INHERITANCE.
Inheritance- is the transmission of genetic information from generation to
generation.
● Genetic information is found in the nucleus and is stored inform of
chromosomes.
● Nuclear DNA is linear.
● Mitochondria and chloroplast have circular DNA as found in prokaryotes.
CHROMOSOMES.
Chromosome is thread –like structure of DNA ,carrying genetic information
in form of genes.
● DNA(Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double stranded nucleic acid
● It wound around histone proteins.
[Link] winding helps to prevent the tangling of the threads
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SIMPLIFIED DIAGRAM OF A CHROMOSOME.
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● Each species has a distinct number of chromosome.
Species Number of Pairs
chromosomes
Humans 46 23
Cat 38 19
Fruit fly 8 4
● The numbers are all even, this shows that chromosomes exist in pairs, the
pairs are called homologous pairs.
● Homologous pair- a matching pair of chromosomes.
● One of a pair comes from the mother and the other from the father.
● A nucleus containing two sets of chromosomes is called a diploid nucleus
eg all body cells except sex cells.
● A nucleus containing a single set of chromosomes is called a haploid
nucleus eg sex cells (egg and sperm).
● Sex cell is produced by a type of nuclear division called meiosis.
● Meiosis-is a reduction division in which the chromosomes number is
halved from diploid to haploid resulting in genetically different cells.
● Human sperm and egg cells both have 23 chromosomes.
● During fertilization, their nuclei fuse to give a cell with 46 chromosomes
called zygote.
● Zygote-a cell formed when egg and sperm nuclei fuse.
● Another type of cell division is called mitosis.
● Mitosis-a type of nuclear division giving result to genetically identical
cells.
● Mitosis is important in growth, repair of damaged tissues, replacement of
cells and asexual reproduction.
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HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES.
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES.
● They have the same length.
● The carry the same number of genes.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES.
● They are from different individual.
● They carry same genes but may be of different allelic forms.
GENES.
● Gene – is a length of DNA that codes for a specific protein.
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● Each gene has at least two alternative forms eg gene for height has two
alternative forms, one for tallness and the other one for dwarfism.
● Alternative form of a gene is called an allele.
● Allele- a version of gene
Or
Allele- is an alternative form of gene.
Eg let T - be allele for tall and t –be allele for dwarf
● The information is stored in form sequence of bases along the length of the
DNA.
● Sequence of bases determines the sequence of amino acids in the
polypeptide (protein).
Definitions of other genetic terms
1. Genotype-is the genetic makeup of an organism in in terms of the alleles
present.
2. Phenotype- observable features of an organism e.g. dark or light
complexion .
3. Homozygous-having two identical alleles of a particular [Link] TT or tt
using gene for height.
NB Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be
pure breeding.
4. Heterozygous- having two different alleles of a particular gene e.g. Tt.
5. Dominant allele-an allele that is expressed in the phenotype if present.
NB It is presented by a capital letter e.g. T
6. Recessive allele-an allele that is only expressed when there is no
dominant allele of the gene present.
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NB It is represented by a small letter eg t.
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SAMPLE QUESTION.
N 09 P32 Q5 (a) Four definitions of terms used in genetics are shown in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1
For each of the definitions, select an appropriate term from the list and write it in the
box provided. [4]
Chromosome , genotype ,mitosis
Diploid, haploid , mutation
Dominant , heterozygous , phenotype
gene ,homozygous , recessive
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PROTEIN SYNTHESIS.
THE GENETIC CODE.
Genetic code-is the sequence of bases in a gene that determines the order of
amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
● The genetic code is triplet, ie three nitrogenous bases stand for one amino
acid.
● Each amino acid is coded for by a sequence of three bases.
● A single strand of DNA is copied to give a single stranded mRNA.
● The role of mRNA is to carry a copy of the base sequences on DNA out of
the nucleus to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where protein synthesis
occurs.
HOW PROTEINS ARE MADE.
● Gene coding for the protein remains in the nucleus.
● Base sequences on the gene are transcribed (copied) to give messenger
ribonucleic acid (mRNA).
● mRNA carries the genetic information from the nucleus inform of base
sequences.
● mRNA diffuses out of the nucleus through the nuclear into the cytoplasm.
● mRNA attaches onto the ribosome.
● assembles amino acids in the order determined by the sequence of bases on
the mRNA.
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SAPMLE QUESTION.
4 Collagen is found in the extracellular matrix of muscles, tendons, ligaments and bones.
Fibroblast cells in these tissues make collagen by synthesising polypeptides that form
molecules with a triple helix shape. These are secreted from fibroblasts into the
extracellular matrix where enzymes assemble them into collagen fibres.
(a) (i) Name the processes occurring at A, B and C. [3]
(ii) Name structures D and E. [2]
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Diagram summarising protein synthesis.
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● tRNA carries the amino acid to the ribosome and mRNA complex.
● Ribosome assembles amino acids to give a polypeptide chain (protein).
HOW DNA CONTROLS CELL FUNCTION.
● Chemical reactions that take place in the cells are controlled by enzymes.
● Enzymes are proteins; therefore base sequences on the DNA determine the
order of amino acids in the proteins.
● DNA codes for amino acids
● Amino acids join up to form proteins and enzymes are proteins.
Examples of proteins coded for by the DNA.
● Antibodies.
● Receptors for neurotransmitter substances.
● Protein hormones eg glucagon and insulin.
● Fibrinogen.
Question: Insulin is a protein that is made up of 51 amino acids.
Calculate the total number of bases the gene for insulin has.
Mitosis
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Mitosis- is nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical cells
or
Mitosis is a nuclear division giving rise to genetically identical diploid cells in
which the chromosome number is maintained by the exact duplication of
chromosome.
● Before a cell divides, chromosomes duplicate.
● The new copy DNA of each chromosome is attached to the original copy.
● During mitosis the two copies separate so each new cell gets a copy of each
chromosome
● As a result of mitosis, each daughter cell has the same chromosome number
as the original parent cell.
● The cells are genetically identical to each other and to the parent cell.
Significance of mitosis.
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[Link]- in animal cells this happens all over the body, in plants it happens is
special growing areas called meristems such as the tips of stems and roots.
New cells must be identical to the existing ones.
Stem cells-are cells that remain unspecialized, they constantly divide by mitosis
providing the body with a constant supply of new cells.
2. Repair of tissues- skin cells divide by mitosis to repair damaged tissues and
wounds.
3. Replacement of cells- damaged cells must be replaced by new identical cells.
Skin cells and cells lining the gut are constantly dying and being replaced by
identical cells. Red blood cells have a short life span they replaced by mitosis.
4. Asexual reproduction: a single parent gives rise to genetically identical
offspring.
MEIOSIS.
Meiosis – is reduction division in which the chromosome number is halved
from diploid to haploid resulting in genetically different cells
● Meiosis is described as reduction division because chromosome number is
halved from diploid to haploid.
● Meiosis involves two divisions of the nucleus resulting in four different
cells.
● It only takes place in the reproductive organs e.g. the testes and ovaries
during gamete formation.
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Significance of meiosis.
[Link] of gametes.
[Link] of chromosomes is halved so that when gametes fuse the
chromosome number of the species is maintained.
[Link] produces genetic variation.
How meiosis produces genetic variation.
[Link] produces variation by forming new combinations of
maternal and paternal chromosomes.
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● Random arrangement of homologous chromosomes results in different
combinations in gametes leading to genetic variation.
[Link] over.
During meiosis, chromosomes come together in pairs.
Crossing over between corresponding fragments of chromatids occurs the
fragments get swapped over.
Chromatid material is exchanged, new genetic combinations are produced and
variation in gametes is increased.
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QN18P43 Q2(c) Explain how meiosis can result in variation in a species.
Use the words chromosome and gametes in your answer.
MARKING POINTS.
2(c) (meiosis) produces gametes ;
(gametes) are haploid ;
gametes / AW, are genetically different (from each other) ;
fusion of gametes ;
at random ;
zygotes / offspring / AW, are genetically different (from parent) ;
sexual reproduction causes variation
SAMPLE QUESTION.
J11 P22 Q 5 (b) State the meaning of the terms gene and allele. [2]
(c) Nuclei can be diploid or haploid.
Compare these two types of nuclei. [3]
MARKING POINTS.
(b) (i)
✔ A gene is a length of DNA that codes for a protein;
✔ An allele is any of 2 or more alternative forms of a gene; [2]
(c)
✔ diploid nucleus formed by mitosis,
✔ haploid by meiosis;
✔ diploid nucleus has twice the chromosomes of haploid;
✔ body cells are diploid,
✔ gametes are haploid;
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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS.
MITOSIS MEIOSIS
Nucleus divides once. Nucleus divides twice.
Number of chromosomes remains the Number of chromosomes is halved.
same.
Daughter cells are genetically identical. Daughter cells are genetically different.
Two daughter cells are produced. Four daughter cells are produced.
Homologous chromosomes do not pair Homologous chromosomes pair up.
up.
Crossing over does not occur. Crossing over occurs.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
J14 P31 Q5(c) Fig. 5.2 shows the life cycle of C. elegans. The diploid number of this
species is 12
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(i) Suggest why there is very little genetic variation in the offspring of the adult
nematode shown in Fig. 5.2. [2]
(ii) State the haploid number of C. elegans. [1]
(iii) Explain why meiosis occurs at P and mitosis occurs at Q. [3]
(d) An organism’s genome is the sum of all its genetic material. Gene sequencing identifies
all the component parts of the DNA that makes up the genome.
State where DNA is located in a cell. [2]
Marking points.
(i)
✔ gametes from same individual ;
✔ self-fertilisation occured
✔ only new source of variation is mutation
✔ variation produced by meiosis ;
(ii)
✔ 6; [1]
(iii) P meiosis
✔ reduction division / chromosome number is halved ;
✔ prevents doubling of chromosome number when
gametes fuse together / at fertilisation ;
✔ production of haploid gametes ;
Q mitosis
✔ growth is taking place ;
✔ producing (genetically) identical cells ;
✔ more diploid cells ;
✔ producing haploid gametes = 2
(d)
✔ in chromosomes ;
✔ in the nucleus ;
✔ in mitochondria ;
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MONOHYBRID INHERITANCE.
Monohybrid inheritance refers to the inheritance of a single characteristic,
such as plant height or flower colour.
It involves the inheritance of one allele of a gene.
There is one gene for height in pea plants. The gene for plant height has two
alleles : tall , T, and dwarf, t.
There are three possible genotypes for plant height.
TT = Homozygous tall.
Tt = heterozygous tall.
tt = homozygous dwarf.
NB: Each characteristic is controlled by one gene which consist of one pair
of alleles.
CROSS BETWEEN HOMOZYGOUS TALL AND HOMOZYGOUS
DAWARF.
NB: Homozygous tall and homozygous dwarf are pure breeds.
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The F1 generation are hybrids, they are all heterozygous tall.
CROSS BETWEEN HETEROZYGOUS F1 TALL PLANTS.
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● The 3: 1 Ratio is called monohybrid ration.
● It is only produced after crossing heterozygous individuals.
● The recessive allele that did that was not expressed in F1 generation was
the expressed in the F2 generation.
● TT (homozygous dominant) and Tt (heterozygous) have the same
phenotype.
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TEST CROSS.
● Test cross is a technique that carried out to identify the uknown
genotype.
● TT ( homozygous dominant) and Tt (heterozygous) have the same
phenotype ie they are all tall.
● It is used to determine the genotype of an individual to find out whether
it is homozygous or heterozygous.
● Test cross is carried out to distinguish between organisms of the same
dominant phenotype but different genotype for example, a heterozygous
and homozygous dominant genotype have the same phenotype.
● The individuals with unknown genotypes are always crossed with a
homozygous recessive so that if the unknown genotype is
heterozygous the the recessive allele can be expressed.
● If the tall plant is homozygous (TT), crossing it with a homozygous
dwarf plant (tt) gives all tall plants (Tt).
● If tall plant is heterozygous (Tt) , crossing it with a dwarf plant (tt) will
give 50% tall and 50% dwarf plants in a ratio 1:1.
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● The 1: 1 ratio is called Test cross ratio. It is only produced when a
heterozygous individual is crossed with a homozygous recessive
individual.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
N 17 P42 Q4(b) Gregor Mendel studied inheritance in the garden pea,
P. sativum.
The flowers of P. sativum that he studied were either purple or white.
The gene that controls flower colour has two alleles, B and b.
When Mendel crossed purple-flowered plants with white-flowered
plants all the plants in the next generation had purple flowers.
(i) Table 4.1 shows five genetic terms that can be applied to Mendel’s
study of the inheritance of flower colour. Complete Table 4.1 by
stating an example of each genetic term. The first one has been
completed for you.
Table 4.1
(ii) Test crosses can be used to determine the genotype of a plant
with purple flowers.
The genetic diagrams show test crosses for purple-flowered plants
with two different genotypes.
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Complete the genetic diagrams for test cross 1 and test cross 2.
(c) Pickerel weed, Pontederia cordata, is a plant that grows in shallow
water on the edges of ponds and lakes in North America.
A few seedlings of these plants are white. The white seedlings cannot
make chlorophyll.
Researchers carried out several crosses using pickerel weed plants.
Their results are shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2
(i) Select suitable symbols for the alleles and state the possible
genotypes of the parents for each cross.
cross 1
...............................................................................................................................
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cross 2
.............................................................................................................................[2]
(ii) It is not possible to carry out a test cross with pickerel weed
plants. Suggest why [2]
MARKING POINTS.
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CODOMINANCE.
Codominance-This is when neither allele is dominant the other, both alleles
equally express themselves in the phenotype producing intermediate phenotype
between the two parent’s phenotypes.
EXAPMLES.
⮚ The formation of roan coat colour in cattle by cross breeding cattle with
red and white coat.
⮚ The formation of pink flowers by crossing red-flowered snapdragon with
white – flowered snapdragon plants.
⮚ The inheritance of ABO blood group in man IA and IB are dominant in
the AB blood group.
CROSSING RED FLOWERED PLANT WITH WHITE FLOWERED
PLANT.
The alleles for flower colour are all represented by capital letters. This shows that
neither allele is recessive and that they both exert an equal effect on the phenotype.
CW= allele for white flowers
CR =Allele for red flowers.
Parental phenotype Red flowers x White flowers.
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F1 Phenotypes All Pink.
CROSSING F1 GENERATION ( PINK FLOWERED PALNTS)
The Phenotypic ratio is Red : Pink : White= 1: 2: 1.
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The offspring showing parental phenotypes are the same, this again shows that
alleles are codominant .
MULTIPLE ALLELES.
● A gene may have three or more alleles.
● The four groups of human blood group system are determined by by one
gene, I with different alleles, IA ,IB and IO
● The alleles IA and IB are dominant and code for slightly different protein
molecules on the red blood cells.
● The allele IO is recessive to both IA and IB and does not code for any
protein molecule.
Possible genotypes and Blood groups.
EXAMPLE
Genetic Diagrams showing Inheritance of Blood groups..
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[Link] parents have blood groups AB and O .The children have blood groups A or
B
2.T wo parents have blood groups A and B . They could have children with all
four blood groups A, B, AB and O
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SAMPLE QUESTION
J 09 P32 Q5(b) A couple who have blood groups A and B have four children. Each child has
a different blood group.
Use the space below to draw a genetic diagram to show how this is possible. Use the
A B
symbols, I , I and IO , for the alleles.
(c)Explain what is meant by codominance. You may refer to the genetic diagram in (b) to
help you with your answer. [3]
SEX LINKAGE.
SEX DETERMINATION.
● In males there are two different sex chromosomes (XY) and females have
two X chromosomes (XX).
● All egg cells contain X chromosome.
● Half the sperm cells have contained X and half have contain Y
chromosomes.
● Since there are equal number of sperm cells with X and sperm cell with the
Y chromosome, there is an equal chance of zygote inheriting XX or XY and
the child child being female or male.
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SEX INHERITANCE.
● Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes ,22 pairs are body chromosomes
and 1 pair as sex chromosomes.
● The sex chromosomes are the X and Y chromosomes.
● The X chromosome is longer than the Y chromosome.
● In the female are two X-chromosomes (XX).
● In the males are X and Y-chromosomes (XY).
● NB. The Y-chromosome carries a gene that codes for a protein called testis
determining factor which control the development of testis in males.
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Parents male x female
Sex chromosomes XY XX
Gametes (by meiosis)
Fertilisation.
Sex chromosomes in children.
Female Female Male Male.
Ratio of Female: Male = 1:1
The probability of a mother giving birth to a son =0.5
The probability of a mother giving birth to a daughter =0.5.
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SAMPLE QUESTION.
5 (a) The production of human gametes involves the type of nuclear
division known as meiosis.
State two reasons why meiosis is suitable for gamete production. [2]
(b) The sex of a human fetus is determined by the sex chromosomes, X
and [Link]. 5.1 shows the determination of sex in four different
[Link] 3 and 4 show sex determination in twins.
Fig. 5.1
(i) Use 5.1 to explain how the sex of a fetus is determined. [2]
(ii) Examples 3 and 4 show two ways in which twins are formed.
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The twins in example 3 are [Link] Fig. 5.1 to explain why [1].
SAMPLE QUESTION.
J 16 P43 Q3 (a) Sex in cats is determined in the same way as in humans.
Complete the diagram below to show how sex is determined in cats.
offspring ratio..................................................................................................................... [3]
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SAMPLE QUESTION.
N 04 P2 Q5 Use the letter in the box to complete the passage below.
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SEX LINKED INHERITANCE.
Sex-linked characteristics are controlled by genes located on the X-
chromosome.
Examples of sex-linked characteristics.
[Link] –green colour blindness.
[Link].
Genetic diagram to showing what to expect if :
(a) The mother is homozygous dominant and if the father is colour blind.
XR= Allele for normal vision.
Xr= Allele for colour blind.
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Non of the child is colour blind, the girl received the recessive but is not
affected so she is a carrier.
(b)A mother who is a carrier and father who has normal colour vision .
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In this case , there is 1 in 4 chance that one of the child is colour blind and 1
in 2 chance that any boy will be colour blind.
NB: Sex-linked characteristics frequently affect man but occurs rarely
in females because of the lack of dominant counterpart on the Y-
chromosome.
Man are either affected or not.
2. Haemophilia.
● Haemophilia is a disease in which a person’s blood will not clot ( lack of
clotting factors).
● The dominant allele XR produces blood clotting factors for clotting of
[Link] recessive allele Xr causes haemophilia.
● The possible genotypes and phenotypes in female and males are:
Genotype Phenotype
XH XH Normal
Female XHXh Normal carrier
XhXh Haemophiliac.
XHY Normal
Male. XhY Haemophiliac.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
F/M 17 P42 Q3(c) Colour blindness is a sex-linked characteristic.
39
The gene for colour vision is on the X chromosome.
There are two alleles of this gene:
• B is the allele for normal colour vision
• b is the allele for colour blindness.
Fig. 3.2 is a pedigree chart showing the inheritance of colour blindness in a family. The key
shows the sex chromosomes and the alleles of the gene for colour vision.
Fig. 3.2
Describe evidence from Fig. 3.2 that shows that colour blindness is a sex-linked
characteristic.[2]
(d) A man with normal colour vision (XBY) and a woman who is colour-blind (XbXb) have a
baby.
Complete the genetic diagram to predict the probability that the baby is colour-blind.
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MARKING POINTS.
3(c)
✔ more males affected than females ;
✔ only females are carriers
(d)
Gametes XB, Y Xb, Xb ;
Offspring genotype X BX b, X BX b, X bY, X bY;
Phenotype carrier female, carrier fe male colourblindmale, colour-blind male ;
Percentage 50 % ;
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SAMPLE QUESTION.
J16 P43 Q3(b) A scientist investigated the inheritance of fur colour in cats.
The gene for coat colour is located on the X chromosome. The gene has two alleles:
• B black
• b orange.
The X chromosome with the allele for black is represented by XB
The X chromosome with the allele for orange is Xb.
A female cat can be a mixture of these colours, described as calico.
Fig. 3.1 shows the inheritance of this condition in a family of cats.
(i) State the genotypes of cats 1, 4, and 5 in Fig. 3.1.
cat 1 .......................................................................................................................
cat 4 .......................................................................................................................
cat 5 ....................................................................................................................... [3]
MARKING POINTS.
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