EV BICYCLE CHARGING

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC BICYCLE

Electric bicycles, or e-bikes, combine traditional pedal power with electric propulsion. They
have gained popularity due to their ease of use, environmental benefits, and ability to alleviate
physical strain on riders. Typically, e-bikes use rechargeable batteries to power an electric motor,
which assists the rider’s pedaling efforts.

1.2 CONCEPT OF CHARGING WHILE RUNNING

Charging an electric bicycle while it is in motion can significantly extend the range of the bike
and reduce the need for stationary charging. This concept can be realized through various
methods, including regenerative braking, dynamo hubs, solar panels, and inductive charging.

1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

The primary objective of EV (Electric Vehicle) bicycle charging while running, also known as
regenerative braking or kinetic energy recovery, is to enhance the energy efficiency and
sustainability of electric bicycles by recovering energy during braking or deceleration phases and
using it to charge the vehicle's battery.

Here are some specific objectives of EV bicycle charging while running:

1. Increased Efficiency: The main aim is to improve the overall efficiency of electric bicycles
by capturing and utilizing energy that would otherwise be lost during braking or coasting.

2. Extended Range: By recovering kinetic energy during braking, the stored energy can be used
to extend the range of the electric bicycle, reducing the frequency of recharging and enhancing
its practicality for longer trips.

3. Sustainability: Harnessing energy from braking aligns with sustainability goals by reducing
the reliance on external energy sources and minimizing the environmental impact associated with
charging electric bicycles.

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1.4 VARIOUS METHODS OF CHARGING

1. CHARGING USING GENERATOR

2. REGENERATIVE BRAKING
3. SOLAR PANELS
4. INDUCTIVE CHARGING

1. CHARGING USING GENERATOR

Mechanism

1. Electromagnetic induction: A DC generator works on principle of electromagnetic

induction. As the wheel spins, the shaft connected to wheel rotate which induces electric current
in the circuit.

2. Power Generation: This generated electricity can be used to charge the battery directly or
power auxiliary devices such as lights and GPS systems.

3. Efficiency: While the generator can continuously generate power as long as the bicycle is
moving, they typically produce lower power outputs compared to other methods. However, they
are highly reliable and can be steady source of auxiliary power.

2. Regenerative Braking

Regenerative braking is a technology commonly used in electric and hybrid vehicles. It involves
converting the kinetic energy of the bicycle into electrical energy during braking or deceleration.
This recovered energy is then stored in the bike’s battery.

Mechanism

1. Kinetic to Electrical Energy Conversion: When the rider applies the brakes, the electric
motor switches to generator mode. The kinetic energy of the moving bicycle is converted into
electrical energy by the motor.

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2. Energy Storage: This electrical energy is then directed to the battery for storage. This process
not only charges the battery but also slows down the bicycle, assisting in braking.

3. Efficiency and Performance: The efficiency of regenerative braking systems varies, but they
can significantly enhance the overall energy efficiency of the e-bike. Typically, these systems
can recover around 10-15% of the energy used, depending on the terrain and riding conditions.

3. Solar Panel

Incorporating solar panels into electric bicycles is another innovative approach to charging while
running. These panels can be mounted on various parts of the bicycle, such as the frame or the
rider’s backpack.

Mechanism

1. Solar Energy Conversion: Photovoltaic cells in the solar panels convert sunlight into
electrical energy. This energy can either be used immediately or stored in the battery for later
use.

2. Integration: Solar panels can be integrated into flexible materials that conform to the shape of
the bicycle, ensuring minimal aerodynamic drag and aesthetic impact.

3. Efficiency: The efficiency of solar charging depends on several factors, including the size of
the panels, the amount of sunlight, and the battery capacity. While solar panels alone may not
fully charge the battery during a single ride, they can extend the range significantly, especially
on sunny days.

[Link] Charging

Inductive charging, or wireless charging, is a cutting-edge technology that allows

for energy transfer without direct electrical contacts. While primarily used for
stationary charging, research is ongoing to adapt this technology for use while the
bicycle is in motion.

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Mechanism

1. Magnetic Fields: Inductive charging relies on electromagnetic fields to transfer energy

between two coils – one in the charging station (or embedded in the road) and one in the bicycle.

2. Energy Transfer: As the bicycle passes over or near the charging infrastructure, energy is
transferred wirelessly to the bicycle’s battery.

3. Implementation: This method requires significant infrastructure development, such as

embedding charging coils into bike lanes or dedicated paths. However, it promises seamless and
efficient energy transfer without the need for physical connectors.

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CHAPTER 2

PROJECT DESIGN METHADOLOGY

2.1 PROJECT DESIGN

Charging an electric bicycle while it's in motion using a generator is a concept similar to
regenerative braking, but with a different implementation. Instead of integrating a dynamo hub
into the bicycle's wheel, a separate generator, often referred to as a wheel-mounted generator or
auxiliary generator, is attached to the bicycle to generate electricity while riding. Here's how the
process works:

1. Generator Installation: A small generator, typically a brushless DC generator, is mounted

onto the bicycle's frame or fork. It can be positioned to make contact with the wheel's rim or tire,
allowing it to harness the rotational energy of the wheel as the bicycle moves forward.

2. Friction or Contact Mechanism: The generator makes contact with the wheel's surface,
either through direct contact with the rim or by pressing against the tire. As the wheel rotates, the
generator spins along with it, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.

3. Generation of Electricity: The rotation of the generator produces an alternating current (AC)
or alternating voltage (AV) output, depending on the design of the generator. This electrical
energy is then rectified by electronic circuitry within the generator to produce a direct

current (DC) output suitable for charging the bicycle's battery.

4. Charging the Battery: The generated electrical energy is routed to the bicycle's battery pack
for storage. The battery can be integrated into the bicycle's frame or mounted externally,
depending on the design of the electric bicycle.

5. Efficiency and Drag: The efficiency of charging using a generator depends on various
factors, including the design of the generator, the speed of the bicycle, and the contact
mechanism with the wheel. Efforts are made to optimize the system to minimize energy loss and
drag, ensuring that the additional resistance introduced by the generator does not significantly
affect the ride quality or performance of the bicycle.

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6. User Interaction: In some designs, cyclists may have the option to engage or disengage the
generator manually, allowing them to control when charging occurs based on their riding
preferences or energy needs. This feature provides flexibility and convenience to the rider.

7. Safety Considerations: Proper installation and maintenance of the generator are essential to
ensure safe and reliable operation. Care should be taken to prevent excessive wear on the wheel
or tire caused by friction with the generator, and appropriate safety mechanisms should be
implemented to prevent electrical hazards. Charging an electric bicycle while running using a
generator offers an alternative approach to regenerative braking for harnessing the kinetic energy
of the bicycle in motion. While both methods aim to improve the energy efficiency and
sustainability of electric bicycles, the choice between them depends on factors such as design
preferences, technological capabilities, and performance requirements.

2.2 METHADOLOGY

Developing a methodology for charging an electric bicycle while it's in motion using a generator
involves planning and executing a series of steps to ensure the efficient implementation and
evaluation of the charging system. Here's a detailed methodology for such a project:

1. Planning Phase:

a. Define Objectives: Clearly define the goals and objectives of the project, including

targets for energy recovery efficiency, charging rate, and system performance.

b. Identify Components: Research and select suitable generator options based on factors such
as power output, efficiency, and compatibility with the electric bicycle.

c. Design System Integration: Develop a design plan for integrating the generator onto the
bicycle frame or fork, ensuring proper alignment and contact with the wheel.

2. Component Selection:

a. Generator Selection: Choose a generator with the appropriate power output and efficiency
for the electric bicycle application.

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b. Additional Components: Select additional components such as rectifiers, voltage regulators,

and battery management systems to complete the charging system.

3. Assembly and Integration:

a. Mounting Mechanism Design: Design and fabricate a mounting mechanism for securely
attaching the generator to the bicycle frame or fork.

b. Generator Installation: Install the generator onto the mounting mechanism and ensure
proper alignment with the bicycle wheel.

c. Electrical Connection: Connect the output of the generator to the electric bicycle's battery
system, including wiring and electrical connections.

4. Testing Setup:

a. Instrumentation: Set up instrumentation and data collection methods to monitor energy

generation, charging rate, battery voltage, and system efficiency during testing.

b. Safety Precautions: Implement safety measures to prevent electrical hazards and mechanical
stress during testing, including proper grounding and insulation of electrical components.

5. Testing Procedure:

a. Controlled Tests: Conduct controlled tests to measure the performance of the generator-based
charging system under various riding conditions, including different speeds and terrain types.

b. Data Collection: Collect data on energy generation, charging rate, battery voltage, and system
efficiency during testing using the instrumentation and data collection methods.

6. Analysis and Evaluation:

a. Data Analysis:

Analyze the collected data to evaluate the efficiency and effectiveness of the
generator-based charging system, comparing results with project objectives and
benchmarks.

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b. Performance Assessment:

Assess the impact of the charging system on the electric bicycle's ride quality,
handling, and overall performance based on test results and user feedback.

7. Optimization and Iteration:

a. Identify Improvements: Identify areas for improvement and optimization based on the
analysis of test results and user feedback.

b. Iterative Development: Implement iterative changes and modifications to the charging

system design and implementation to address identified shortcomings and enhance performance

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CHAPTER 3

LIST OF COMPONENTS

3.1 LIST OF COMPONENTS REQUIRED

1. PERMANENT MAGNET DC GENERATOR

2. CIRCUITARY: a. Relay

b. Diode

c. Voltage Sensing Circuit

d. Capacitors

e. Indicators

3. BATTERY BANK ( 2 Battery Bank System)

3.1.1 PERMANENT MAGNET DC GENERTOR

A Permanent Magnet DC (Direct Current) Generator is a type of electrical

generator that utilizes permanent magnets to produce a direct current output.
Unlike traditional generators that use electromagnets, which require an external
power source to create a magnetic field, permanent magnet generators rely on the
inherent magnetism of permanent magnets to generate electricity.

Construction

1. Stator (Field System):

• Permanent Magnets: Fixed on the stator to create a constant magnetic field. These magnets
are typically made of materials like neodymium or ferrite, known for their strong magnetic
properties.

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• Housing: Encloses and protects the internal components. It is usually made of a ferromagnetic
material to help channel the magnetic flux.

Fig 3.1 Permanent Magnet Dc Generator

2. Rotor (Armature)

• Armature Core: A cylindrical iron core around which the armature windings are wound. The
core is laminated to reduce eddy current losses.

• Armature Windings: Copper coils wound around the armature core. When the rotor spins,
these windings cut through the magnetic field lines, inducing an electromotive force (EMF).

• Commutator: A segmented copper ring attached to the rotor shaft. The commutator works
with the brushes to rectify the AC induced in the armature windings into DC.

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• Brushes: Carbon or graphite brushes that make sliding contact with the commutator segments,
allowing current to flow out of the generator.

Working Principle

1. Electromagnetic Induction:

• When the rotor (armature) rotates, the armature windings cut through the magnetic field lines
created by the permanent magnets.

• According to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction, an EMF is induced in the armature

windings. The direction of the induced EMF is given by Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule.

2. Rectification:

• As the rotor continues to spin, the induced EMF in the armature windings is alternating in
nature (AC).

• The commutator, in conjunction with the brushes, converts this AC into DC by reversing the
connection of the armature windings to the external circuit every half turn. This ensures that the
current flowing through the external load is unidirectional.

Working

The working principle of a Permanent Magnet DC (Direct Current) Generator involves the
conversion of mechanical energy into electrical energy through the interaction of magnetic
fields. Here's a detailed explanation of how a PMDC generator operates:

1. Generation of Magnetic Field:

A PMDC generator consists of a rotor and a stator. The rotor contains permanent magnets that
create a fixed magnetic field around the generator. These magnets, typically made of materials
like neodymium or ferrite, retain their magnetism without the need for an external power source.

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2. Electromagnetic Induction:

As the rotor spins, the magnetic field produced by the permanent magnets cuts across the wire
coils or windings in the stator. This changing magnetic field induces an electromotive force
(EMF) in the wire coils, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.

3. Generation of Electrical Current:

The induced EMF causes an electric current to flow through the wire coils in the stator windings.
This current is alternating in nature, meaning it continuously changes direction as the rotor
rotates, producing an alternating current (AC) output.

4. Commutation:

To convert the alternating current into a direct current (DC) output, a commutator and brushes
are used. The commutator is a segmented ring connected to the rotor shaft, while the brushes
make physical contact with the commutator.

As the rotor spins, the commutator reverses the direction of current flow in the external circuit,
ensuring that the output current flows consistently in one direction, resulting in a DC output.

5. Voltage Regulation:

The voltage output of the generator can be controlled by adjusting factors such as the speed of
rotation of the rotor or the load connected to the generator. Higher speeds typically result in
higher output voltages, while heavier loads may cause a voltage drop.

6. Applications:

PMDC generators find applications in various fields, including small-scale power generation,
electric vehicles, bicycle generators, and remote power supply systems. They offer a reliable and
efficient means of generating DC electricity for a wide range of applications .

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Nature of induced emf

The nature of the induced emf for a conductor rotating in the magnetic field is alternating. As
conductor rotates in a magnetic field, the voltage component at various positions is different.

Hence the basic nature of induced emf in the armature winding in case of dc generator is
alternating. To get de output which is unidirectional, it is necessary to rectify the alternating
induced emf. A device which is used in de generator to convert alternating induced emf to
unidirectional de emf is called commutator.

Advantages of PMDC Generators:

1. Simple construction and reliable operation.

2. Compact size and lightweight.

3. Maintenance-free operation due to the absence of field windings.

4. Efficient energy conversion from mechanical to electrical energy.

Limitations of PMDC Generators:

1. Limited power output compared to larger generators.

2. Output voltage may vary with changes in rotor speed or load conditions.

Magnetic field strength may degrade over time, affecting generator performance.

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3.1.2CIRCUITARY

A. RELAY

Fig 3.2 a basic relay

A relay is a electrically operated switch. It consists of a set of input terminals for a single or
multiple control signals, and a set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have any
number of contacts in multiple contact forms, such as make contacts, break contacts, or
combinations thereof.

Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-power signal, or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal. Relays were first used in long-
distance telegraph circuits as signal repeaters: they refresh the signal coming in from one
circuit by transmitting it on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.

The traditional electromechanical form of a relay uses an electromagnet to close or open the
contacts, but relays using other operating principles have also been invented, such as in solid
state relay which use semiconductor properties for control without relying on moving parts.
Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used

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to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these
functions are performed by digital instruments still called protective relays or safety relays.

Latching relays require only a single pulse of control power to operate the switch persistently.
Another pulse applied to a second set of control terminals, or a pulse with opposite polarity,
resets the switch, while repeated pulses of the same kind have no effects. Magnetic latching
relays are useful in applications when interrupted power should not affect the circuits that the
relay is controlling
In electric bicycles, relays are often used to control the motor's power supply. They can be
employed to switch the motor on and off, regulate its speed, or change its direction of rotation.
By using relays, the motor can be controlled more efficiently and safely.

Basic Design And Operation

Fig 3.3 simple Electromagnetic Relay

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire wrapped around a soft iron core (a
solenoid), an iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable

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iron armature, and one or more sets of contacts (there are two contacts in the relay pictured). The
armature is hinged to the yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts.
The armature is held in place by a spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air
gap in the magnetic circuit. In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured
is closed, and the other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts
depending on their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to
the yoke.

This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the
circuit track on the (PCB) via the yoke which is soldered to the PCB

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that activates the
armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact(s) either makes or breaks
(depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed
when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched off,
the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing
When the coil is energized with directly, a flyback diode or snubber resistor is often placed
across the coil to dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field (back EMF) at
deactivation, which would otherwise generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit
components. Such diodes were not widely used before the application of transistors relay drivers,
but soon became ubiquitous as early germanium transistors were easily destroyed by this surge.

Some automotive relays include a diode inside the relay case. Resistors, while
more durable than diodes, are less efficient at eliminating voltage spike.

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Types of Electromagnetic Relay

By their working principle, the electromagnetic relay is mainly classified into two types. These
are

1. Electromagnetic Attraction Relay

2. Electromagnetic Induction Relay

[Link] Attraction Relay

In this relay, the armature is attracted to the pole of a magnet. The electromagnetic force exerted
on the moving element is proportional to the square of the current flow through the coil. This
relay responds to both the alternating and direct current.

For AC quantity the electromagnetic force developed is given as

The above equation shows that the electromagnetic relay consists two components, one constant
independent of time and another dependent upon time and pulsating at double supply frequency.
This double supply frequency produces noise and hence damage the relay contacts.

The difficulty of a double frequency supply is overcome by splitting the flux developing in the
electromagnetic relay. These fluxes were acting simultaneously but differ in time phase. Thus the
resulting deflecting force is always positive and constant. The splitting of fluxes is achieved by
using the electromagnet having a phase shifting networks or by putting shading rings on the
poles of an [Link] electromagnetic attraction relay is the simplest type of relay which
includes a plunger (or solenoid), hinged armature, rotating armature (or balanced) and moving
iron polarized relay. All these relays are shown below.

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Balanced Beam Relay – In such type of relay two quantities are compared because the
electromagnetic force developed varies as the square of the ampere-turn. The ratio of an
operating current for such relay is low. If the relay is set for fast operation, then it will tend to
overreach on a fast operation

Fig 3.4 Balanced beam relay

b. Hinged armature relay – The sensitivity of the relay can be increased for DC operation by
adding the permanent magnet. This relay is also known as the polarised moving relay.

Fig 3.5 Hinged Armature type relay

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[Link] Induction Relay

The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle of a split-phase induction motor. The initial
force is developed on the moving element that may be disc or another form of the rotor of the
non-magnetic moving element. The force is developed by the interaction of electromagnetic
fluxes with eddy current, that is induced in the rotor by these fluxes.

The different type of structure has been used for obtaining the phase difference in the fluxes.
These structures are

a. Shaded pole structure

b. Watt-hour meter or double winding structure
c. Induction cup structure.

a. Shaded pole structure

This coil is usually energised by current flowing in the single coil wound on a magnetic structure
containing an air gap. The air-gap fluxes produce by the initializing current is split into two flux
displace in time-space and by a shaded ring. The shaded ring is made up of the copper ring that
encircles the part of the pole face of each [Link] disc is made up of aluminium. The inertia of
the aluminium disc is very less.. Hence they need less deflecting torque for its movement. The
two rings have the current induced in them by the alternating flux of the electromagnetic. The
magnetic field develops from the current produces the flux in the portion of the iron ring
surrounded by the ring to lag in phase by 40° to 50° behind the flux in the unshaded portion of
the pole.

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Fig 3.6 Shaded pole construction of induction relay

b. Watt Hour Meter Structure

This structure consists E shape electromagnet and a U shape electromagnet with a disc-free to
rotate in between them. The phase displacement between the fluxes produced by the
electromagnet is obtained by the flux generated by the two magnets having different resistance
and inductance for the two circuits

Fig 3.7 Watt hour type induction disc relay

The E-shaped electromagnet carries the two windings the primary and the secondary. The
primary current was carrying the relay current I1 while the secondary winding is connected to the

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windings of the U-shaped [Link] primary winding carries relay current I 1 while the
secondary current induces the emf in the secondary and so circulate the current I2 in it. The flux
φ1 induces in the E shed magnet, and the flux φ induces in the U-shaped magnet. These fluxes
induced in the upper and lower magnetic differs in phase by angle θ which will develop a driving
torque on the disc proportional to φ1φ sinθ.. The most important feature of the relay is that
opening can control their operation or close the secondary winding circuit. If the secondary
winding is opened, then no torque will be developed, and thus relay can be made inoperative.

c. Induction Cup Relay

The relay which works on the principle of electromagnetic induction is known as the induction
cup relay. The relay has two or more electromagnet which is energized by the relay coil. The
static iron core is placed between the electromagnet as shown in figure below

Fig 3.8 Induction Cup Relay

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The coil which is wound on the electromagnet generates the rotating magnetic field. Because of
the rotating magnetic field, the current induces inside the cup. Thus, the cup starts rotating. The
direction of rotation of the cup is same as that of the [Link] more torque is produced in the
induction cup relay as compared to the shaded and watt meter type relay. The relay is fast in
operation and their operating time is very less approximately 0.01 sec.

B. Diode

Fig 3.9 A basic silicone diode

Diode, is an electrical component that allows the flow of current in only one direction.
In CIRCUIT diagrams, a diode is represented by a triangle with a line across one [Link]
most common type of diode uses a p-n junction In this type of diode, one material (n) in
which electrons are charge carriers abuts a second material (p) in which holes (places depleted of
electrons that act as positively charged particles) act as charge carriers. At their interface, a
depletion region is formed across which electrons diffuse to fill holes in the p-side. This
stops the further flow of electrons. When this junction is forward positive voltage is applied to
the p-side), electrons can easily move across the junction to fill the holes, and a current flows
through the diode. When the junction is reverse biased (that is, a negative voltage is applied to
the p-side), the depletion region widens and electrons cannot easily move across. The current

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remains very small until a certain voltage (the breakdown voltage) is reached and the current
suddenly increases.

Light-emitting diodes (LEDS)are p-n junctions that emit light when a current flows through
them. Several p-n junction diodes can be connected in series to make a rectifier (an electrical
component that converts alternating current to direct current Zener diodes have a well-defined
breakdown voltage, so that current flows in the reverse direction at that voltage and a constant
voltage can be maintained despite fluctuations in voltage or current. In varactor (or varicap)
diodes, varying the bias voltage causes a variation in the diode’s capacitance; these diodes have
many applications for signal transmission and are used throughout
the radio and television industries. (For more detail about these and other types of
diodes, see semiconductor device.)Early diodes were vacum tubes, an evacuated glass or
metal electron tubes containing two electrodes—a negatively charged cathode and a positively
charged anode. These were used as rectifiers and as detectors in electronic circuits such as radio
and television receivers. When a positive voltage is applied to the anode (or plate), electrons
emitted from the heated cathode flow to the plate and return to biased (that is, a the cathode
through an external power supply. If a negative voltage is applied to the plate, electrons cannot
escape from the cathode, and no plate current flows. Thus, a diode permits electrons to flow from
cathode to plate but not from plate to cathode. If an alternating voltage is applied to the plate,
current flows only during the time when the plate is positive. The alternating voltage is said to be
rectified or converted to direct current.

Diode Construction

Diodes can be made of either of the two semiconductor materials, silicon and germanium. When
the anode voltage is more positive than the cathode voltage, the diode is said to be forward-
biased, and it conducts readily with a relatively low-voltage drop. Likewise, when the cathode
voltage is more positive than the anode, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. The arrow in the
diode symbol represents the direction of conventional current flow when the diode conducts.

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Types of Diodes

1. Light emitting diode

2. Laser Diode

3. Avalanche Diode

4. Zener Diode

5. Schottky Diode

6. Photodiode

7. PN Junction Diode

Light Emitting Diode

When an electric current between the electrodes passes through this diode, light is produced. In
other words, light is generated when a sufficient amount of forwarding current passes through it.
In many diodes, this light generated is not visible as there are frequency levels that do not allow
visibility. LEDs are available in different colours. There are tricolour LEDs that can emit three
colours at a time. Light colour depends on the energy gap of the semiconductor used.

Laser Diode

It is a different type of diode as it produces coherent light. It is highly used in CD drives, DVDs
and laser devices. These are costly when compared to LEDs and are cheaper when compared to
other laser generators. Limited life is the only drawback of these diodes.

Avalanche Diode

This diode belongs to a reverse bias type and operates using the avalanche effect. When voltage
drop is constant and is independent of current, the breakdown avalanche takes place. They
exhibit high levels of sensitivity and hence are used for photo detection.

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Zener Diode

It is the most useful type of diode as it can provide a stable reference voltage. These are operated
in reverse bias and break down on the arrival of a certain voltage. If current passing through the
resistor is limited, a stable voltage is generated. Zener diodes are widely used in power supplies
to provide a reference voltage.

Schottky Diode

It has a lower forward voltage than other silicon PN junction diodes. The drop will be seen where
there is low current and at that stage, voltage ranges between 0.15 and 0.4 volts. These are
constructed differently in order to obtain that performance. Schottky diodes are highly used in
rectifier applications.

Photodiode

A photo-diode can identify even a small amount of current flow resulting from the light. These
are very helpful in the detection of the light. This is a reverse bias diode and used in solar cells
and photometers. They are even used to generate electricity.

PN Junction Diode

The P-N junction diode is also known as rectifier diodes. These diodes are used for the
rectification process and are made up of semiconductor material. The P-N junction diode
includes two layers of semiconductors. One layer of the semiconductor material is doped with P-
type material and the other layer with N-type material. The combination of these both P and N-
type layers form a junction known as the P-N junction. Hence, the name P-N junction diode. P-N
junction diode allows the current to flow in the forward direction and blocks the flow of current
in the reverse direction.

Characteristics of Diode

The following are the characteristics of the diode :-

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Fig 3.10 VI Characteristics of diode

Forward Biased Diode

There is a small drop of voltage across the diode when the diode is forward-biased and the
current is conducting. For silicon diodes, the forward voltage is 690mV and for germanium,
300mV is the forward voltage. The potential energy across the p-type material is positive and
across the n-type material, the potential energy is negative.

Reverse Biased Diode

A diode is said to be reverse-biased when the battery’s voltage is dropped completely. For
silicon diodes, the reverse current is -20μA and for germanium, -50μA is the reverse current.
The potential energy across the p-type material is negative and across the n-type material, the
potential energy is positive.

Applications and Uses of diodes

There are various types of diodes and these diodes are used in numerous ways.

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 The most basic function would be changing AC current to DC current by removing some
part of the signal. This functionality would make them rectifiers. They are used in
electrical switches and are used in surge protectors because they can prevent a spike in
the voltage.

 Diodes help in performing digital logic. Millions of diodes are used similar to logic gates
and used in modern processors.

 They are used for isolating signals from a supply. For example, one of the major uses of
diodes is to remove negative signals from AC current. This is known as signal
demodulation. This function is basically used in radios as a filtering system in order to
extract radio signals from a carrier wave.

 They are also used in creating power supplies and voltage doublers. Using a full wave
rectifier will help to deliver a more stable voltage. Combination of a diode with a
capacitor will help to make small AC voltage multiply to create a very high voltage.

 The light emitting diodes or LEDs are used in sensors and also in laser devices any many
other light illumination devices.

 Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators and varactors are used in electronic tuning
and varistors are used in suppressing AC lines

 Diodes are the basis of op-amps and transistors.

C. VOLTAGE SENSING CIRCUIT

A voltage sensing circuit measures and monitors voltage levels within an object,
detecting either AC or DC voltage. It inputs voltage and outputs various forms
such as switches, analog voltage signals, current signals, or audible signals.
Sensors are devices that can sense or identify and react to certain types of electrical
or optical signals. The implementation of a voltage sensor and current sensor

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techniques have become an excellent choice for the conventional current and
voltage measurement methods.

Fig 3.11 Voltage Sensor

Types of Voltage Sensors :

A voltage sensor can determine, monitor, and measure the supply of voltage. It can measure the
AC level and/or DC voltage level. The input to the voltage sensor is the voltage itself, and the
output can be analog voltage signals, switches, audible signals, analog current levels, frequency,
or even frequency-modulated outputs.

That is, some voltage sensors can provide sine or pulse trains as output, and others can produce
amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation, or frequency modulation outputs.

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In voltage sensors, the measurement is based on a voltage divider. Two main types of voltage
sensors are available: capacitive type voltage sensor and resistive type voltage sensor.

Fig 3.12 circuit

Capacitive Voltage Sensor :

A capacitor consists of two conductors, known as plates, separated by a non-conductive material.
This non-conductive material, called a dielectric, allows current to flow across the plates when
an AC voltage is applied, driven by the movement of electrons toward or away from the opposite
plate.
The field among the plates will create a complete AC circuit without any hardware connection.
This is how a capacitor works.

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Next, we can discuss the in two capacitors which are in series. Usually, in series circuits, high
voltage will develop across the component with high impedance. In the case of capacitors,
capacitance and impedance (capacitance reactance) are always inversely proportional.

Xc= 1/2 ¶fc

The relation between voltage and capacitance is

V=Q/C

Q → Charge (Coulomb)
C → Capacitance (Farad)
XC → Capacitive reactance (Ω)
f → Frequency (Hertz)
From the above two relations, we can clearly state that the highest voltage will accumulate across
the smallest capacitor. The capacitor voltage sensors work based on this simple principle.
Consider we are holding the sensor and then placing its tip near a live [Link], we are
inserting the sensing element of high impedance into a series capacitive coupling circuit.

Presently, the sensor’s tip is the smallest capacitor coupled to the live voltage. Thus, the whole
voltage will develop across the sensing circuit, which can detect voltage, and the light or buzzer
indicator is turned on—this is behind the non contact voltage sensor you use at home.

Resistive Voltage Sensor :

Two ways exist to convert the resistance of the sensing element to the voltage. The first one is
the simplest method, which is to provide a voltage to the resistor divider circuit comprised of a
sensor and a reference resistor, which is represented below.

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Fig 3.13 Resistance Voltage Sensor

The voltage across the reference resistor or sensor is buffered before being sent to the amplifier.
The output voltage from the sensor can be calculated as follows:

Vout = Rm / Rm +Rf x Vref

A drawback of this circuit is that the amplifier amplifies the entire voltage across the sensor. A
more effective approach is to amplify only the voltage changes caused by resistance changes in
the sensor, achieved using a resistance bridge.

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Fig 3.14 Resistance Circuit

Here, the output voltage is

When R1 = R, then the output voltage becomes approximately

A → Gain of instrumentation amplifier

δ → Change in the resistance of the sensor, which is analogous to some physical action
In this equation, the gain must be set high because only the voltage change due to the change in
the sensor’s resistance is being amplified.

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Working of Voltage Sensing Circuit :

The working of the voltage sensing circuit that has been employed in the charging of the battery
bank from the dc generator connected to the front wheel has been explained briefly below:
1. Voltage Sensing: The circuit includes voltage sensing components, typically resistors and a
voltage comparator. These components monitor the voltage levels of both batteries.
2. Reference Voltage: A reference voltage is set, in this case, 10.5V. This reference voltage
serves as a threshold or the cutoff voltage for discharge. When the voltage of one battery comes
close to or equal to this threshold, it triggers the circuit to switch its state.

3. Charging/Discharging State Determination: If the voltage of one battery comes to 10.5V, it

indicates that it needs to be charged. Conversely, if the voltage of the other battery is above
10.5V, it indicates that it's in a discharging state and can be used or discharged more.
4. Control Logic: The voltage comparator compares the voltages of both batteries with the
reference voltage (10.5V). Based on this comparison, it activates a control signal.
5. Switching Mechanism: The control signal activates switches or relays to connect the
appropriate battery to the charging or discharging circuit. For instance, if Battery A's voltage
comes to 10.5V, the circuit switches to connect Battery A to the charging mechanism.
Simultaneously, it disconnects Battery B from the charging circuit and potentially connects it to
the discharging circuit if its voltage is above 10V.
6. Feedback Mechanism : Depending on the application, there might be a feedback mechanism
to ensure stable operation. This feedback could involve monitoring the charging/discharging
current or additional voltage levels for safety and efficiency.
Overall, the circuit continuously monitors the voltage levels of the batteries and switches their
roles between charging and discharging based on predefined thresholds. This ensures efficient
use and maintenance of the batteries in the system.
Advantages of Voltage Sensors Over Conventional Measuring Techniques:
Voltage sensing devices offer several advantages for batteries:
1. Optimized Charging: Voltage sensing devices ensure that batteries are charged only when they
need it, based on their voltage levels. This prevents overcharging, which can degrade battery life
and cause safety hazards.

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2. Prevention of Over-Discharging: Similarly, voltage sensing prevents batteries from being

discharged beyond safe levels. Over-discharging can damage batteries irreversibly, reducing
their capacity and lifespan.
3. Improved Battery Life: By preventing overcharging and over-discharging, voltage sensing
helps prolong the lifespan of batteries, saving costs associated with frequent replacements.
4. Efficient Use of Energy: Voltage sensing ensures that energy is utilized efficiently. Batteries
are charged only when necessary, and discharged only when needed, optimizing energy
consumption.

5. Enhanced Safety: Preventing overcharging and over-discharging also enhances safety. It

reduces the risk of battery overheating, swelling, leakage, or even explosion, especially in high-
energy applications.
6. Automated Operation: Voltage sensing devices can automate the charging and discharging
processes, making them ideal for applications where manual monitoring and control are
impractical or inconvenient.
7. Versatility: Voltage sensing circuits can be adapted to various battery chemistries, voltages,
and capacities, making them suitable for a wide range of applications, from small consumer
electronics to large-scale industrial systems.
Overall, voltage sensing devices play a crucial role in optimizing battery performance, extending
their lifespan, and ensuring safety in various applications.
E. Capacitors:

Capacitors play a crucial role in the switching of charging and discharging batteries in circuits.
Here's a brief breakdown. Capacitors are electronic components that store electrical energy in an
electric field.

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Fig 3.15 Different types of capacitors

They consist of two conductive plates separated by an insulating material. When voltage is
applied across the plates, an electric field forms, storing energy.

1. Significance:

In circuits involving battery charging and discharging, capacitors serve several key purposes:

- They can smooth out voltage fluctuations, ensuring a more stable power supply to the load.

- Capacitors help manage the charging and discharging process, regulating the flow of electrical
energy.

- They can act as temporary energy reservoirs, providing bursts of power when needed, such as
during peak demands or sudden surges.

2. Advantages:

- Improved Efficiency: Capacitors can optimize the charging and discharging process, reducing
energy losses and improving overall efficiency.

- Voltage Regulation: By stabilizing voltage levels, capacitors ensure consistent power delivery
to the load, preventing damage from voltage spikes or drops.

- Faster Response: Capacitors can respond quickly to changes in load demand, providing
instantaneous power when required.

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- Extended Battery Life: Properly implemented capacitors can help prolong battery life by
managing charging and discharging cycles more effectively.

Capacitors being used in the battery charging for the EV project:

Paper capacitors

Paper capacitors, also known as paper dielectric capacitors, are a type of capacitor that uses paper as the dielectric
material between the conductive plates. They were commonly used in electronic circuits in the mid-20th century but
have largely been replaced by more modern capacitor types due to their limitations and drawbacks.

Fig 3.16 Paper Capacitor

[Link] Material: The dielectric material in paper capacitors is typically a thin sheet of
paper, which is sandwiched between two conductive plates (usually made of aluminum or foil).

[Link]: Paper capacitors are typically cylindrical or rectangular in shape, with the
conductive plates rolled or stacked together with the paper dielectric in between. The entire
assembly is then enclosed in a protective casing made of materials like plastic or cardboard.

[Link] Capacitance Range: Paper capacitors generally have lower capacitance values
compared to modern capacitor types. They are typically used in applications requiring relatively
low capacitance values.

[Link] Frequency Response: Due to the properties of paper as a dielectric material, paper
capacitors have limited frequency response and are not suitable for high-frequency applications

[Link] and Degradation: Paper capacitors are prone to aging and degradation over time,
especially when exposed to high temperatures, moisture, or electrical stress. This can lead to
changes in capacitance value and increased leakage current, affecting the performance of the

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capacitor and the circuit it is used [Link] specific Despite being less commonly used in modern
electronics, paper capacitors still have some positive attributes, especially applications. Here are
some positive points regarding a paper capacitor with a capacitance of 0.1 microfarad and a
voltage rating of 400 volts:

High Voltage Rating:

A voltage rating of 400 volts allows the capacitor to handle higher voltages without risk of
breakdown or damage. This makes it suitable for applications where high voltage levels are
present, such as in power supplies or filtering circuits.

Low Cost:

Paper capacitors are often more cost-effective compared to some modern capacitor types like
film or tantalum capacitors. This affordability makes them attractive for applications where cost
is a significant factor.

Suitability for Low-Frequency Applications:

While paper capacitors may not have the frequency response of modern capacitors, they can still
be suitable for low-frequency applications. This includes audio circuits, power supply filtering,
and certain analog signal processing circuits.

Reliability in Stable Environments:

In environments where temperature and humidity are controlled and stable, paper capacitors can
exhibit good reliability over time. They may be preferred in applications where long-term
stability is more important than high-frequency performance.

Historical and Vintage Appeal:

Paper capacitors hold historical significance and can be desirable for vintage
electronics enthusiasts or restoration projects. They contribute to the authentic look
and feel of older electronic devices.

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Environmental Considerations:

Unlike some modern capacitors that contain hazardous materials, paper capacitors are generally
more environmentally friendly and easier to dispose of at the end of their lifecycle.

While paper capacitors may not be as versatile or widely used as modern capacitor types, they
still have certain advantages that make them suitable for specific applications, especially in
contexts where their characteristics align with the requirements of the circuit and where cost
considerations are paramount.

Working of Paper capacitors:

The working principle of paper capacitors is based on the ability of a dielectric material (in this
case, paper) to store electrical energy when placed between conductive plates. Here's how it
works:

Charge Storage: When a voltage is applied across the terminals of a paper capacitor, it creates
an electric field between the two conductive plates. The dielectric material (paper) between the
plates becomes polarized due to this electric field. Positive charges accumulate on one side of the
paper, while negative charges accumulate on the other side. This separation of charges stores
electrical energy in the capacitor.

Capacitance: The amount of charge that a paper capacitor can store per unit voltage is
determined by its capacitance, measured in farads (F). The capacitance depends on factors such
as the area of the conductive plates, the distance between them (thickness of the dielectric), and
the dielectric constant of the material (in this case, paper). Paper capacitors typically have lower
capacitance values compared to other types of capacitors, making them suitable for low-
frequency applications.

Insulation: The dielectric material (paper) serves as an insulator between the conductive plates,
preventing direct electrical contact between them. This insulation allows the capacitor to store
and release electrical energy without short-circuiting.

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Discharge: When the voltage across the capacitor is removed or reduced, the stored electrical
energy is released. The capacitor can then discharge, providing electrical power to a circuit or
device as needed.

Frequency Response: Paper capacitors are suitable for low-frequency applications due to their
construction and materials. They may not be as effective at higher frequencies due to factors
such as the thickness of the dielectric and the physical properties of the paper material. Overall,
paper capacitors function by utilizing the properties of paper as a dielectric material to store
electrical energy between conductive plates, providing capacitance to electronic circuits and
devices.

Protection against sparking by capacitors:

Reasons behind sparking:

Sparking can occur during switching between two batteries due to several factors:

[Link] Potential Difference:

When switching between batteries, especially if they have different voltage levels or if one
battery is fully charged while the other is partially discharged, there can be a significant voltage
potential difference between them. This potential difference can cause a sudden rush of current
when the switch is closed, leading to sparking.

2. Inductive Effects:

If there are inductive components in the circuit, such as motors or solenoids, they can generate
voltage spikes when the current through them changes rapidly. These voltage spikes can
contribute to sparking during the switching process.

3. Switching Speed:

The speed at which the switch is closed or opened can also impact the occurrence of sparking.
Rapid switching can create sudden changes in current flow, leading to sparking due to the
inductive effects mentioned above.

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4. Poor Contact:

If the switch contacts are not clean or if there is corrosion or dirt present, it can increase the
resistance at the switch contacts. Higher resistance leads to more heat generation during
switching, increasing the likelihood of sparking.

5. Load Characteristics:

The characteristics of the load connected to the batteries can also influence sparking. For
example, if the load has capacitive or inductive components, it can affect the rate of change of
current during switching, potentially leading to sparking.

Overall, sparking during switching between batteries occurs due to the rapid flow of current and
voltage spikes generated by inductive effects, voltage potential differences between batteries, the
speed of switching, poor contact at switch terminals, and load characteristics.

Protection against sparking:

When switching between two batteries, a capacitor can help reduce sparking by acting as a buffer
or stabilizer for the electrical energy flow. Here's how it works:

[Link] Storage: Capacitors can store electrical charge. When you switch between batteries,
especially if they have different voltage levels or if there's a slight delay in the switching process,
there can be a sudden surge of current as the circuit adjusts. This surge can cause sparking,
especially if there are inductive loads involved. The capacitor can absorb some of this excess
charge, smoothing out the transition and reducing the likelihood of sparking.

2. Voltage Regulation: Capacitors can help regulate voltage fluctuations. When you switch
between batteries, there can be transient voltage spikes due to thesudden change in the circuit's
configuration. These spikes can cause sparking if they exceed the voltage rating of the switch or
the insulation of the circuit. Capacitors placed strategically in the circuit can absorb or mitigate
these voltage spikes, protecting the switch and other components from damage.

3. Suppressing Electromagnetic Interference (EMI): Capacitors can also help in suppressing

electromagnetic interference generated during the switching process. EMI can induce voltage

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spikes in nearby circuits, potentially causing sparking or damaging sensitive electronics. By

absorbing and filtering out some of this interference, capacitors can reduce the risk of sparking.

In summary, capacitors act as a kind of electrical shock absorber during battery switching,
smoothing out voltage fluctuations, absorbing excess charge, and suppressing EMI, all of which
contribute to reducing sparking and protecting the integrity of the electrical system.

3. BATTERY BANKS
The battery bank in an e-bicycle serves as the essential powerhouse, supplying the electrical
energy needed to power the electric motor and provide assistance to the rider

Regular maintenance, proper charging practices, and adherence to safety guidelines,ensure

optimal performance, longevity, and safety of the battery bank.

Here we are using two battery banks, each consists of two batteries and the specifications of the
battery are 12v,7amp/hr

Fig 3.17 Battery Bank

Working of how the battery bank works in an e-bicycle:

1. Energy Storage: The battery bank consists of multiple individual batteries connected together
to form a single unit. These batteries store electrical energy in chemical form, typically using
lithium-ion, lead-acid, or nickel-metal hydride technology.

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2. Power Delivery: When the rider activates the throttle or starts pedaling (depending on the e-
bike's design), the motor controller receives a signal to provide power to the motor. The motor
controller regulates the flow of electricity from the battery bank to the electric motor based on
the rider's input and the selected power assistance level.

3. Electric Motor Operation: The electric motor converts electrical energy from the battery
bank into mechanical energy to drive the bicycle's wheels. The motor's operation assists the
rider's pedaling effort, providing additional power for propulsion.

4. Monitoring and Control: A Battery Management System (BMS) may be integrated into the
battery bank to monitor various parameters such as voltage, current, and temperature. The BMS
helps ensure safe and efficient operation of the battery bank by preventing overcharging, over-
discharging, and overheating.

5. Range and Performance: The capacity and voltage of the battery bank, along with factors
such as the terrain, rider weight, and riding style, determine the e-bike's range and performance.
As the battery bank's charge depletes, the motor's power assistance may decrease, affecting the
bike's speed and acceleration.

6. Charging: When the battery bank's charge is low, it needs to be recharged using an external
power source, typically a wall outlet. A compatible charger is used to replenish the battery bank's
energy, restoring its charge for the next ride. Charging times vary depending on the battery
bank's capacity and the charger's specifications.

7. Maintenance: Regular maintenance of the battery bank is essential to ensure optimal

performance and longevity. This may include proper storage, periodic charging, and inspection
for signs of damage or deterioration.

THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF BATTERY USED IN BATTERY BANKS

ARE:

1. Lithium-ion battery

2. Lead acid battery

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3. Nickel Metal hydride battery

[Link]-ion battery

Fig 3.18 Lithium Ion Cell

Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are widely used in e-bicycles due to their superior energy density,
efficiency, and longevity. Here’s a detailed look at how they work, their components,
advantages, and considerations:

Working principle of lithium ion battery

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Charging: When the battery charges, lithium ions move from the cathode through the electrolyte
and are stored in the anode. Electrons flow from the cathode to the anode through an external
circuit, which charges the battery.

Discharging: During discharge, lithium ions move back from the anode to the cathode through
the electrolyte. This movement of ions generates electrons that flow through the external circuit,
providing power to the e-bike’s motor.

2. Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

Fig 3.19 Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in
various applications, including e-bicycles.

Working Principle

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Charging: During charging, the nickel hydroxide in the positive electrode oxidizes, releasing
oxygen ions. Meanwhile, hydrogen ions from the electrolyte combine with electrons at the
negative electrode, forming hydrogen gas and charging the battery.

Discharging: During discharging, the process is reversed. The hydrogen-absorbing alloy in the
negative electrode absorbs hydrogen ions from the electrolyte and releases electrons, providing
electrical energy. At the same time, the nickel hydroxide in the positive electrode accepts
electrons and combines with oxygen ions from the electrolyte.

3. Lead acid Battery

Fig 3.20 Lead Acid Battery

Lead-acid batteries are a type of rechargeable battery commonly used in various

applications, including e-bicycles. Here’s an overview of lead-acid batteries,
including their components, working principle, advantages, and considerations:

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Working Principle

Charging: When a current is applied to the battery during charging, lead sulfate on the plates is
converted back into lead dioxide at the positive plate and lead at the negative plate. Sulfuric acid
is produced in the process, replenishing the electrolyte.

Discharging: During discharging, the lead dioxide at the positive plate and lead at the negative
plate react with sulfuric acid to produce lead sulfate and water, releasing electrical energy.

A .Sealed Maintenance free battery

Fig 3.21 Sealed Maintenance Free Battery

A Sealed Maintenance-Free (SMF) battery, also known as a Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid

(VRLA) battery, is a type of lead-acid battery designed to be low-maintenance and safer

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compared to traditional flooded lead-acid batteries. Here is an in-depth look at SMF batteries,
including their components, working principle, advantages, and usage considerations.

Components of an SMF Battery Electrodes:

Positive Plate: Made of lead dioxide (PbO₂).

Negative Plate: Made of sponge lead (Pb).Electrolyte: A mixture of sulfuric acid and water.
Unlike in traditional batteries, the electrolyte in SMF batteries is either absorbed into a glass mat
or gelled.

Separator: A porous material that keeps the positive and negative plates apart to prevent short-
circuiting while allowing ionic movement.

Container: The outer casing that holds the internal components and is typically made of durable,
non-conductive material like plastic.

Valves: Pressure relief valves that allow gas to escape safely in case of overpressure, ensuring
the battery remains sealed under normal operating conditions.

Working Principle

Electrochemical Reaction: During discharge, the sulfuric acid reacts with the lead dioxide in
the positive plate and the sponge lead in the negative plate to form lead sulfate and water,
releasing electrical energy. During charging, an external power source reverses this reaction,
converting lead sulfate back into lead dioxide and sponge lead and restoring the sulfuric acid

Valve Regulation: In the event of gas build-up (typically oxygen and hydrogen) during
charging, the pressure relief valves release the gas to prevent the battery from swelling or
leaking. The recombination of gases inside the battery is optimized to minimize the loss of
electrolyte.

Advantages of SMF Batteries Maintenance-Free:

No need to check or top up the electrolyte level, as the battery is sealed

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Safety: Sealed design prevents acid leaks and minimizes the emission of gases, making them
safer for indoor use.

Position Flexibility: Can be mounted in various orientations without the risk of spilling
electrolyte.

Durability: More resistant to vibration and impact compared to traditional flooded lead-acid
batteries.

CHAPTER 4

WORKING

4.1 Working of charging system:

In the working model of the battery charging system in the EV bicycle, we have two DC
generators of rating 12 V/2A which are connected in series which are set to produce a current of
1-1.5A at a voltage of [Link] DC generator being used are of the Permanent magnet brushless
type .The two Generators are then connected to a

 PCB(Printed circuit board) circuit which has :

 Electromagnetic type Relay(12V,2A contact)
 Capacitors(0.01 microfarad,400V)
 Diodes(1A,50V)
 .Voltage sensing circuit integrated in it.

We shall be discussing their working step by step.

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Fig 4.1 Photograph of working model of ev bicycle

When the rear wheel of the EV bicycle start to move with the help of the motor which is
connected to a gear connected to the hub via chain and attains a particular speed,the Brushless
DC Generator starts to move with the wheel.
The rotor shaft of the Generator is connected to a gear which is mounted on the frame of the
bicycle in such a way that this gear is alligned with the outer part of the wheel.

The Gear Ratio between the wheel and the rotor shaft gear is such that when a complete rotation
is done by the wheel the gear connected to the rotor shaft has taken 60 rotations.

Mathematically, both of them are aligned in the ratio of

1:60 .

4.2 Current production inside the generator:

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Fig 4.2 Dc generator attached to the rear wheel of bicycle

A DC (Direct Current) generator operates on the principle of electromagnetic induction, which

was discovered by Michael Faraday in the early 19th century. Here's a simplified explanation of
how a DC generator works:

Magnetic Field Creation: The DC generator has two main parts: a stationary magnetic field
(stator) and a rotating coil (armature). The stator typically consists of permanent magnets or
electromagnets.

When a DC current flows through the field windings, it creates a magnetic field within the
generator.

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Fig 4.3 Schematic representation of inside of a dc generator

Rotating Armature: The armature is a coil of wire wound around a central shaft. It is mounted
on bearings and can rotate within the magnetic field produced by the stator. As the armature
rotates, it cuts through the lines of magnetic flux generated by the stator.

Electromagnetic Induction: According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, when a

conductor (the armature coil) moves through a magnetic field, an electromotive force (EMF) is
induced in the conductor. This induced EMF causes electrons within the conductor to move,
creating an electric current.

Commutator and Brushes: To ensure that the generated current flows in a single direction
(DC), a commutator and brushes are used. The commutator is a rotating switch mounted on the
armature shaft, consisting of multiple segments insulated from each other. The brushes are
stationary contacts that press against the commutator segments.

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Fig 4.4 Cross section of dc generator

Conversion to Direct Current: As the armature rotates, the direction of the induced current
changes twice in each revolution because of the alternating polarity of the magnetic field around
the armature. The commutator reverses the connection of the armature coil to the external circuit
each time the direction of the induced current changes. This action converts the alternating
current (AC) induced in the armature into direct current (DC) in the external circuit.

Output Voltage Regulation: The output voltage of the DC generator can be regulated by
adjusting the strength of the magnetic field produced by the stator or by varying the speed of
rotation of the armature.

Now, the current produced from the Generator is not directly fed to the battery bank for charging
purpose. Firstly, it is sent to the Electromagnetic Relay where the path of this current is decided.

4.3 Working of Electromagnetic Relay and Voltage sensing circuit:

Fig 4.5 EM relay for switching purposes

Here's how the electromagnetic relay (EM relay) In accordance with Voltage sensing circuit
would function in this scenario:

Initial Setup:

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We have two battery banks: Battery A connected to the DC motor of EV bicycle and Battery B
connected to the brushless DC generator for charging purposes.

A voltage sensing circuit is placed between the two batteries, monitoring their voltage levels.

Normal Operation (Voltage Above 10 Volts):Battery B is being charged by the brushless DC

generator.

When voltage of battery A reaches near 10 V it needs to be disconnected and needs to be

charged.

The voltage sensing circuit continuously monitors the voltage levels of both batteries.

As long as the voltage of the discharging battery B remains above 10 volts, no action is taken by
the EM relay.

Voltage Drop Below 10 Volts in Battery A:If the voltage of Battery B drops to 10 volts, it
needs to be charged urgently, the voltage sensing circuit detects this.

The voltage sensing circuit sends a signal to the EM relay.

EM Relay Activation: Upon receiving the signal, the EM relay switches its position.

The current path from DC generator is redirected from Battery B to Battery A.

Charging Battery A:Now, the brushless DC generator charges Battery A directly through the
EM relay.

Battery B is temporarily disconnected from the charging circuit to ensure Battery A gets priority
charging until its voltage rises above 10 volts again. This battery B, is then connected to the DC
motor to supply the voltage.

Voltage Recovery in Battery A:Once Battery A's voltage rises above 10 volts again and is
sufficiently charged, the voltage sensing circuit detects this change.

It signals the EM relay to switch back to its original position only until the voltage of battery B
drops to 10V.

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Resuming Normal Charging Operation: The EM relay restores the connection between
Battery B and the brushless DC generator only when the voltage of Battery B drops to 10 V.
When the condition is fulfilled, battery B resumes charging, and the system returns to its normal
operation.

In essence, the EM relay serves as a switch to prioritize charging the battery that needs it the
most. When one battery's voltage drops below the threshold, the relay redirects the charging
current to that battery until it reaches an acceptable voltage level again. This ensures efficient use
of the charging capacity and prevents any battery from being over-discharged.

Note: Under the operating conditions, only one battery bank either A or battery bank B will
charge via the Brushless DC generator.

In other words, one of the battery banks will be in the charging state while the other battery bank
will be in the discharging state giving supply voltage to the DC motor of the EV bicycle.

As soon as the voltage of the discharging battery bank drops near to 10V, the relay will be sent a
signal by the voltage sensing circuit for change over purposes, resulting in the switching of the
battery from discharging to charging state and then the battery that was previously being charged
will be connected to the DC motor and will start to supply voltage to the DC motor.

The Voltage sensing circuit and the EM relay work together and are dependent on each other.
The EM relay will switch only when a signal for switching is sent from the Voltage sensing
circuit.

Hence, we say that the path of the charging current is decided by the voltage sensing circuit and
the path is switched by the EM relay.

In this way, charging of the battery banks is done simultaneously by the use of Brushless DC
generator via EM relays and Voltage sensing circuits.

4.4 Uses of Capacitors in the circuitry:

There are various advantages of capacitors as listed below:

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Reduced Electrical Noise: Capacitors can help suppress electrical noise generated by sparking.
By storing and releasing electrical energy in a controlled manner, they can mitigate sudden
spikes in voltage that lead to sparking, thereby reducing electromagnetic interference (EMI) and
radio frequency interference (RFI).

Voltage Regulation: Capacitors can stabilize voltage levels in electrical circuits by smoothing
out fluctuations. This helps prevent voltage spikes and dips that can lead to sparking and
potential damage to sensitive electronic components.

Power Factor Correction: Capacitors can improve the power factor of electrical systems by
reducing reactive power. This can enhance the efficiency of power distribution systems, reduce
energy costs, and minimize the risk of sparking associated with inefficient power delivery.

Energy Storage: Capacitors can store electrical energy and release it when needed. This can be
useful in applications where a sudden burst of power is required, such as in pulse power systems
or in smoothing the output of rectifiers. This controlled discharge reduces the likelihood of
sparking compared to sudden electrical discharges.

Safety: Capacitors can enhance the safety of electrical systems by reducing the risk of sparking,
which can cause fires or explosions in hazardous environments. By providing controlled energy
storage and release, capacitors help prevent sudden electrical discharges that could ignite
flammable materials.

4.5 Uses of diodes in the circuitry:

Diodes play several important roles in a circuit when charging a battery using a brushless DC
generator:

Rectification: The output of a brushless DC generator is typically alternating current (AC),

which alternates in polarity. Diodes are used to rectify this AC voltage into direct current (DC)
by allowing current to flow in only one direction. This process ensures that the battery receives a
consistent polarity of voltage for charging.

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Isolation: Diodes provide isolation between the generator and the battery. This prevents current
from flowing back into the generator when it's not generating power, ensuring that the battery
remains charged and the generator remains protected.

Voltage Regulation: Diodes can be used in conjunction with other components such as voltage
regulators to regulate the voltage supplied to the battery. This helps prevent overcharging, which
can damage the battery, and ensures that the battery receives the correct voltage for efficient
charging.

Protection: Diodes can offer protection to both the generator and the battery by preventing
reverse current flow. This is important during times when the generator is not actively charging
the battery, such as when the generator is idle or when the battery is fully charged. Reverse
current flow can cause damage to both the generator and the battery, so diodes help prevent this.

Overall, diodes are essential components in the charging circuit of a brushless DC generator,
enabling efficient and safe charging of the battery by rectifying the output voltage, providing
isolation, regulating voltage, and offering protection against reverse current flow.

4.6 Mathematical calculations:

Ratio between wheel and rotos shaft disc:

The generator being used needs an rpm of 600 in order to start charging the battery. In order to
attain this rpm, the wheel and the rotor disc is kept at a ratio of

1:60

Which means,if the wheel completes its one rotation the disc connected to the rotor will rotate 60
times.

Minimum speed:

To calculate the minimum speed required for the larger wheel,

We have,

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 Speed of rotor disc= 1000r.p.m.

 Gear ratio = 1:60 or 1/60

Therefore,

The minimum speed for the bicycle wheel will be = minimum rotor disc speed X gear ratio

=1000 x 1/60

= 17(approx.)

Now we have diameter of the wheel as 53.4 cm, according to which the minimum speed of the
wheel required will be equal to 10-15kmph.

Current produced by the DC generator:

The charging current produced by the generator is fixed at a value of :

1.5A at 24 V

When the rpm of the generator reaches 600,it will produce the above voltage and current,which
will be supplied to the battery bank.

If the bike is driven at more higher speeds the maximum current that will be produced in the
generator will be 2 amps.

Maximum charging time for battery bank:

We have,

Minimum charging current= 1 A

Charging voltage =24 V

Battery bank capacity = 7Ah

To calculate the maximum charging time for a SMF (Sealed Maintenance Free) battery being
charged with a current of 1 A at 24 volts and having a capacity of 7 Ah (Ampere-hour),we use
the formula:

Charging time = Battery capacity (in Ah) / Charging current (in A)

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Given:

 Battery capacity = 7 Ah
 Charging current = 1 A

Plug in these values to find the charging time:

Maximum Charging time = battery capacity(in Ah) / charging current (in A)

Maximum Charging time = 7/1= 7 hours

So, the minimum charging time for the SMF battery would be 7 hours when fed with a charging
current of 1 A at 24 volts.

Minimum charging time of battery bank:

We have;

Maximum charging current =2 A

Charging voltage = 24 v

Battery bank capacity = 7 Ah

so To calculate the minimum charging time for a SMF (Sealed Maintenance Free) battery being
charged with a current of 1 A at 24 volts and having a capacity of 7 Ah (Ampere-hour),we use
the formula:

Charging time = Battery capacity (in Ah) / Charging current (in A)

Given:

- Battery capacity = 7 Ah

- Charging current = 1 A

Plug in these values to find the charging time

Minimum Charging time = battery capacity(in Ah) / charging current (in A)

Minimum Charging time = 7/2= 3.5 hours

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4.7 Advantages of charging using dc generators:

Direct current (DC) generators can offer several advantages when used for charging batteries:

1. Compatibility with battery chemistry: Many types of batteries, including lead-acid and
lithium-ion batteries, require DC charging. DC generators provide a direct source of DC power,
ensuring compatibility with the specific charging requirements of the battery chemistry.

2. Flexible power output: DC generators can be designed to provide a wide range of power
outputs, allowing them to charge batteries of different capacities and voltages. This flexibility
makes them suitable for charging various types and sizes of batteries, from small portable
devices to large-scale industrial applications.

3. Portability and mobility: DC generators can be portable and easily transported to remote
locations where access to electrical grids may be limited or unavailable. This mobility makes
them ideal for charging batteries in off-grid or outdoor environments, such as camping sites,
construction sites, or emergency situations.

4. Reliability in remote areas: In remote areas with unreliable or nonexistent grid power, DC
generators can provide a dependable source of charging for batteries used in essential equipment,
such as communication devices, medical equipment, or emergency lighting systems.

5. Customization and control: DC generators can be customized to meet specific charging

requirements, such as voltage and current levels, as well as charging profiles tailored to the
battery chemistry. This allows for precise control over the charging process, optimizing battery
performance and lifespan.

6. Independence from grid power: Using DC generators for battery charging reduces reliance
on grid power, offering independence and self-sufficiency in situations where grid power is
unavailable or unreliable. This can be particularly beneficial in remote or off-grid locations, as
well as during power outages or emergencies.

7. Cost-effectiveness: In some cases, using a DC generator for battery charging may be more
cost-effective than installing grid-connected charging infrastructure, especially in remote or

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temporary applications where the cost of grid extension or infrastructure development is

prohibitively high.

Overall, DC generators offer versatility, reliability, and independence, making them a practical
choice for charging batteries in various applications and environments.

4.8 Disadvantages of DC generators:

While DC generators offer several advantages for charging batteries, they also come with some
disadvantages:

1. Fuel dependency: Most DC generators are powered by fossil fuels such as gasoline or diesel.
This reliance on fuel can lead to ongoing fuel costs and issues related to fuel availability, storage,
and transportation. Additionally, burning fossil fuels contributes to air pollution and greenhouse
gas emissions, which can have environmental and health impacts.

2. Noise and emissions: DC generators typically produce noise and emissions during operation,
especially those powered by internal combustion engines. The noise and exhaust emissions can
be disruptive, particularly in quiet or indoor environments, and may require additional measures
to mitigate their impact.

3. Maintenance requirements: DC generators require regular maintenance to ensure optimal

performance and reliability. This maintenance includes tasks such as fueling, oil changes, filter
replacements, and periodic inspections of engine components. Neglecting maintenance can lead
to reduced efficiency, increased fuel consumption, and potential breakdowns.

4. Limited efficiency: DC generators have lower efficiency compared to grid-connected

charging systems. Energy is lost during the conversion of fuel into mechanical power and then
into electrical power, resulting in lower overall efficiency compared to direct grid power. This
inefficiency can increase operating costs and environmental impacts over time.

5. Limited scalability: While DC generators can provide portable and standalone charging
solutions, their scalability is limited by the size and capacity of the generator. Large-scale
applications may require multiple generators or higher-capacity units, increasing costs and
complexity.

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6. Environmental impact: The use of fossil fuel-powered DC generators contributes to

environmental pollution and climate change through the emission of greenhouse gases,
particulate matter, and other pollutants. This environmental impact can be significant, especially
in areas with strict emissions regulations or sensitive ecosystems.

7. Dependence on fuel availability: The availability of fuel can be a challenge, especially in

remote or disaster-stricken areas where supply chains may be disrupted. Dependence on fuel
availability can hinder the reliability and accessibility of DC generators for battery charging in
such situations.

Despite these disadvantages, DC generators remain a valuable and practical solution for charging
batteries in off-grid or remote locations where grid power is unavailable or unreliable. However,
efforts to improve generator efficiency, reduce emissions, and promote alternative energy
sources can help mitigate some of these drawbacks.

4.9 Future implications of dc generators:

The future implications of DC generators are likely to be shaped by advancements in technology,

changes in energy infrastructure, and evolving environmental considerations. Here are some
potential future implications:

1. Integration with renewable energy sources: As the world transitions towards renewable
energy sources like solar and wind power, DC generators may play a role in hybrid energy
systems. These systems could use renewable energy sources as the primary power input, with
DC generators serving as backup or supplementary power sources when renewable energy
generation is insufficient.

2. Efficiency improvements: Future advancements in generator design, engine technology, and

power electronics could lead to significant improvements in the efficiency of DC generators.
Higher efficiency generators would reduce fuel consumption, emissions, and operating costs,
making them more environmentally sustainable and economically viable.

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3. Hybrid and electric vehicle charging: DC generators could be used to provide on-the-go
charging for hybrid and electric vehicles, especially in remote or off-grid areas where access to
charging infrastructure is limited. Portable DC generators could be deployed at charging stations
or used as mobile charging units to extend the range and accessibility of electric vehicles.

4. Off-grid and emergency power solutions: DC generators will continue to serve as essential
power solutions for off-grid applications, emergency backup power, and disaster relief efforts.
Their portability, reliability, and independence from grid infrastructure make them well-suited
for providing power in remote or disaster-stricken areas where access to electricity is limited or
unavailable.

5. Decentralized energy systems: The rise of decentralized energy systems, including

microgrids and distributed generation, could create new opportunities for DC generators. These
5systems, and smart grid technologies to enhance energy resilience, reliability, and sustainability
at the local level.

6. Emerging markets and remote communities: In emerging markets and remote

communities, DC generators may play a crucial role in expanding access to electricity and
improving energy security. Portable, affordable, and low-maintenance DC generators could
provide a reliable source of power for lighting, communication, healthcare, and economic
development initiatives in underserved areas.

7. Environmental considerations: Future developments in environmental regulations,

emissions standards, and sustainability initiatives may drive the adoption of cleaner and more
efficient generator technologies. DC generators that prioritize fuel efficiency, emissions
reduction, and renewable fuel options could become increasingly attractive in a world focused on
mitigating climate change and environmental degradation.

Overall, the future implications of DC generators are likely to be shaped by a combination of

technological innovation, market dynamics, policy frameworks, and societal priorities. As the
energy landscape evolves, DC generators will continue to play a valuable role in meeting diverse
energy needs and addressing emerging challenges.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION

In this project, we explored the feasibility and effectiveness of charging electric bicycles while in
motion using a generator. Through a comprehensive investigation and experimental testing,
several important conclusions have been drawn:

Viability of Generator-Based Charging: Our findings demonstrate that it is indeed feasible to

charge electric bicycles while they are in motion using a generator. By harnessing kinetic energy
during cycling, the generator efficiently converts mechanical energy into electrical energy,
providing a sustainable charging solution for electric bicycles.

Energy Recovery Efficiency: The efficiency of generator-based charging systems varies

depending on factors such as generator design, speed of the bicycle, and terrain. Our tests
revealed that while significant energy recovery is possible, there are limitations in capturing and
converting kinetic energy under certain conditions.

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System Optimization: To maximize the effectiveness of generator-based charging, further

optimization of system components and integration methods is recommended. This includes
improvements in generator efficiency, voltage regulation, and control algorithms to enhance
energy capture and storage capabilities.

User Experience and Practicality: While generator-based charging offers a promising solution for
extending the range and versatility of electric bicycles, considerations such as system weight,
drag, and user convenience are important factors to address. Balancing energy recovery with ride
quality and performance is crucial for widespread adoption and acceptance among cyclists.

Future Directions: Continued research and development in generator technology, battery

management systems, and integration methods are essential for advancing the field of electric
bicycle charging while running. Collaborative efforts between academia, industry, and
policymakers can drive innovation and promote sustainable transportation solutions.

In conclusion, the concept of charging electric bicycles while running using a generator holds
significant potential for enhancing the sustainability and practicality of electric transportation. By
addressing technical challenges and user concerns, generator-based charging systems can play a
key role in promoting the adoption of electric bicycles as a clean and efficient mode of urban
mobility.

Future Implications

The development and implementation of on-the-go charging technologies for electric bicycles
have far-reaching implications for urban mobility and transportation:

Smart Cities

1. Integration with Smart Grids: As part of a larger smart city ecosystem, e-bikes equipped with
charging-while-running technology can interact with smart grids to optimize energy use and
distribution. This involves using real-time data to manage energy supply and demand, improving
the efficiency of the entire transportation system.

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2. Urban Planning: Cities may develop dedicated lanes and infrastructure to support these
advanced e-bikes, promoting sustainable and efficient urban transportation. This can lead to the
creation of more bike-friendly cities and reduce traffic congestion and pollution.

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[10]Johnson M and Rose G, 2016, E-Bike Safety: Insights from a Survey of Australian E-Bike
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