Inorganic

Chemistry

Branch of chemistry
concerned with the
elements and all
their compounds
except those
containing carbon.

Image: Chemicals in Flasks, J. Sullivan, Wiki

 Chemical Basis of Life:

Atoms, Molecules & Compounds

•​Matter → Anything that occupies space

and has mass.

•​Element → Substances that can’t be broken down

any further. [Living things are composed of 24 elements. More
than 100 in the periodic table.]
•​Atom → The smallest unit of an element.
[atoms = protons (+) and neutrons in the nucleus orbited by electrons
(-)]
●​Compound → Atoms
chemically bonded
with other atoms.
●​​ Molecules composed of

two or more atoms of

an element chemically
join together. ( the
same or different
elements
•​Q: What do we call two or
more atoms of different
element joined together
chemically?

•​Q: What do we combination

of at least two different
elements or the same
element?

All covalent compounds are

molecules. But not all
molecules are compounds.
•​Examples of molecules:
Carbon dioxide (CO ) and
2

methane (CH ) , molecular

4

hydrogen (H ), molecular
2

oxygen (O ) and molecular

2

nitrogen (N ).
2

•​Examples of compounds:
Only molecules containing two
or more elements, such as
carbon dioxide (CO ) and
2

methane (CH ). 4
 The Structure of an Atom
Atoms are the basis for
everything in the universe.

Q: What are the three basic

parts of an atom?:

•​ ​ = "-" negative
charge

•​ ​ = "+" positive
charge

•​ ​ = neutral (a
charge of zero)
The Structure of an Atom

The thing that makes each

element unique is the
number of protons, since the
number of neutrons and
electrons can vary.

Protons and neutrons always in

the center of atom (the
nucleus).

Electrons are found around

nucleus in areas called
orbitals.
•​The atomic number (Z) is equal to
the number of protons in the atom's
nucleus
•​ The mass number (A) is the number
of protons plus neutrons
•​ All the atoms of a given
element have the same atomic
number
•​ Atoms have the same
number of electron and
protons
•​ The number of protons in the
nucleus of the atom is equal
to the atomic number (Z).
•​Atomic
number (Z) = number
protons (+) = electrons (-)

•​ Mass number = #protons

(atomic number) + #neutrons

•​ # neutrons = Mass number (A)

– atomic number (Z)
 Examples
•​Atomic # (Z) = #p(+) = #e (-)
•​ Mass #A = #p(Z) + #n
•​ # n = Mass # (A) – atomic # (Z)
•​C;atomic #=6, P=+6, e=-6
•​#n=mass # - atomic #
•​#n=12 -6 =6
•​Co; mass #=59, atomic # = 27
•​P=27,e=-27, n=59-27=32
Find the number of p, e and n
O; mass # = 16 , atomic # 8
P=+8, e=--8, #n=16-8= 8

Cl , mass number = 35, atomic # 17

P=+17, e=-17, n= 35-17 =18
mass number = p + n
•​ Isotopes are atoms of the same
element that have different numbers of
neutrons and therefore different mass
numbers

•​ The atomic mass (atomic weight) of an

element is the weighted average mass
in atomic mass units (amu) of an
element’s naturally occurring isotopes
Calculate the average atomic masses for the
following:
Isotope:​ Rel. Abund.​ Rel. Mass
hydrogen-1​ ​ 99.985%​ 1.008
hydrogen-2​ 0.015%​ 2.014

=(99.985%)(1.008)+ (0.015%)(2.014)
=1.0078488+0.000321
Average atomic mass = 1.008 amu
 Principal Quantum number (n)
•​​

main energy level.

st
o n =1-K ( 1 energy level),
nd
on = 2-L(2 energy level),
rd
on = 3-M(3 energy level),
th
on = 4-N(4 energy level).
•​​A sublevel is an energy level defined by
quantum theory. In chemistry, sublevels
refer to energies associated with electrons.
In physics, sublevels may also refer to
energies associated with the nucleus.

•​There are four types of orbitals that you

should be familiar with s, p, d and f
(sharp, principle, diffuse and
fundamental).
•​Angular/azimuthal quantum number ( l ) –
energy sublevel within the main energy level
(n).
▪​ Possible values from 0 up to n – 1(0-s,1-p,2
▪​ Formula ; l = n – 1
Ex. 1) n = 1;l=n-1=1-1=0-s
2)n=2;l=n-1=2-1=1(0-s,1-p
)
3)​n=3;l=n-1=3-1=2(0-s,1-p,2-d)
4)​n=4;l=n-1=4-1=3(0-s,1-p,2-d,3-f)
•​Magnetic quantum numbers (m) –
​

designates the number of orbital within

the energy sublevel ( s, p, d and f).
▪​ Values ……(-2,-1,0,+1,+2). . . .
▪​ Formula m = 2l + 1
Ex. 1) l = 0-s;m=2l+1=2(0)+1=0+1=1
S=1 orbital _↑↓​ = 2e sᶺ2
2) l=1-p; m=2l+1=2(1)+1=2+1=3
p = 3 orbitals _2e 2e 2e=6e
•​Magnetic quantum numbers (m) –
​

designates the number of orbital within

the energy sublevel ( s, p, d and f).
▪​ Values ……(-1,0,+1). . . .
▪​ Formula m = 2l + 1
Ex. 3)l=2-d;m=2l+1=2(2)+1=4+1=5
d-​5 orbitals 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e = 10e
4) l=3-f ; m=2l+1=2(3)+1 = 6+1 =7
f= 7 orbitals 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e 2e = 14e
•​​ Electron spin quantum number (s) electron on each
own axis. Clockwise ↑ and counterclockwise ↓ direction.
•​ ms ↑ = + ½
•​ ms ↓ = - ½
•​ each orbital can accommodate 2e =​ ↑↓=2e
-​Line represent an orbital and the arrows are the electrons
in opposite direction
-​Ex.​ 1) 3d find n and l
2) 4S find n and l
•​Orbitals
are grouped in shells
of increasing size and energy

•​Different
shells contain
different numbers and kinds of
orbitals

•​Eachorbital can be occupied by

two electrons
c Structure: Electron Configurations
•​ Ground-st
a te
electron
configurati
on (lowest
energy
arrangement
) of an atom
lists orbitals
occupied by
its electrons.
1.​Lowest-energy orbitals fill first:
20Ca=1sᶺ2-2sᶺ2-2pᶺ6-3sᶺ2-3pᶺ6 -4sᶺ2
n=4 period 4 ve=2 IIA Ca
•​ 2. Electrons act as if
they were spinning
around an axis.
❖​ Electron spin can have
only two orientations, up ↑
and down ↓.
❖​ Only two electrons can occupy
an orbital, and they must be of
opposite spin (Pauli exclusion
principle) to have unique wave
equations. ↑↓
 Atomic Structure: Electron
Configurations
•​3. If two or more empty orbitals of
equal energy are available, electrons
occupy each with spins parallel until
all orbitals have one electron (Hund's
rule).
•​p – 3 orbitals
•​ p ᶺ 5​ _↑↓_​ _↑↓_ _↑_
px​ py​ pz
c Structure: Electron Configurations
•​ Core electron are the electrons in
the inner shell or energy level
•​ Valence electrons are the
electrons in the outermost shell or
energy level.
•​ ex. Write the electronic
configuration for the ff. element and
determine the valence electron in
each atom.
•​ Ba, Cl , O
c Structure: Electron Configurations
•​
•​
 Elements can achieve a noble gas electron
configuration three ways.

▪​ An element can give up electrons to achieve

the electron configuration of the next lowest
noble gas.
▪​ An element can attract additional electrons
to achieve the electron configuration of the
next highest noble gas.
▪​ Two (or more elements) can share electrons
so that each attains the electron configuration of
the nearest noble gas.
 Seat work ; complete the Table
Symbol Atomic Mass no. #p #n #e
of no.
element
1. Ca 20 40 a) b) c)

2. Br a) 80 35 b) c)

3. Rn a) b) c) 136 86

4) Zr a) 91 b) 51 c)
1.​Ba
2.​ Fe
3.​ Mn
4.​ Mg
5.​ Pb
Involves transfer or sharing of electrons between two atoms.

Ion = an atom or group of atoms which have lost or

gained one or more electrons, making them negatively
or positively charged.
Q: What are positively charged ions (+) called?​

Cation Q: What are negatively charged ions (-) called?​

​ Anion
Sodium atom​ Sodium ion
Na ∙​ – e−​ ⎯⎯→​ Na +

11 p+​ 11 p+
11 e-​ 10 e-
0​ 1+
 unpaired electron(gained) octet
1-
∙ ∙​ ∙ ∙​

: Cl ∙​ : Cl :

∙ ∙​ ∙∙
17 p+​ 17 p+
17 e-​ 18 e-
0​ -1
ionic charge
□Chemical bonds are the forces that hold atom
together. These forces are intimately related to the
arrangement of e in the outermost energy level of
atoms w/c are in combination.
Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds
•​The Ionic Bonding Model – metal and non-
,metal
•​The Covalent Bonding Model-all non-metal
•​Positive valence (cation) the no. of electrons
giving up or lost by an atom.
•​Negative valence (anion) the no electrons take
up or gained by an atom.
•​Non-metal usually take up e, they have ( - )
valence
□​atoms w/c have fewer than 4e in the outermost
configuration tend to give up e, while those
containing more than 4e in the outer configuration
tend to take up e to complete the quota of 8e.
(octet rule)
•​Lewis Electron Dot
structures ( LEDs) show
valence electrons of an
atom as dots
•​Hydrogen has one dot,
representing its 1s
electron
2 2
•​Carbon has four dots (2s 2p )
•​Kekule structures or skeletal
structure (line-bond structures)
have a line drawn between two
atoms indicating a 2 electron
covalent bond.
•​Stable molecule results at
completed shell, octet (eight
dots) for main-group atoms (two
for hydrogen)
 For main group elements -
The A group number gives the number of valence electrons.
Place one dot per valence electron on each of the four sides
of the element symbol.

Pair the dots (electrons) until all of the valence electrons are used.

Ex. N= 1s22s22p3
Nitrogen, N, is in Group 5A and therefore, has 5 valence
electrons.
. . .
. N. .
.
. N:
:N
. .

.N.
I.​ Ionic Bond-Transfer 2.​Na and O
of electrons – metal Na = 1s22s22p63s1 Na
and non-metal O = 1s22s22p4
3.​ Mg and O -2
Ex. 1. Li and F=LiF Li Mg+2 O-2
= 1s22s1 -MgO
Li 4.​ Al and S -
Al2S3 Al S . . . . . .
F = 1s22s22p5 F
..
........
Al​ S . . . . . . . .
•​ S . . . . . . . .
II.​Covalent bond – sharing of electrons
•​Nonmetal with nonmetal:

•​Electron sharing and covalent bonding

▪​ 1 pair of e -​ . . ( - ) single bond
▪​2 pairs of e – (=) double bond
▪​3 pairs of e – (≡) triple bond
•​Steps in writing LED structure of covalent bond
1: Add up the total valence electrons.
2: Determine the central atom. Lowest
electronegativity value (EN) as a
central atom.

Electronegativity is a measure of the

tendency of an atom to attract a
bonding pair of electrons
•​Steps in writing LED structure of covalent bond
3: Place non-central atoms around the
central atom, and connect using lines to
represent the bonds.( sigma bond(σ)– head
on overlap)
4: Distribute remaining electrons
around the non-central atoms for a full
valence shell.
•​Steps in writing LED structure of covalent bond
5.​If the central atom does not follow the
octet rule try multiple bond( double and
triple bond) . ( pi (π) bond – side ways
overlap)
6: Check to make sure all central atoms
have a complete valence shell.
7.​Check the formal charge
•​Valence electrons not used in bonding are called
nonbonding electrons, or lone-pair electrons
•​Nitrogen atom in ammonia (NH3)
•​Shares six valence electrons in three covalent bonds and remaining two
valence electrons are nonbonding lone pair
•​1) H2O

•​ 2) NH3

•​3) CO2

•​4) NO -

•​5)
•​ page 38 and table 1.3 page 37
•​Nonpolar Covalent Bonds: similar electronegativity (
EN difference = 0 to 0.4

•​Polar Covalent Bonds:

•​ Difference in EN of atoms 0.5 to 1.7
•​ Ex. C and O
•​2.5 - 3.5 =1.0
•​Ionic Bonds:
•​Difference in EN > 1.7
•​Ex. Mg and Cl
•​1.2 - 3.0=1.8
•​Formal charge is the charge an atom
would have if the bonding electrons
were shared equally
❖​The best Lewis structure is the one
with the fewest charge.
❖​put a negative charge on the
most electronegative atom
❖​all formal charges are zero is preferred.
FC= # of Ve- ─ # of lone pairs e-​ ─ # of bond
FC= # of Ve- ─ # lone pair e​ ─ # of bond

O= 6 -4- 2 = 0​ O = 6 – 2 – 3= + 1
C = 4 – 0 – 4 = 0​ C=4–0–4=0
O = 6 – 4 – 2 = 0​ O = 6 – 6 – 1 = -1
 Formal Charge
•​ NO -

•​O = 6 – 6 – 1 = -1
•​N = 5 – 2 – 3 = 0
•​O = 6 – 4 - 2 = 0
1. Formal Charge for Dimethyl Sulfoxide

•​ 2.
•​carbon is bonded to representations of
four other atoms (with methane and ethane.
no lone electron pairs), •​
the hybridization is sp3
and the arrangement
is tetrahedral (109.5

⁰).The

tetrahedral arrangement
of atoms around carbon
in the two and
three-dimensional
•​4 single bond​ or 1
lone pair and 3 single
bond.
❖​ The ground state configuration of carbon:

❖​ excited state configuration is;

❖​ The 2s and the 2p subshells are half-filled, the excited

state is relatively stable.
 sp3 Orbitals and the Structure of Methane
•​ Carbon has 4 valence electrons

Ex. CH4, all C–H bonds are identical (tetrahedral)

•​ sp3 hybrid orbitals:

•​ one s orbital and three p orbitals combine to form four

equivalent, unsymmetrical, tetrahedral orbitals (sppp = sp3)
•​ 2 C’s bond to each other by σ bond
(the head on overlap of an sp3 orbital)
•​ 3 sp3 orbitals on each C overlap with H
1s orbitals to form six C–H bonds
•​ Note: all single bond is a σ bond
•​A carbon atom bound to three atoms (two single bonds,
one double bond) is sp2 hybridized and forms a flat trigonal
or triangular arrangement with 120° angles between bonds.
•​2s orbital combines with two 2p orbitals, giving 3
orbitals (spp = sp2). This results in a double
bond. Bonded by a π bond .
•​ π bond by sideways overlap
▪​ sp hybridization which occurs when carbon is bound to two
other atoms (two double bonds or one single + one triple
bond). This hybridization results in a linear arrangement
with an angle of 180° between bonds.
•​ sp orbitals are linear, 180° apart on x-axis
•​Two p orbitals are perpendicular on the y-axis and the z-axis
•​π bond by sideways overlap
•​C-C a triple bond sharing six electrons
•​Carbon 2s orbital hybridizes with a single p orbital giving
two sp hybrids
•​two p orbitals remain unchanged
71
❑​ ​ The side to side overlap in π bonds is less efficient
that for σ bonds ∴ π bonds are weaker than σ bonds.

❑​ ​ For π bonds to exist there must be a second

bond (σ) resulting in a double bond.

❑​ ​ In the case of two π bonds, a triple bond results.

The “first” bond of a multiple bond is always a σ
bond.
 Example
•​1)
structures
•​3)
•​
•​
•​4)
•​2)
•​1) acetic acid
2) Pyridine

•​ 3) Methanol
1)​Aspirin
acetylsalicylic acid)

2)​adenine
(a base found in
DNA and RNA)