned co-ordination of the activities of a
number of people for the achievement of some common, explicit
purpose or goal, through division of labour and function, and
through a hierarchy of authority and responsibility.

Formal organization is:

 Deliberately planned and created;

 Concerned with the co-ordination of activities;

 Hierarchically structured with stated objectives; and

 Based on certain principles such as the specification of

tasks, and defined relationships of authority and
responsibility (Mullins, 2007).

1.3 The Informal Organisation

Whatever the type or nature of an organization or its formal
structure, an informal organization will always be present. The
informal organization arises from the interaction of people working
in the organization, their psychological and social needs, and the
development of groups with their own relationships and norms of
behaviour, irrespective of those defined within the formal structure.

 The informal organization is flexible and loosely structured;

13
 Relationships may be left undefined; and

 Membership is spontaneous and with varying degrees of

involvement (Mullins, 2007).

The informal organisation can serve a number of important

functions. List them in the space provided.

............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................

14
The informal organisation can serve a number of important
functions.
 It provides satisfaction of members‘ social needs and a
sense of personal identity and belonging;
 It provides for additional channels of communication;
 It provides a means of motivation;
 It provides a feeling of stability and security, and through
informal ‗norms‘ of behaviour can exercise a form of
control over members; and
 It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies or
weaknesses in the formal organisation (Mullins, 2007).

1.4 Basic Components of an Organisation

Any organization can be described, broadly, in terms of an
operating component and an administrative component. The
operating component comprises the people who actually
undertake the work of producing the products or providing the
service. The administrative component comprises managers and
analysts and is concerned with supervision and co-ordination
(Mullins, 2007).

The above components can further be analysed in terms five basic

components: the operational core, operational support,
organizational support, top management, and middle management.

 The operational core is concerned with direct performance

of the technical or productive operations and the carrying
out of actual task activities of the organization, for
example, teaching in a classroom, treating a patient, and so
on.

15
 Operational support is concerned indirectly with the
technical or productive process but closely related to the
actual flow of operational work, for example, storekeeping.

 Organisational support is concerned with provision of

services for the whole organization, but which are usually
outside the actual flow of operational work.

 Top management is concerned with broad objectives and

policy, strategic decisions, the work of the organization as
a whole.

 Middle management is concerned with co-ordination and

integration of activities and providing links with
operational support staff and organizational support staff,
and between the operational core and top management
(Mullins, 2007).

The next section looks at organizational conflict.

1.5 Organisational Conflict

Before you proceed, explain in your own words the meaning of the
term ‗conflict‘. Write in the space provided.

16
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

Mullins (2007) noted that most of us will understand what is

commonly meant by organizational conflict and will be aware of its
existence and effects. Yet conflict is a term that can be defined and
interpreted in a number of ways. For our purpose we can see
conflict as behaviour intended to obstruct the achievement of some
other person‘s goals. Conflict is based on the incompatibility of
goals and arises from opposing behaviour. It can be viewed at the
individual, group or organization level.

Common definitions of conflict tend to be associated with negative

features and situations which give rise to inefficiency,
ineffectiveness or dysfunctional consequences. The traditional view
of conflict is that it is bad for organizations. Conflict is perceived
as disruptive and represents a form of deviate behaviour that should
be controlled and changed.

It is, however, important to note that conflict is not necessarily a

bad thing. For instance, it can be seen as an aid to incremental
improvement in organization design and functioning, and to the
decision making process. Conflict can be an agent for evolution,
and for internal and external change (Mullins, 2007).

There are positive and negative outcomes of conflict. In your own

words, outline the positive and the negative outcomes of conflict in
the space provided.

17
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

The next section looks the sources of conflict.

The Sources of Conflict

There are many sources of organizational conflict. Some of the

sources of conflict are outlined below:

 Differences in perceptions: We all see things in different

ways. We all have our own unique picture or image of how
we see the ‗real‘ word. Differences in perception result in

18
different people attaching different meanings to the same
stimuli.

 Limited resources: Most organizational resources are

limited and individuals and groups have to fight for their
share.

 The nature of work activities: Where the task of one

person is dependent upon the work of others there is
potential for conflict.

 Role conflict: A role is the expected pattern of behaviours

associated with members occupying a particular position
within the structure of the organization. In practice, the
manner in which people actually behave may not be
consistent with their expected pattern of behaviour.
Problems of role incompatibility and role ambiguity arise
from inadequate or inappropriate role definition and can be
a significant source of conflict.

(Think of other sources of conflict and write in the space

provided)

 ………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

 ………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………....

 ………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………

19
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the nature and context of
organisations. It is noted that all organizations have some function
to perform. Organisations enable objectives to be achieved that
could not be achieved by efforts of individuals on their own. It is
also noted that there are many different types of organizations
which are set up to serve a number of purposes and to meet a
variety of needs. Organisations come in all forms, shapes and sizes.

In this unit, you have also learned about the basic components of an
organisation. It is noted that any organization can be described,
broadly, in terms of an operating component and an administrative
component. The operating component comprises the people who
actually undertake the work of producing the products or providing
the service. The administrative component comprises managers
and analysts and is concerned with supervision and co-ordination.
In this unit it is also noted that the formal organisation can be
distinguished from the informal organisation.

Aspects related to organizational conflict have also been discussed

in this unit. It is noted that common definitions of conflict tend to
be associated with negative features and situations which give rise
to inefficiency, ineffectiveness or dysfunctional consequences. The
traditional view of conflict is that it is bad for organizations.
Conflict is perceived as disruptive and represents a form of deviate
behaviour that should be controlled and changed. It is, however,
noted that conflict is not necessarily a bad thing. For instance, it
can be seen as an aid to incremental improvement in organization
design and functioning, and to the decision making process.

20
Unit 2

Motivation in Organisations

2.0 Introduction
The concept of motivation is used by the psychologists and
sociologists as a means of answering two basic questions: Why is
man impelled to act? Or, what determines the directions of a man‘s
action? Motivation is a tendency which keeps a person attentively
and purposefully engaged in achieving the formulated goals (Basu,
1994). This unit discusses some of the theories related to
motivation.

According to Mullins (2007), the usual approach to the study of

motivation is through and understanding of internal cognitive
process, that is, what people feel and how they think. This
understanding should help to predict likely behaviour of staff in
given situations. The different cognitive theories of motivation are
usually divided into two contrasting approaches: Content theories;
and Process theories. It is worth noting that the theories are not
conclusive. They all have critics or have been subject to alternative
findings that purport to contradict original ideas.

There are three main sections in this unit. The first section looks at
the meaning of motivation. The second section focuses on the
content theories of motivation, and the third section looks at the
process theories of motivation.

21
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning and underlying concept of motivation.

 Examine the theories of motivation and evaluate their

relevance to particular work situations.

2.1 The meaning of Motivation

Motivation to work has been receiving increasing attention from
those who study organisations as well as from those who manage
them (Basu, 1994). Before you proceed, take a few moments to
describe the term ‗motivation‘. Write in the space provided.

You may now proceed.

In general terms, motivation can be described as the direction and

persistence of action. It is concerned with why people choose a
particular course of action in preference to others, and why they
continue with a chosen action, often over a long period and in the
face of difficulties and problems. The underlying concept of
motivation is some driving force within individuals by which they

22
attempt to achieve some goal in order to fulfil some need or
expectation (Mullins, 2007).

Outline the main needs and expectations to be taken into account in

considering the motivation of people at work. Write in the space
provided.

According to Mullins (2007), the various needs and expectations at

work can be categorised in a number of ways - for instance, the

23
simple divisions into physiological and social motives or into
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Extrinsic motivation is related to ‗tangible‘ rewards such as salary

and fringe benefits, security, promotion, contract of service, the
work environment and conditions of work. Such tangible rewards
are often determined at the organisation level and may be largely
outside the control of individual managers.

Intrinsic motivation is related to ‗psychological‘ rewards such as

the opportunity to use one‘s ability, a sense of challenge and
achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition and being
treated in a caring and considerate manner. The psychological
rewards are those that can usually be determined by the actions and
behaviour of individual managers.

2.2 Content Theories of Motivation

Content theories of motivation attempt to explain those specific
things that actually motivate the individual at work. These theories
are concerned with identifying people‘s needs and their relative
strengths, and the goals they pursue in order to satisfy these needs.
Content theories place emphasis on the nature of needs and what
motivates (Mullins, 2007). Major content theories of motivation
include:

 Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs theory;

 Herzberg‘s two-factor theory;

24
 McClelland‘s achievement motivation theory; and many
others.

The next section focuses on Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs theory,

and Herzberg‘s two-factor theory;

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

According to Basu (1994), among the many contributors to the

motivation theory, Maslow‘s contribution in the form of his need
hierarchy is the most significant. It provides the framework to
study and analyse human motivation. Maslow‘s contribution to
motivation theory lies in his analysis of human motivation by
taking human needs as the basis of human behaviour.

Maslow‘s basic proposition is that people are wanting beings, they

always want more, and what they want depends on what they
already have. He suggests that human needs are arranged in a series
of levels, a hierarchy of importance. According to Mullins (2007),
the hierarchy is usually shown as ranging through five main levels,
from, at the lowest level, physiological needs, through safety needs,
love needs and esteem needs, to the need for self-actualisation at
the highest level. The hierarchy of needs may be shown as a series
of steps but is usually displayed in the form of a pyramid.

Physiological needs may be synonymous with the biological needs

of the human beings like hunger, thirst, and so on. Human beings
also search for security and safety from dangers, deprivations, and
many others (Basu, 1994). Love needs (often referred to as social

25
needs) include affection, sense of belonging, social activities,
friendship, and so on. Esteem needs (sometimes referred to as ego
needs) include both self-respect and the esteem of others. Self-
respect involves the desire for confidence, strength, independence
and freedom, and achievement. Esteem of others involves
reputation or prestige, status, recognition, attention and
appreciation (Mullins, 2007). Self-actualisation is considered to be
the highest need in the hierarchy of needs and as such it is directed
towards searching for the meaning and purpose of life (Basu,
1994). This is the development and realisation of one‘s full
potential.

Once a lower need has been satisfied, it no longer acts as a strong

motivator. The needs of the next higher level in the hierarchy
demand satisfaction and become the motivating influence. Only
unsatisfied needs motivate a person.

It is important to note that although Maslow suggests that most

people have these basic needs in about the order indicated, he also
makes it clear that the hierarchy is not necessarily a fixed order.
There will be a number of exceptions to the order indicated. For
some people there will be a reversal of the hierarchy (Mullins,
2007).

Critically assess the practical value of Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs

model to improving the motivation of people at work. Give
examples of the extent to which the theory could meaningfully be
applied to staff in your own organisation. Write in the space
provided.

26
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg identified two different sets of factors affecting

motivation and work. One set factors are those which, if absent,
cause dissatisfaction. These factors are related to job context, they
are concerned with job environment and extrinsic to the job itself.
These factors are the ‗hygiene’ or ‘maintenance’ factors
(‗hygiene‘ being used as analogous to the medical term meaning
preventive and environmental). They serve to prevent
dissatisfaction. These include: salary, job security, working
conditions, level and quality of supervision, company policy and
administration, and interpersonal relations (Mullins, 2007).

27
The other set of factors are those that, if present, serve to motivate
the individual to superior effort and performance. These factors are
related to job content of the work itself. They are the ‗motivators’
or ‘growth’ factors. The strength of these factors will affect
feelings of satisfaction or no satisfaction, but not dissatisfaction
(the opposite of dissatisfaction is not satisfaction but, simply, no
dissatisfaction). These include: sense of achievement, recognition,
responsibility, nature of the work, and personal growth and
advancement (Mullins, 2007).

Outline Herzberg‘s Two-Factor Theory of motivation and examine

its application within the Zambian setting. Write in the space
provided.

28
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

The next section discusses the process theories of motivation.

2.3 Process Theories of Motivation

Process theories of motivation attempt to identify the relationship
among the dynamic variables that make up motivation. These
theories are concerned more with how behaviour is initiated,
directed and sustained. Process theories of motivation place
emphasis on the actual process of motivation (Mullins, 2007).
Many of the process theories cannot be linked to a single writer.
Some of the process theories of motivation are:

 Expectancy-based models;

 Equity theory;

 Goal theory; and

 Attribution theory.

The next section discusses the expectancy theory of motivation.

29
Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Basu (1994) indicated that expectancy theory of motivation is

based upon the idea that employees have certain built-in
expectations from the jobs they are performing. They are motivated
if they find their expectations satisfied. Mullins (2007) also noted
that the underlying basis of expectancy is that people are influenced
by the expected results of their actions. Motivation is a function of
the relationship between:

 Effort expended and perceived level of performance; and

 The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) will be

related to performance.

There must also be:

 The expectation that rewards (desired outcomes) are

available.

Performance therefore depends upon the perceived expectation

regarding effort expended and achieving the desired outcome. For
instance, the desire for promotion will result in high performance
only if the person believes there is a strong expectation that will
lead to promotion. A person‘s behaviour reflects a conscious choice
between the comparative evaluation of alternative behaviours. The
choice of behaviour is based on the expectancy of the most
favourable consequences (Mullins, 2007).

It is important to note that expectancy theory is a generic theory of

motivation and cannot be linked to a single individual writer. There
are a number of versions such as, Vroom‘s expectancy theory, and
Porter and Lawler expectancy model.

30
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about issues related to motivation. It is
noted that the underlying concept of motivation is some driving
force within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some
goal in order to fulfil some need or expectation. The various needs
and expectations at work can be categorised in a number of ways -
for instance, the simple divisions into physiological and social
motives or into intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

In this unit it is also noted that the different cognitive theories of

motivation are usually divided into two contrasting approaches:
Content theories; and Process theories. Content theories of
motivation attempt to explain those specific things that actually
motivate the individual at work. These theories place emphasis on
the nature of needs and what motivates. Process theories of
motivation attempt to identify the relationship among the dynamic
variables that make up motivation. These theories place emphasis
on the actual process of motivation.

31
Unit 3

Approaches to Organisation and

Management

3.0 Introduction
Welcome to unit three. This unit focuses on approaches to
organization and management. It is worth noting that there are
many ways of categorizing the various approaches. This unit
discusses the classical approach, the human relations approach, and
the systems approach. There are three main sections in this unit.
The first section looks at the classical approach, and the second
section focuses on the human relations approach. The last section
looks at the systems approach.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Describe the main features of different approaches to

organisation and management.

 Evaluate the relevance of these different approaches to the

present-day management of organisations.

3.1 The Classical Approach

According to Basu (1994), the most important concern of classical
theory is the formulation of certain principles of organisation. It
deals primarily with formal organisational structure. The theory
assumes that there are certain fundamental principles on the basis

32
of which an organisation can be established to achieve a specific
objective.

The classical writers thought of the organisation in terms of its

purpose and formal structure. They placed emphasis on the
planning of work, the technical requirements of the organisation,
principles of management, and the assumption of rational and
logical behaviour. The analysis of organisation in this manner is
associated with writers such as Taylor, Fayol, Urwick, Mooney and
Reiley, and Brech.

A clear understanding of the purpose of an organisation is seen as

essential to understanding how the organisation works and how its
methods of working can be improved. Identification of general
objectives would lead to the clarification of purpose and
responsibilities at all levels of the organisation and to the most
effective structure. Attention is given to the division of work, the
clear definition of duties and responsibilities, and maintaining
specialisation and co-ordination. Emphasis is on a hierarchy of
management and formal organisation relationships (Mullins, 2007).

The classical writers were concerned with improving the

organisation structure as a means of increasing efficiency. They
emphasised the importance of principles for the design of a logical
structure of organisation. Their writings were in a normative style
and they saw these principles as a set of ‗rules‘ offering general
solutions to common problems of organisation and management.

33
Mullins (2007) indicated that most classical writers had their own
set of principles but among the most publicised are of Fayol and
Urwick. Fayol recognised that there was no limit to the principles
of management but in his writing advocated 14. These include:
division of labour, authority and responsibility, discipline, unity of
command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interest to
general interest, and so on. Urwick originally specified eight
principles, but these were revised to ten in his later writing. These
include: the principle of the objective, the principle of
specialisation, the principle of co-ordination, the principle of
authority, the principle of responsibility, and so on.

Mooney and Reiley set out a number of common principles which

relate to all types of organisations. They place particular attention
on:

 The principle of co-ordination – the need for people to act

together with unity of action, the exercise of authority and
need for discipline;

 The scalar principle – the hierarchy of the organisation, the

grading of duties and process of delegation; and

 The functional principle – specialisation and the distinction

between different kinds of duties.

It is worth noting that the classical writers have been criticised

generally for not taking sufficient account of personality factors
and for creating an organisation structure in which people can
exercise only limited control over their work environment. The idea
of sets of principles to guide managerial action has also been
subjected to much criticism. Research studies have also expressed

34
doubt about the effectiveness of these principles when applied in
practice. However, the classical approach prompted the start of a
more scientific view of management and attempted to provide
some common principles applicable to all organisations. These
principles are still of relevance in that they offer a useful starting
point in attempting to analyse the design of organisation structure.
The application of these principles must take full account of:

 The particular situational variables of each individual

organisation; and

 The psychological and social factors relating to members of

the organisation.

The two major ‗sub-groupings‘ of the classical approach are:

scientific management, and bureaucracy.

Scientific Management

Mullins (2007) noted that many of the classical writers were

concerned with the improvement of management as a means of
increasing productivity. The emphasis was on the problem of
obtaining increased productivity from individual workers through
the technical structuring of the work organisation and the provision
of monetary incentives as the motivator for higher levels of output.
A major contributor to this approach was F. W. Taylor. Taylor
believed that in the same way that there is a best machine for each
job, so there is a best working method by which people should
undertake their jobs. He considered that all work processes could
be analysed into discrete tasks and that by scientific method it was
possible to find the ‗one best way‘ to perform each task. Each job

35
was broken down into components parts, each part timed and the
parts rearranged into the most efficient method of working.

Taylor was concerned with finding more efficient methods and

procedures for co-ordination and control of work. He set out a
number of principles to guide management. These principles are
usually summarised as:

 The development of a true science for each person‘s work;

 The scientific selection, training and development of the

workers;

 Co-operation with the workers to ensure work is carried out

in the prescribed way; and

 The division of work and responsibility between

management and the workers.

Assess critically the relevance of scientific management to present-

day organisations. Illustrate your answer with reference to your
own organisation. Write in the space provided.

36
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

Bureaucracy

Basu (1994) noted that bureaucracy as an organisational model was

first developed systematically by Max Weber. According to him,
every organisation can be defined as a structure of activities
directed towards the achievement of certain objectives. To
maximise efficiency and productivity every organisation develops a
system of specialisation and a set of systematic rules and
procedures. Weber stressed that bureaucratic form is capable of
attaining the highest degree of efficiency, and is in this sense,
formally, the most rational known means of carrying out control
over human beings in any organisation.

Main Characteristics of Bureaucracies

According to Mullins (2007), Weber did not actually define

bureaucracy but did attempt to identify the main characteristics of
this type of organisation. He emphasised the importance of

37
administration based on expertise and administration based on
discipline.

 The tasks of the organisation are allocated s official duties

among the various positions;

 There is an implied clear-cut division of labour and a high

level of specialisation;

 A hierarchical authority applies to the organisation of

offices and positions. Hierarchy of authority makes for a
sharp distinction between administrators and the
administered or between management and workers. Within
the management ranks there are clearly defined levels of
authority;

 Uniformity of decisions and actions is achieved through

formally established systems of rules and regulations.
Together with a structure of authority, this enables the co-
ordination of various activities within the organisation.
System of rules aims to provide for an efficient and
impersonal operation;

 An impersonal orientation is expected from officials in

dealings with clients and other officials. This is designed to
result in rational judgements by officials in the performance
of their duties. Impersonality means that allocation of
privileges and the exercise of authority should not be
arbitrary, but in accordance with the laid-down systems of
rules; and

 Employment by the organisation is based on technical

qualifications and constitutes a lifelong career for officials
(Mullins, 2007).

38
The four main features of bureaucracy are summarised as
specialisation, hierarchy of authority, systems of rules, and
impersonality.

It is important to note that Weber‘s concept of bureaucracy has a

number of disadvantages and has been subject to severe criticism.
For instance,

 Initiative may be stifled and when a situation is not covered

by a complete set of rules or procedures there may be a lack
of flexibility or adaptation to changing circumstances;

 Impersonal relations can lead to stereotyped behaviour and

a lack of responsiveness to individual incidents or problems
(Mullins, 2007).

(Think of other criticisms and write in the space provided)

 ................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................
................................................................................................

39
3.2 The Human Relations Approach
According to Basu (1994), human relations approach focuses on
management as a web of interpersonal relationships. It lays greater
stress on the behaviour of role occupants in an organization than on
the formal structure of the organization. The advocates of this
school argue that since management and administration involve
group effort and collective endeavours of people, the study of
management must be centered on the individual as a socio-
psychological being and are more concerned with motivation. They
view human relations as the heart of the task of management. The
underlying emphasis of all these views is that the solution of the
problem of management can be found in the realm of social
psychology. The greatest single influence of the human relations
approach came from the Hawthorne experiments which were
carried out in the USA by Elton Mayo and his colleagues of the
Harvard Business School.

The human relations approach rejects formal institutionalization. It

considers the informal, day-to-day functioning of the structure
more revealing than the mechanistic study of structure and
principles of organization. It assumes that the study of
organizational behaviour is a very complex process which has to
take into account, both economic and non-economic variables
(Basu, 1994).

According to Mullins (2007), there were shortcomings in the

human relations approach and assumptions which evolved from
such studies as the Hawthorne experiments were not necessarily
supported by empirical evidence. New ideas arose and a major
focus of concern was the personal adjustment of the individual

40
within the work organization and the effects of group relationships
and leadership styles. This group of writers is often categorized
separately under the heading of ‗neo-human relations‘. A major
impetus for the neo-human relations approach was the work of
Maslow who, put forward a theoretical framework of individuals
personality development and motivation based on a hierarchy of
human needs. Among the best known contributors to the neo-
human relations approach are Herzberg and McGregor. Other
major contributors are Likert, McClelland, and Argris.

The next section looks at McGregor‘s Theory X and Theory Y.

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Drawing on moslow‘s hierarchy of needs model, McGregor, in

1960, put forward two suppositions about human nature and
behaviour at work. He argued that the style of management adopted
is a function of the manager‘s attitudes towards people and
assumptions about human nature and behaviour. The two
suppositions are called Theory X and Theory Y and are based on
polar assumptions about people and work.

Theory X represents the assumptions on which traditional

organizations are based. Its assumptions are that:

 The average human being has inherent dislike of work

and will avoid it, if he can;

 Most people must be coerced, controlled, directed and

threatened with punishment if the organization is to
achieve its objectives;

41
 The average person avoids responsibility, prefers to be
directed, lacks ambition and values security most of
all; and

 Motivation occurs only at the physiological and

security levels (Mullins, 2007).

Theory Y represents the assumptions consistent with current

research knowledge. Its assumptions are:

 For most people work is as natural as play or rest;

 People will exercise self-direction and self-control in

the service of objectives to which they are committed;

 Commitment to objectives is a function of rewards

associated with their achievement;

 Given the right conditions, the average worker can

learn to accept and seek responsibility;

 The capacity for creativity in solving organisational

problems is distributed widely in the population;

 The intellectual potential of the average person is only

partially utilized; and

 Motivation occurs at the affiliation, esteem and self-

actualisation levels as well as at the physiological and
security levels (Mullins, 2007).

42
Before you proceed, take a few moments to think about ways in
which McGregor‘s analysis is relevant to school management.
Write in the space provided.

The next section focuses on the systems approach.

3.3 Systems Approach

Systems approach can be contrasted with a view of the organisation
as separate parts. This approach encourages heads of organisations
to view the organisation both as a whole and as part of a larger
environment. The idea is that any part of an organisation‘s
activities affects all other parts (Mullins, 2007).

43
According Basu (1994), the term ‗system‘ has been defined as a
complex whole, a set of connected things or parts. According to
this approach in organisational analysis, an organisation can be
considered a social system to be studied in its totality. In other
words, a system is a collection of interrelated parts which receives
inputs, acts upon them in an organised or planned manner and
thereby produces certain outputs.

There is a growing trend to place all types of organisations within

the broad framework of general systems theory. A system is seen as
an assembly of interdependent parts who interact among
themselves. Interdependence implies that a change in one part
influences other parts, ultimately affecting the entire system.
Individuals are viewed as the basic unit of organisational systems.

All human organisations are open sub-systems engaged in

transactions within the larger social system, that is, society. All
sub-systems receive inputs in the form of human and material
resources from the larger system, while giving out output in the
form of products, services or rewards to its members as well as to
the larger system (Basu, 1994).

Evaluate the application of the systems approach to the analysis of

the work organisation. Suggest an example of a work situation in
which the systems approach might be appropriate. Write in the
space provided.

44
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................
............................................................................................................

Unit summary
In this unit you learned about some of the approaches to
organization and management. It is noted that there are many ways
of categorizing the various approaches. This unit focused on the
classical approach, the human relations approach, and the systems
approach.

The classical writers thought of the organisation in terms of its

purpose and formal structure. The classical theory assumes that
there are certain fundamental principles on the basis of which an
organisation can be established to achieve a specific objective.
Human relations approach focuses on management as a web of
interpersonal relationships. The systems approach encourages
heads of organisations to view the organisation both as a whole and
as part of a larger environment. The idea is that any part of an
organisation‘s activities affects all other parts.

45
Unit 4

Organisation Structure

4.0 Introduction
This unit focuses on aspects related to organization structure.
Structure provides the framework of an organization and its pattern
of management. It is by means of structure that the purpose and
work of the organization are carried out (Mullins, 2007).

There are three sections in this unit. The first section looks at the
meaning and nature of organization structure, and the second
section focuses on the basic consideration in the design of
organization structure. The last section discusses the consequences
of badly designed structure.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning and nature of organisation structure.

 Describe the main factors to be considered in the design of

organisation structure.

 Explain the importance of a good structure and the

consequences of a deficient structure.

4.1 Meaning and Nature of Organisation Structure

Mullins (2007) indicated that the purpose of structure is the
division of work among members of the organisation, and the co-

46
ordination of their activities so they are directed towards the goals
and objectives of the organisation. Structure is the pattern of
relationships among positions in the organisation and among
members of the organisation. Structure makes possible the
application of the process of management and creates a framework
of order and command through which the activities of the
organisation can be planned, organised, directed and controlled.
The structure defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and
relationships, and channels of communication.

Structure is important for any organisation, whatever its size.

However, in the smaller organisations there are likely to be fewer
problems of structure. The distribution of tasks, the definition of
authority and responsibility, and the relationship between members
of the organisation can be established on a more personal and
informal basis. With increasing size, however, there is greater need
for a carefully designed and purposeful form of organisation. There
is need for a formal organisational structure. There is also need for
a continual review of structure to ensure that it is the most
appropriate form for the particular organisation, and in keeping
with its growth and development (Mullins, 2007).

The objectives of structure may be summarised as to provide for:

 The economic and efficient performance of the organisation

and the level of resource utilisation;

 Monitoring the activities of the organisation;

 Accountability for areas of work undertaken by groups and

individual members of the organisation;

47
 Co-ordination of different parts of the organisation and
different areas of work;

 Flexibility in order to respond to future demands and

developments; and

 The social satisfaction of members working in the

organisation (Mullins, 2007).

It is worth noting that organisations are layered. The determination

of policy and decision-making, the execution of work, and the
exercise of authority and responsibility are carried out by different
people at varying levels of seniority throughout the organisation
structure.

Before you proceed, explain in your own words, the importance of

good structure. Write in the space provided.

48
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

4.2 Basic Considerations in the Design of Organisation Structure

Mullins (2007) noted that there is need to establish a framework of
order and system of command by which the work to be undertaken
is accomplished successfully. This demands that attention be given
to certain basic principles and considerations in the design of
organisation structure, or in the reviewing the effectiveness of an
existing structure. Organisations are collection of people brought
together for a purpose. To achieve this purpose successfully, people
need to be organised within the best possible structure. The
following are some of the basic considerations in the design of
organisation structure:

 Clarification of objectives: A clear definition of objectives

is necessary in order to provide a basis for the division of
work and grouping of duties into sub-units. Clearly stated
objectives will provide a framework for the design of
structure, and a suitable pattern of organisation to achieve
those objectives.

 Division of work and grouping of people: Within the

formal structure of an organisation work has to be divided
among its members and different jobs related to each other.
The division of work and the grouping together of people

49
should, wherever possible, be organised by reference to
some common characteristic which forms a logical link
between the activities involved. It is important to note that
work can be divided, and activities linked together, in a
variety of ways.

 Principles of organisation

 Span of control and chain of command: The span of

control arises in line authority and refers to the number of
subordinates who report directly to a given supervisor. The
chain of command refers to the number of different levels in
the structure of the organisation.

(Think of other considerations and write in the space

provided)

50
4.3 Consequences of badly designed structure
Before you proceed, outline some of the consequences of badly
designed structure. Write in the space provided.

………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

You may now proceed.

Child (2005) cited in Mullins (2007) noted that deficiencies in

organisation can play a part in exacerbating problems. High on the
list are: low motivation and morale, late and inappropriate
decisions, conflict and lack of co-ordination, a generally poor
response to new opportunities and external pressure, and rising
costs.

 Low motivation and morale may result from: apparently

inconsistent and arbitrary decisions; insufficient delegation

51
of decision-making; lack of clarity in job definition and
assessment of performance; competing pressures from
different parts of the organisation; and supervisors
overloaded through inadequate support systems.

 Late and inappropriate decisions may result from: lack of

relevant, timely information to the right people; poor co-
ordination of decision-makers in different units;
overloading of decision-makers due to insufficient
delegation; inadequate procedures for re-evaluation of past
decisions.

 Conflict and lack of co-ordination may result from: lack

of clarity of objectives and activities; failure to bring people
together into teams or through lack of liaison; and lack of
effective systems for communicating the modification of
tasks.

 Poor response to new opportunities and external

pressure may result from: failure to give adequate attention
to innovation and planning of change as main management
activities; and inadequate use of teamwork and attention to
relevant aspects of new projects.

 Rising costs may result from: a long hierarchy of authority

with a high proportion of senior positions; an excess of
rules, procedures and administrative work at the expense of
productive; and the presence of some, or all, of the
organisational problems.

52
Before you proceed, take some time to outline the organizational
structures in the Ministry of Education. Write in the space
provided.

53
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about aspects related to organization
structure. It is noted that structure provides the framework of an
organization and its pattern of management. It is by means of
structure that the purpose and work of the organization are carried
out. The purpose of structure is the division of work among
members of the organisation, and the co-ordination of their
activities so they are directed towards the goals and objectives of
the organisation. Structure is the pattern of relationships among
positions in the organisation and among members of the
organisation.

In this unit you have also learned that there is need to establish a
framework of order and system of command by which the work to
be undertaken is accomplished successfully. This demands that
attention be given to certain basic principles and considerations in
the design of organisation structure.

The next section discusses leadership.

54
Unit 5

The Nature of Leadership

5.0 Introduction
This unit focuses on leadership. There are two main sections in this
unit. The first section looks at the meaning of leadership, and the
second section discusses various approaches to leadership.

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

 Explain the meaning of leadership.

 Discuss the main approaches to leadership.

5.1 The Meaning of Leadership

Before you proceed, take a few moments to think about the
meaning of the term ‗leadership‘. Write in the space provided.

55
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

You may now proceed.

There are a number of definitions that have been offered over the
years. Mullins (2007) noted that there are many ways of looking at
leadership and many interpretations of its meaning. Leadership
might be interpreted in simple terms, such as ‗getting others to
follow‘ or ‗getting people to do things willingly‘. It may be
exercised as an attribute of position or because of personal
knowledge or wisdom. Leadership might be based on a function of
personality or it can be seen as a behavioural category. It may also
be viewed in terms of the role of the leaders and their ability to
achieve effective performance from others. Mullins (2007) further
indicated that it is difficult to generalise about leadership, but
essentially it is a relationship through which one person influences
the behaviour or action of other people.

Burns (1978) provides a global definition of leadership: Leadership

over human beings is exercised when persons with certain motives
and purposes mobilize, in competition or conflict with others,
instructional, political, psychological, and other resources so as to
arouse, engage, and satisfy the motives of followers. This is done in
order to realize goals mutually held by both leaders and followers.
Burns (1978) further indicated that leadership depends upon
relationships and shared values between leaders and followers. Daft
(2005) observed that where there is leadership, people become part
of a community and feel that they are contributing to something
worthwhile. Leadership has also been described as the process of
influencing individuals or groups to accomplish shared

56
organisational goals in a given setting, or accomplishing goals with
or through people. Hill (1998) described leadership as behaviours
associated with moving a group or organisation towards a higher
level of achievement.

According to Kapena (2000:11), ―Leadership is the process of

directing the behaviour of another person or persons towards the
accomplishment of some objectives‖. Bhagwan and Bhushan
(2006) also described leadership as an activity of influencing
people to strive willingly for mutual objectives.

Cole (2004) also observed that leadership is ultimately connected

with actual behaviour and attitudes towards oneself and others.
Cole (2004:53) further stated, ―Leadership is essentially about
striking the right balance between the needs of people, tasks and
goals in a given situation‖. According to Harris et al. (2003),
leadership is about collaborative learning that leads to purposeful
change, and this learning has direction towards aspirations and
shared purposes.

Leadership has further been described in respect to management.

Day (2000) observed that leadership is creating and maintaining a
sense of vision, culture, and interpersonal relationships. However,
management is coordinating, supporting, and monitoring the
activities of an organisation. Hersey and Blanchard (1969) claimed
that leadership is a broader concept than management.
Management is a subskill of leadership in which achieving
organisational goals is of paramount importance. Leadership
involves working with and through people so as to accomplish
goals but not necessarily organisational goals. Harris et al. (2003)

57
indicated that leadership is about constantly reviewing what one is
doing and holding on to things one values. Management is about
the functions, procedures and systems by which one realizes the
vision. Harris et al. (2003:167) further stated,

Leadership is essentially the process of

building and maintaining a sense of vision,
culture and interpersonal relationships,
whereas management is the coordination,
support and monitoring of organisational
activities.

A distinction has also been made between leaders and managers.

For instance, according to Squires (2001), leaders are concerned
with the spiritual aspect of their work, that is, they have followers
who deeply believe in them and they possess a latent power in
organisations. However, managers deal with mundane tasks such as
allocation of roles, tasks and resources needed to achieve
organisational goals, coordination of the allocated activities and
processes and monitoring the everyday operation of the
organisation. Bryman (1993) observed that managers are associated
with periods of stability, leaders with periods of turbulence. When
people are at peace, happy and satisfied there is hardly any need for
leadership. On the other hand, when the human condition is at stake
and the situation urges someone to step forward and initiate
change, the need for leadership is high. In addition, leaders have a
vision of the future and they develop strategies that are necessary to
bring about changes needed to achieve that vision. Bennis
(2003:143) stated,

A leader is, by definition, an innovator. He

does things other people have not done or do
not do. He does things in advance of other
people. He makes new things. He makes old
things new. Having learned from the past, he
lives in the present, with one eye on the

58
future. And each leader puts it all together in a
different way.

Green (2001) also indicated that exemplary leaders are able to

influence others to use their skills and expertise to propel an
organisation towards established goals. However, managers take
incremental steps and create timetables to achieve those results.
Fullan (1991) indicated that leaders and managers have also been
compared invidiously (leaders do the right thing, and managers do
things right) or linear relationship (leaders set the course, and
managers follow it).

Bennis (2003) observed that the leaders have to be capable of

inspiring other people to do things without actually sitting on top of
them with a checklist – which is management, not leadership.
Bennis (2003:45) further stated,

The manager administers, the leader

innovates; …The manager maintains, the
leader develops; The manager focuses on
systems and structures, the leader focuses on
people; The manager relies on control, the
leader inspires trust; …The manager accepts
the status quo, the leader challenges it; … The
manager does things right, the leader does the
right thing.

Fullan (1991) observed that successful school heads and other

organisational heads do both functions of leadership and
management simultaneously. According to Waters (1979:21),
―Leadership without managerial skills can be both pointless and
ineffectual, and do little for staff‖. Commonwealth secretariat
(1993) indicated that the school head is the leader of a team of
professional educators, and is the manager of supply and effective

59
use of resources. Bhagwan and Bhushan (2006) also indicated that
the first and foremost task of management is to provide leadership,
to guide and direct the work of the group as a whole toward desired
objectives.

In the above section, it has been observed that leadership has been
defined by many. In the space provided, outline the key aspects
regarding the term ‗leadership‘.

The next section describes some of the approaches to leadership.

60
5.2 Approaches to Leadership
Leadership is an issue that has increasingly attracted the attention
of researchers. Theoretical explanations for leadership have been
given throughout history, and many theories have been developed.
This section presents some of the approaches to leadership.

The earliest studies of leadership adopted the belief that leaders

were born with certain heroic leadership traits and natural abilities
of power and influence (Daft, 2005). The leadership theories such
as the one which stated that leaders were born rather than made,
have come and gone. For instance, the Trait Approach that
endured up to the late 1940s claimed that leadership ability is
inborn (Bryman, 1993). This approach tried to define any
distinguished physical or psychological characteristics of the
individual that explains the behaviour of leaders. West et al. (2000)
cited in Harris et al. (2003) observed that the trait theories of
leadership approach resulted from the initial interest in the personal
qualities and characteristics of 'successful leaders'. It was thought
that if traits could be identified, leaders could be predicted.

The study of special traits of leaders emerged from the belief that
leadership and abilities such as intelligence were inherited. Mullins
(2007) indicated that trait approach assumes that leaders are born
and not made, and that leadership consists of certain inherited
characteristics, or personality traits which distinguish leaders from
their followers. There have been many research studies into the
common traits of leadership. However, it has proved an impossible
task to identify the particular traits or characteristics that separate
leaders from non leaders (Cole, 2004; and Mullins, 2007).
Investigations have identified lists of traits that tend to be

61
overlapping, contradictory or with little correlation for most
features. Although research failed to produce a list of traits that
would always guarantee leadership success, the interest in
leadership characteristics continued.

In the late 1940s to the late 1960s, Behavioural Approach became

dominant advocating that effectiveness in leadership had to do with
how the leader behaved (Derelg, 2003). Robbins (1998) indicated
that the failure of tracing ‗gold‘ in the trait ‗mines‘ urged
researchers to examine the behaviours that specific leaders
exhibited. Daft (2005:23) stated,

The failure to identify a universal set of

leadership traits led researchers in the early
1950s to begin looking at what a leader does,
rather than who he or she is.

West et al. (2000) cited in Harris et al. (2003) indicated that the
behavioural theories of leadership approach resulted from the
studies that focused on some behaviours and approaches that are
consistently associated with successful leadership. Behavioural
studies of leadership aim to identify behaviours that differentiate
leaders from non leaders (Robbins, 1998).

Daft (2005) observed that behavioural studies expanded to try to

determine how effective leaders differ in their behaviour from
ineffective ones. Mullins (2007) also indicated that behavioural
approach draws attention to the kinds of behaviour of leadership
situations. Behavioural theories of leadership support that a set of
particular behaviours can be named as a style of leadership.
Mullins (2007) indicated that leadership style is the way in which

62
the functions of leadership are carried out, the way in which the
manager typically behaves towards members of the group.

Several studies were conducted to identify the leadership styles.

These studies included the Hawthorne Studies, the Iowa Studies,
and many others. The Iowa studies, for instance, was an attempt to
identify different styles of leader behaviour on the group, and these
studies were conducted at the University of Iowa in the United
States of America. The researchers came up with three leadership
styles to determine their effects on the attitudes and productivity of
the subordinates. The leadership styles that were identified
included: Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-faire
leadership styles. Authoritarian leaders were very directive and did
not allow any participation in the decision making process. They
assumed full authority and responsibility from initiation to task
completion. Democratic leaders promoted group discussion and
decision making. They encouraged subordinates to express their
ideas and make suggestions. Laissez-faire leaders let the group
decide on their own and gave them complete freedom. It was found
that the subordinates preferred democratic style of leadership as the
best. They also preferred laissez-faire leadership style over the
authoritarian one. Productivity was slightly higher under the
authoritarian than under the democratic one. However, it turned out
to be the lowest under the laissez-faire leader‘s supervision
(Lunenburg and Ornstein, 1996).

In the late 1960s to the early 1980s the Contingency Approach

became popular suggesting that effective leadership is dependent
upon the situation (Bryman, 1993). According to Mullins (2007),
contingency theories are based on the belief that there is no single
style of leadership appropriate to all situations. West et al. (2003)

63
cited in Harris et al. (2003) also observed that growing awareness
that task-related and people-centred behaviours may be interpreted
quite differently by different groups and in different contexts,
prompting explanation of how the particular context might be best
accounted for within a general theory, and resulting in a variety of
situational approaches to leadership.

Contingency theories of leadership emphasize the situation as the

dominant feature in considering the characteristics of effective
leadership (Mullins, 2007). Daft (2005) indicated that the idea
behind contingency theories is that leaders can analyse their
situation and tailor their behaviour to improve leadership
effectiveness. Contingency theories emphasise that leadership
cannot be understood in a vacuum separate from various elements
of the group or organizational situation.

Daft (2005) further noted that since the late 1970s, many ideas of
leadership have focused on the relational aspect, that is, how
leaders and followers interact and influence one another. Rather
than being seen as something a leader does to a follower, leadership
is viewed as a relational process that meaningfully engages all
participants and enables each person to contribute to achieving the
vision. Interpersonal relationships are seen as the most important
facet of leadership effectiveness.

In the late 1970s the concept of Transactional and

Transformational leadership then emerged. According to Mullins
(2007), transactional leadership is based on a relationship of mutual
dependence and an exchange process of 'I will give you this, if you
do that'. Transformational leadership, by contrast, is a process of

64
engendering higher levels of motivation and commitment among
followers (Mullins, 2007). Transactional leadership suggests that
the relationship between managers and employees is based on
bargaining whereas transformational leadership supposes that the
relationship between the manager and the employee is of mutual
trust and characterized by four factors: charisma, inspiration,
individual consideration, and intellectual stimulation (Derelg, 2003;
and Mullins, 2007).

Apart from transactional and transformational leadership, there

have been other approaches to Leadership such as charismatic
leadership and many more. According to Daft (2005) charismatic
leadership refers to leadership influence based not on position or
formal authority but, rather, on the qualities and charismatic
personality of the leader. Theories of charismatic leadership
attempt to identify how charismatic leaders behave, how they differ
from other people, and the conditions that typically give rise to
charismatic leadership.

In terms of leadership at school level, as indicated by Hallinger

(1992), two images of school principalship have prevailed in recent
decades; instructional leadership and transformational leadership.
Transformational leadership, put briefly, provides intellectual
direction and aims at innovating within the organisation, while
empowering and supporting teachers and partners in decision
making. Hopkins (2001) observed that transformational approach
to leadership is a necessary but not sufficient condition for
authentic school improvement, and argued that transformational
approach lacks a specific orientation towards student learning.
Hopkins (2001) further stated that for this reason the
complementary notion of 'instructional leadership' is attractive.

65
Instructional leadership as defined by Leithwood (1994) is a series
of behaviours that are designed to affect classroom instruction.
Instructional leadership focuses on leadership functions directly
related to teaching and learning and refers to all other functions that
contribute to student learning including managerial behaviours.

From the above section, it is evident that leadership has generated

an enormous amount of interest among researchers. It is also
evident that researchers have not come up with a single theory
regarding leadership. As observed by Harris et al. (2003), the
search for a singular theory of leadership has proved futile, despite
a large research base. Law and Grove (2000) cited in Harris et al.
(2003) equally observed that there are no ready-made or
universally applicable theories that one can simply 'pull off the
shelf'.

However, even though the research for a singular theory of

leadership has proved futile, studies regarding leadership have
continued, and in recent years, there have been many studies
focusing on the practices associated with effective leadership.

In the space provided, outline some of the practices associated with

effective leadership.

………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

66
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………

The next section looks at the unit summary.

67
Unit summary
In this unit you learned about the nature of leadership. It is noted
that there are many ways of looking at leadership. For instance,
leadership is described as the process of directing the behaviour of
another person or persons towards the accomplishment of some
objectives. It is also seen as a relationship through which one
person influences the behaviour or actions of other people. In this
unit, various approaches to leadership have also been discussed. It
is noted that there are various ways of analyzing leadership.
Leadership may be examined, inter alia, in terms of the qualities or
traits approach, as a behavioural category, in terms of the
distinction between transactional or transformational leadership,
and so on.

68
Module summary
In this module, you have learned about the nature and context of
organisations. It is noted that all organizations have some function
to perform. Organisations enable objectives to be achieved that
could not be achieved by efforts of individuals on their own.
Organisations come in all forms, shapes and sizes. In this module
you have also learned about issues related to motivation. It is noted
that the underlying concept of motivation is some driving force
within individuals by which they attempt to achieve some goal in
order to fulfil some need or expectation.

Some of the approaches to organization and management have also

been discussed in this module. It is noted that there are many ways
of categorizing the various approaches. In this module the focus
was on the classical approach, the human relations approach, and
the systems approach.

In this module you have also learned about aspects related to

organization structure. It is noted that structure provides the
framework of an organization and its pattern of management. It is
by means of structure that the purpose and work of the organization
are carried out.

Leadership has also been discussed in this module. It is noted that

there are various ways of analyzing leadership. For instance,
leadership may be examined in terms of the qualities or traits
approach, as a behavioural category, in terms of the distinction
between transactional or transformational leadership, and so on.

69
References
Basu, R. (1994) Public Administration: Concepts and Theories,
New Delhi: Sterling publishers private limited.

Bennis, W. (2003) On Becoming a Leaders, Mumbai: Magna

Publishing Co. Ltd.

Bennis, W. and Nanus, B. (1985) Leaders: The strategies for

taking charge, New York: Harper and Row.

Bhagwan, V. and Bhushan, V. (2006) Public Administration,

New Delhi: S. Chand & Co. Ltd.

Bryman, A. (1993) Charisma and Leadership in Organisations,

London: Sage Publications.

Burns, J. M. (1978) Leadership, New: Harper and Row.

Cole, G. (2004) Management Theory and Practice, London:

Geraldine Lyons.

Commonwealth Secretariat (1993) Better Schools: Monitoring

School Effectiveness, London: Pall Mall.

Daft, R. L. (2005) The Leadership Experience, Canada:

Thomson.

Day, C. (2000) ―Beyond Transformational Leadership‖,

Educational Leadership, 57 (7), pp. 56 – 59.

Derelg, M. (2003) A survey of Leadership Styles of Elementary

school principals, Masters dissertation, Middle East Technical
University.

Fullan, M. (1991) The new Meaning of Educational Change,

London: Cassell Educational Limited.

Green, R. (2001) Natural forces: How to Significantly increase

Student achievement in the third millennium, Tallahassee:
Interactive Learning Systems.

Hallinger, P. (1992) ―The Evolving role of American Principals:

Fro managerial to Instructional to Transformational Leaders‖,
Journal of Educational Administration, 30.

70
Harris, A., Day, C., Hadfield, M., Hopkins, D., Hargreaves, A. and
Chapman, C. (2003) Effective Leadership for School
improvement, London: Routledge Falmer.

Hersey, P. and Blanchard, K. H. (1969) Management of

Organisational Behaviour: Utilizing human Resources, New
Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Hill, P. (1998) ―Shaking the Foundations: Research drive School

Reform‖, School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 7, 1 -
34.

Hopkins, D. (2001) School Improvement for Real, London:

Routledge Falmer.

Kapena, S. (2000) How to be a wise Leader, Nairobi: Paulines

Publications Africa.

Leithwood, K. (1994) ―Leadership for School Restructuring‖,

Educational Administration Quartely, 30, 4, 498 -518.

Lunenburg, F. C. and Ornstein, A. C. (1996) Educational

Administration: Concepts and Practices (2nd ed.), CA:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.

Marks, S. M. and Printy, H. M. (2003) ―Principal Leadership and

School Performance: An Integration of Transformational and
Instructional Leadership‖, Educational Administration
Quarterly, 39, 370 – 397.

Mullins, L. J. (2007) Management and Organisation Behaviour,

England: Pearson Education Limited.

Robbins, S. P. (1998) Organisational Behaviour: Concepts,

Controversies, applications, (8th ed.) New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Squires, G. (2001) ―Management as a professional discipline‖,

Journal of Management Studies, 34 (4) 11.

Waters, D. (1979) Management and Headship in the Primary

School, London: Ward Lock Educational.

71
Congratulations for reading through the entire module!
Please take a few moments to give us your feedback on
any aspect of this module (refer to page 2). Write your
comments in the space provided.

.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................

72
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................
.............................................................................................

Common questions

Expectancy theory posits that employees are motivated when they believe their efforts will lead to a level of performance that is rewarded. The critical conditions include the expectancy that effort leads to performance and that performance will lead to desired rewards, which are both available and valued by the employee. This theory is essential for understanding workplace behavior because it highlights the significance of people's beliefs about effort, performance, and outcomes in influencing their motivation .

Effective organizational structure design should consider clear definition of tasks and responsibilities, appropriate delegation of authority, and establishment of communication channels. The structure must align with organizational goals and should accommodate both current operations and future growth. It also requires a balance between flexibility to adapt to change and stability to provide a clear framework for operations .

The Iowa studies identified that different leadership styles—authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire—impact team productivity and member satisfaction differently. Democratic leadership, which encourages group discussion and decision making, was preferred by subordinates and associated with higher satisfaction. In contrast, while authoritarian leadership showed slightly higher productivity, it was less favored by team members than democratic, and laissez-faire leadership was linked with lower productivity .

The systems approach encourages viewing the organization as a whole and as part of a larger environment, emphasizing interdependencies between different components. This perspective allows organizations to adapt and respond to changes by understanding how various parts of the system affect each other and by identifying the relationships between the organization and external factors .

A poorly designed organizational structure can lead to inefficiencies, communication breakdowns, and confusion over roles and responsibilities. This situation often results in duplicated effort, conflicting objectives, and low morale. Employees may feel frustrated by unclear lines of authority and lack of coordination, which can lead to decreased motivation and reduced overall performance .

The trait approach focuses on identifying specific personal qualities and characteristics that distinguish leaders from non-leaders. It has been largely replaced by other theories because research could not conclusively identify traits that guarantee leadership success. This approach was criticized for its inability to account for situational variables and was found to be descriptive rather than explanatory .

Role conflict can significantly impact workplace efficiency by leading to stress, dissatisfaction, and reduced performance. It often arises from poorly defined or incompatible roles that cause ambiguity. When expectations for behavior do not align with one's perceptions or are not clearly communicated, it results in conflicts that disrupt organizational functioning .

Content theories focus on identifying specific factors that motivate people, such as needs or desires, and what specifically motivates individuals at work. Process theories, on the other hand, emphasize the cognitive processes that influence behavior, detailing how motivation occurs and exploring the dynamic interactions among motivational variables. These differences shape how motivation strategies are developed and implemented in workplaces .

Transformational leadership is characterized by inspiring and motivating employees to achieve higher levels of performance and commitment, fostering an environment of trust, innovation, and individual consideration. Conversely, transactional leadership is based on exchanges and rewards contingent upon performance. While transformational leadership often leads to organizational change and long-term employee development, transactional leadership is effective for achieving short-term objectives and maintaining stability .

An organization can be broadly described in terms of its operating and administrative components. The operating component consists of the people directly involved in the core activities of producing goods or providing services. The administrative component includes managers and analysts concerned with supervision and coordination. These components must interact effectively to achieve organizational objectives, which involve reaching goals that individuals could not accomplish alone .

Educational Management Module 1
No ratings yet
Educational Management Module 1
79 pages
EDA 825: Managerial Psychology Guide
No ratings yet
EDA 825: Managerial Psychology Guide
166 pages
Mukuba University Education Programs
No ratings yet
Mukuba University Education Programs
83 pages
Edu 431 Module 2-1
No ratings yet
Edu 431 Module 2-1
83 pages
Principles of Management Course Overview
No ratings yet
Principles of Management Course Overview
72 pages
BUS 714: Principles of Management Guide
No ratings yet
BUS 714: Principles of Management Guide
113 pages
Education Management Module EDU 431
No ratings yet
Education Management Module EDU 431
84 pages
Organization and Management Quarter 1 Week 1
No ratings yet
Organization and Management Quarter 1 Week 1
18 pages
ACFrOgCHT5kgT7jI9nzVu5tLYtEYgy 65qJmPkhZiEWiHiD8Z4ImbPnKVPR4BF5XtlfMaWylIi8l1 MXGuGzp OBqM0I-T9UGBx M5qZWvLhaakbted4tZJtA76a8AFnJHzqxYUqoXNwDrtw2pub
No ratings yet
ACFrOgCHT5kgT7jI9nzVu5tLYtEYgy 65qJmPkhZiEWiHiD8Z4ImbPnKVPR4BF5XtlfMaWylIi8l1 MXGuGzp OBqM0I-T9UGBx M5qZWvLhaakbted4tZJtA76a8AFnJHzqxYUqoXNwDrtw2pub
26 pages
Introduction to Management Module Guide
No ratings yet
Introduction to Management Module Guide
134 pages
BBPP1203 Principles of Management For Non-Business Majors - Caug17 (Bookmark) .Output
No ratings yet
BBPP1203 Principles of Management For Non-Business Majors - Caug17 (Bookmark) .Output
148 pages
Organizational Behaviour Module Overview
No ratings yet
Organizational Behaviour Module Overview
123 pages
04 BBPP1103 CG
No ratings yet
04 BBPP1103 CG
6 pages
BHM 401 Course Guide: Management Principles
No ratings yet
BHM 401 Course Guide: Management Principles
141 pages
Organizational Design Course Overview
No ratings yet
Organizational Design Course Overview
166 pages
Organizational Behavior Course Overview
No ratings yet
Organizational Behavior Course Overview
260 pages
Organizational Behaviour Module Overview
No ratings yet
Organizational Behaviour Module Overview
87 pages
BUS 714: Principles of Management Guide
No ratings yet
BUS 714: Principles of Management Guide
114 pages
Module 1 Lesson 1 Orgman
100% (1)
Module 1 Lesson 1 Orgman
24 pages
Super FINAL ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Week 8
No ratings yet
Super FINAL ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT Week 8
17 pages
Overview of Organizational Behaviour Module
No ratings yet
Overview of Organizational Behaviour Module
103 pages
Organization and Management
No ratings yet
Organization and Management
22 pages
OM11 Q1 Mod1 Natureandconceptofmanagement v1
No ratings yet
OM11 Q1 Mod1 Natureandconceptofmanagement v1
27 pages
Understanding Organisational Behaviour
100% (6)
Understanding Organisational Behaviour
278 pages
Organization and Management Course File
No ratings yet
Organization and Management Course File
90 pages
MGT 100: Principles of Management Overview
No ratings yet
MGT 100: Principles of Management Overview
6 pages
Nature and Types of Organization Structures
No ratings yet
Nature and Types of Organization Structures
27 pages
Understanding Management and Organizations
No ratings yet
Understanding Management and Organizations
43 pages
ENT 405 Human and Organisational Behaviour - 1
No ratings yet
ENT 405 Human and Organisational Behaviour - 1
166 pages
Module 2
No ratings yet
Module 2
211 pages
Organization and Management: Quarter I Module 1: Basic Concepts and Theories of Management
No ratings yet
Organization and Management: Quarter I Module 1: Basic Concepts and Theories of Management
38 pages
Introduction To Management MAN1006
No ratings yet
Introduction To Management MAN1006
11 pages
AIOU Management Theory Course Details
No ratings yet
AIOU Management Theory Course Details
6 pages
Understanding Organization and Management
No ratings yet
Understanding Organization and Management
22 pages
Organization-and-Management11 q1 Mod1 Natureandconceptofmanagement v5
No ratings yet
Organization-and-Management11 q1 Mod1 Natureandconceptofmanagement v5
27 pages
Senior 11 Organization Managemen - Q1 - M7 For Printing
No ratings yet
Senior 11 Organization Managemen - Q1 - M7 For Printing
28 pages
Organization and Management Quarter 1 Week 1
92% (12)
Organization and Management Quarter 1 Week 1
18 pages
Sdoquezon Adm SHS11 Abm Om M1 2
No ratings yet
Sdoquezon Adm SHS11 Abm Om M1 2
55 pages
ABMOM q2 Mod1 OrgAndMngmnt Organization Theories-V2
100% (10)
ABMOM q2 Mod1 OrgAndMngmnt Organization Theories-V2
22 pages
Understanding Organizational Dynamics
No ratings yet
Understanding Organizational Dynamics
5 pages
Abm Org MGT q1 Module 1
No ratings yet
Abm Org MGT q1 Module 1
27 pages
Fundamentals of Management
No ratings yet
Fundamentals of Management
7 pages
04 BDPP110 CG
No ratings yet
04 BDPP110 CG
5 pages
ABM-Org-Mgt Q1 Module-1 ABM-Org-Mgt Q1 Module-1
No ratings yet
ABM-Org-Mgt Q1 Module-1 ABM-Org-Mgt Q1 Module-1
27 pages
Organizational Leadership Overview
No ratings yet
Organizational Leadership Overview
228 pages
Orgman q1 Module 1
No ratings yet
Orgman q1 Module 1
27 pages
FOM Syllabus
No ratings yet
FOM Syllabus
6 pages
Understanding Management Processes
No ratings yet
Understanding Management Processes
12 pages
Principles of Management Course Guide
No ratings yet
Principles of Management Course Guide
6 pages
Principles of Management Course Overview
No ratings yet
Principles of Management Course Overview
41 pages
BCOMLAW Business Management 201 (3) 2
No ratings yet
BCOMLAW Business Management 201 (3) 2
106 pages
Educational Management Module 3
No ratings yet
Educational Management Module 3
47 pages
Management Practice Course Overview
No ratings yet
Management Practice Course Overview
4 pages
CO - Coursebook - Latest 3 Aug 22
No ratings yet
CO - Coursebook - Latest 3 Aug 22
173 pages
Org MGT q2 Mod1 The Nature of Organizations and Types of Organization Structures. 1
No ratings yet
Org MGT q2 Mod1 The Nature of Organizations and Types of Organization Structures. 1
28 pages
Management and Organization Curriculum Guide
100% (1)
Management and Organization Curriculum Guide
4 pages
Educational Institution Management Guide
No ratings yet
Educational Institution Management Guide
61 pages
Management Practice Note
No ratings yet
Management Practice Note
87 pages
MBA - Oganisational Behaviour
No ratings yet
MBA - Oganisational Behaviour
665 pages
Management Development-Manager of The Future-2005
No ratings yet
Management Development-Manager of The Future-2005
16 pages
Grid - Grade 4 Expressive Arts Term 1
No ratings yet
Grid - Grade 4 Expressive Arts Term 1
3 pages
Form1 Scenario Based Wps Office
No ratings yet
Form1 Scenario Based Wps Office
2 pages
Graph Analysis of Cubic Functions
No ratings yet
Graph Analysis of Cubic Functions
3 pages
Loans Schedule1
No ratings yet
Loans Schedule1
1 page
Design & Technology Syllabus Grades 8-9
No ratings yet
Design & Technology Syllabus Grades 8-9
36 pages
Frustum Final
No ratings yet
Frustum Final
6 pages
Grade 9 Integrated Science Exam Marking Scheme
No ratings yet
Grade 9 Integrated Science Exam Marking Scheme
5 pages
New Teacher Induction Models Explained
No ratings yet
New Teacher Induction Models Explained
24 pages
Notable Chemists and Their Discoveries
100% (1)
Notable Chemists and Their Discoveries
10 pages
Chemistry's Role in Daily Life
No ratings yet
Chemistry's Role in Daily Life
2 pages
Chemistry Basics: Acid-Base Reactions
No ratings yet
Chemistry Basics: Acid-Base Reactions
1 page
Overcoming Grade 12 Math Challenges
No ratings yet
Overcoming Grade 12 Math Challenges
13 pages
Laboratory Safety Guidelines for Physics
No ratings yet
Laboratory Safety Guidelines for Physics
5 pages
Teacher Induction Program Overview
No ratings yet
Teacher Induction Program Overview
25 pages
Biology Practical Pamphlet
No ratings yet
Biology Practical Pamphlet
17 pages
Effective Classroom Management Strategies
No ratings yet
Effective Classroom Management Strategies
18 pages
Form 1 Mathematics Scheme of Work
100% (2)
Form 1 Mathematics Scheme of Work
4 pages
Roles of Teachers and Learn - (Z-Library)
100% (1)
Roles of Teachers and Learn - (Z-Library)
180 pages
ABCs of Financial Education for Success
No ratings yet
ABCs of Financial Education for Success
4 pages
Types of Communication Explained
No ratings yet
Types of Communication Explained
18 pages
Key Purposes of Student Assessment
No ratings yet
Key Purposes of Student Assessment
13 pages
SOF Olympiad Schedule 2025-26
No ratings yet
SOF Olympiad Schedule 2025-26
2 pages
MDM Workshop on Sustainability Approaches
No ratings yet
MDM Workshop on Sustainability Approaches
6 pages
Overview of Literary Theories
100% (4)
Overview of Literary Theories
18 pages
Student Work Exhibition Guide 2023
No ratings yet
Student Work Exhibition Guide 2023
35 pages
Critical Analysis of Class IX Syllabus
No ratings yet
Critical Analysis of Class IX Syllabus
32 pages
JEE Main 2025 Choice Locking Details
No ratings yet
JEE Main 2025 Choice Locking Details
2 pages
7th Grade English Test Paper
No ratings yet
7th Grade English Test Paper
3 pages
Debate Performance Evaluation Criteria
No ratings yet
Debate Performance Evaluation Criteria
2 pages
CV of Aditya Thakur - IT Specialist
No ratings yet
CV of Aditya Thakur - IT Specialist
2 pages
Underground Railroad Educational Resources
No ratings yet
Underground Railroad Educational Resources
4 pages
DGJS Parents' Handbook 2025-2026
No ratings yet
DGJS Parents' Handbook 2025-2026
67 pages
Collaborative Technology Plan Insights
No ratings yet
Collaborative Technology Plan Insights
7 pages
Delhi University History Course Syllabus
No ratings yet
Delhi University History Course Syllabus
86 pages
Activities for "Are You My Mother?"
No ratings yet
Activities for "Are You My Mother?"
1 page
Grade 6 Science Lesson Reflection
No ratings yet
Grade 6 Science Lesson Reflection
2 pages
Strategies for Other Health Impairments
No ratings yet
Strategies for Other Health Impairments
1 page
Victorian Universities Language Tests
No ratings yet
Victorian Universities Language Tests
5 pages
The Successes of Modern Feminism
No ratings yet
The Successes of Modern Feminism
7 pages
Review of English as a Lingua Franca
No ratings yet
Review of English as a Lingua Franca
129 pages
Introduction to Teaching and Learning Course
No ratings yet
Introduction to Teaching and Learning Course
14 pages
ICDS Anganwadi Services Overview
No ratings yet
ICDS Anganwadi Services Overview
5 pages
610151
100% (2)
610151
546 pages
Self-Care For Kids Es Mylemarks LLC
No ratings yet
Self-Care For Kids Es Mylemarks LLC
2 pages
Level 5 Leadership Explained
No ratings yet
Level 5 Leadership Explained
13 pages
Biology Degree Goals and Objectives
No ratings yet
Biology Degree Goals and Objectives
5 pages