Nervous System: Communication System Subdivisions of the PNS:

Functions: A. Sensory Division (Afferent Division)-toward

1. Receiving Sensory Input • Conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to

o Monitors numerous external and internal the CNS through sensory neurons.
environments through sensory receptors.
2. Integrating Information B. Motor Division (Efferent Division)-away
o Brain and spinal cord process information
received from sensory receptors.
• Transmits action potentials from the CNS to effector
3. Controlling Muscles (Voluntary and Involuntary)
and Glands organs (muscles or glands) as a response to stimuli.
o Controls both voluntary and involuntary
muscles as well as glands. b.a Somatic Nervous System
4. Maintaining Homeostasis
o Detects, interprets and responds to changes o Transmits action potentials from the CNS to
in external and internal conditions to skeletal muscles (voluntary control).
maintain equilibrium.
5. Establishing and Maintaining Mental Activity b.b Autonomic Nervous System
o The brain is responsible for consciousness,
memory, analysis, and thinking. o Transmits action potentials from the CNS to
cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and
glands (involuntary control).
o Sympathetic Nervous System: Active
Divisions of the Nervous System: during "fight or flight."
o Parasympathetic Nervous System: Active
during "rest and digest."

Enteric Nervous System: A unique subdivision

with both sensory and motor neurons, managing
the digestive tract.

1. Central Nervous System (CNS):

• Brain: Integrates and processes information from the

peripheral system.
• Spinal Cord: Works similarly, serving as a pathway
for information between the periphery and CNS.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

• Cranial Nerves (8 pairs): Branch from the brain.

• Spinal Nerves (31 pairs): Branch from the spinal
cord.
• Ganglia: Groups of neuron cell bodies found outside
the CNS, which help relay information between the
CNS and body.
Cells of the Nervous System:

1. Neurons

• Neurons are responsible for initiating and conducting

action potentials, transmitting information.

3 Major Parts of a Neuron:

1. Cell Body: Contains a single nucleus and a few

organelles.
2. Dendrites: Short, branching extensions of the cell
body that receive action potentials from other
neurons.
3. Axon: A single process extending from the cell body;
the axon hillock is where the axon leaves the cell
body.

Myelin Sheath:

• A translucent, gel-like insulating layer around the

axon.
• Increases the speed and efficiency of action potential
transmission.
• Gaps in the myelin sheath, known as Nodes of
Ranvier, are where action potentials are generated
and transmitted.

2. Glial Cells (Neuroglia)

• Supportive cells that help neurons function but do not

conduct action potentials.

Peripheral Nervous System Glial Cells:

1. Schwann Cells: Create the myelin sheath for neurons

in the periphery.
2. Satellite Cells: Provide nutrition to neurons in the
peripheral nervous system.

Central Nervous System Glial Cells:

1. Astrocytes: Major supporting cells, maintain the

blood-brain barrier and providing nutrients to the
brain and spinal cord.

• which filters substances entering the brain

from the bloodstream, protecting the brain
from harmful toxins or pathogens.

2. Ependymal Cells: Line the brain’s ventricles and

produce cerebrospinal fluid, which protects the brain
and spinal cord.
3. Microglia: Immune cells that protect the CNS from
pathogens.
4. Oligodendrocytes: Produce the myelin sheath in the
CNS.
 Organization of the Nervous System (CNS)

Gray Matter:

• Composed of groups of neuron cell bodies and

dendrites in the CNS where there is very little or no
myelin sheath.
• Located superficially in the brain.
• In the spinal cord, gray matter is found in the
interior.

White Matter:
Myelin Sheath:
• Composed of bundles of axons covered with myelin
sheaths in the CNS.
• Formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and
Schwann cells in the PNS. • In the brain: White matter is found deeper beneath
the gray matter.
• Insulates the axon and prevents ion movement across
the cell membrane in myelinated areas. • In the spinal cord: White matter is located on the
surface.
• Increases the speed and efficiency of action potentials
by allowing them to jump between nodes of Ranvier,
where the myelin sheath is absent.
 Action Potential (AP)

• AP follows an all-or-none principle: the signal is

either strong enough to trigger an action potential or
not.
• AP is conducted more rapidly in myelinated axons.
• A stimulus must be strong enough for AP to occur;
weak stimuli result in no action potential and no
communication between neurons.

Saltatory Conduction:

• The movement of AP in myelinated neurons where it

"jumps" from one Node of Ranvier to the next.
• This process increases conduction velocity as the
action potential does not travel along the entire
neuron but only between nodes.

Spinal Cord Structure

• Extends from the foramen magnum at the base of

the skull to the L2 vertebra.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Cauda Equina:

• In the PNS, gray and white matter are not arranged • The distal portion of the spinal cord where spinal
based on the presence of myelin sheaths. nerves exiting the lower part resemble a horse's tail.

Key Structures: Cross-Section of Spinal Cord:

• Ganglion (plural: Ganglia): A cluster of neuron cell • Anterior (Ventral) Portion: Motor neurons pass
bodies in the PNS. through.
• Nerves: Bundles of axons and associated connective • Posterior (Dorsal) Portion: Sensory neurons pass
tissue in the PNS. through.

Spinal Nerves

• Spinal nerves arise along the spinal cord from the

union of dorsal roots (sensory nerves) and ventral
roots (motor nerves).
• These nerves exit the vertebral column between
adjacent vertebrae.

31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves:

1. 8 Cervical
2. 12 Thoracic
3. 5 Lumbar
4. 5 Sacral
5. 1 Coccygeal
Dermatome: 3. Interneurons: Connects sensory and motor neurons
(optional, depending on reflex complexity).
• An area of skin supplied with sensory innervation by 4. Motor Neuron: Transmits the signal from the CNS
a pair of spinal nerves. to the effector.
• Helps identify which spinal nerve is damaged based 5. Effector Organ: Muscle or gland that produces the
on sensory loss. response.

Brain

• Brainstem
• Diencephalon
Reflexes • Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
• Involuntary reactions in response to stimuli, applied
to the peripheral nervous system and transmitted to
the CNS.
• Reflexes allow a person to react quickly to stimuli
without conscious thought.

Reflex Arc

• The pathway by which a reflex occurs.

• The basic functional unit of the nervous system,
capable of receiving a stimulus and producing a
response.

Components of a Reflex Arc:

1. Sensory Receptor: Detects the stimulus.

2. Sensory Neuron: Transmits the stimulus to the CNS
via the dorsal portion of the spinal cord.
 ▪ Visual reflexes
▪ Receiving touch and auditory input
▪ Coordinating eye movement
▪ Controlling pupil diameter and lens
shape for focusing
o Contains the substantia nigra, a group of
cells that produce dopamine:
▪ Excess dopamine: Linked to
schizophrenia.
▪ Low dopamine: Linked to
Parkinson's disease.
4. Reticular Formation
o A group of nuclei scattered throughout the
brainstem.
o A major component of the reticular
activating system (RAS):
▪ Involved in arousal and
maintaining consciousness.
▪ Plays a role in regulating the sleep-
wake cycle.

Diencephalon

Brainstem

The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the rest of the brain
and plays a crucial role in regulating vital bodily functions
such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.
Located between the brainstem and the cerebrum, it contains
1. Medulla Oblongata key structures for sensory and autonomic functions.
o Most inferior portion of the brainstem.
o Contains nuclei that regulate: 1. Thalamus
▪ Heart rate o Largest part of the diencephalon.
▪ Blood vessel diameter (blood o Most sensory input (except for smell) passes
pressure control) through the thalamus before reaching the
▪ Initiation of breathing cerebral cortex.
▪ Reflex actions like coughing and o Involved in sensations such as mood,
sneezing general discomfort, and unlocalized pain.
2. Pons 2. Epithalamus
o Located superior to the medulla oblongata. o A small area superior and posterior to the
o Functions include: thalamus.
▪ Breathing regulation o Plays a role in emotional responses to odors.
▪ Swallowing o Contains the pineal gland, which is
▪ Balance involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles and
▪ Chewing and salivation seasonal rhythms.
▪ Plays a role in cycling and 3. Hypothalamus
regulating breathing o Located inferior to the thalamus.
3. Midbrain o Plays a central role in maintaining
o Located superior to the pons, the smallest homeostasis, regulating body temperature,
region of the brainstem. hunger, thirst, and emotional responses such
o Functions include:
 as pleasure, rage, fear, and relaxation after a
meal.
o Controls the autonomic nervous system and 1. Primary Sensory Areas: Regions where sensations
endocrine functions, making it a key are perceived.
regulatory center for various body systems. o Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the
parietal lobe, posterior to the central sulcus.
It processes touch, temperature, and pain
sensations.
Cerebrum (Cerebral Cortex) o Wernicke's Area: Located in the left
hemisphere (parietal and temporal lobes);
essential for understanding and formulating
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, divided into left
coherent speech.
and right hemispheres. It is responsible for higher brain
o Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital
functions such as voluntary movements, perception, reasoning,
lobe, responsible for processing visual
and memory.
information.
o Auditory Cortex: Located in the temporal
• Gyri: Folds on the surface of the cerebral cortex, lobe, responsible for processing sounds.
increasing its surface area. o Taste Cortex: Located in the insula,
• Sulci: Grooves between the gyri. responsible for taste perception.
• Lobes of the Cerebrum: 2. Association Areas: Adjacent to the primary sensory
1. Frontal Lobe: Involved in voluntary motor areas, they are involved in the recognition,
function, decision-making, and planning. interpretation, and further processing of sensory
2. Parietal Lobe: Processes general sensory input.
information such as touch and pressure.
3. Temporal Lobe: Involved in hearing Motor Areas - Frontal Lobe - Cerebral Cortex
(auditory processing) and smell (olfaction).
4. Occipital Lobe: Primarily involved in visual
processing. 1. Motor Cortex
o Controls voluntary movement of skeletal
• Longitudinal Fissure: Divides the left and right
muscles.
hemispheres.
o Located in the posterior portion of the
• Central Sulcus: Separates the frontal and parietal
frontal lobe, anterior to the central sulcus.
lobes of the brain.
2. Premotor Area
o Organizes motor functions before they are
initiated in the primary motor cortex.
o Essential for planning complex movements.
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex 3. Prefrontal Area
o Responsible for motivation, foresight, and
planning of movements.
o Plays a key role in initiating voluntary
actions.
 o Rich in blood vessels.

Ventricles

• Fluid-filled cavities in the CNS that contain

Speech Areas
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
1. Sensory Speech Area (Wernicke's Area)
1. Lateral Ventricles:
o Located in the left parietal lobe.
o Found in each cerebral hemisphere.
o Involved in understanding and formulating
2. Third Ventricle:
coherent speech.
o Smaller, located in the midline of the
o Alcohol can impair this area, affecting
diencephalon.
speech comprehension and production.
3. Fourth Ventricle:
2. Motor Speech Area (Broca's Area)
o Located at the base of the cerebellum and is
o Located in the left frontal lobe.
continuous with the spinal cord.
o Controls the movements necessary for
producing speech.
• Ependymal Cells: Cells lining the ventricles that
produce cerebrospinal fluid.

Commissures

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

• Sensory information received by one hemisphere is
shared with the other through connections between
the two hemispheres known as commissures. • Bathes and cushions the brain and spinal cord.
• Provides nourishment and acts as a protective buffer
against injury.
• Choroid Plexus: Specialized tissue that produces
CSF, made of ependymal cells located in the
Cerebellum
ventricles.
• Arachnoid Granulations: Structures through which
• Attached to the brainstem. CSF passes from the subarachnoid space into the
• Responsible for maintaining balance, muscle tone, blood.
and coordinating fine movements.
• Ensures smooth and coordinated muscle activity.
• Damage to the cerebellum results in uncoordinated
movements, affecting activities such as walking.
Cranial Nerves

• Arise from the brain and are responsible for various

sensory and motor functions.
Meninges
Mnemonic for Cranial Nerves:
Connective tissue membranes that surround and protect the "Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Very Good Vagina, Ah!"
brain and spinal cord.
1. Olfactory (I): Smell.
• Dura Mater: 2. Optic (II): Vision.
o Most superficial and thickest layer. 3. Oculomotor (III): Movement of 4 eye muscles and
o Forms the outermost protective covering. upper eyelid, pupil constriction, and lens thickening.
• Arachnoid Mater: 4. Trochlear (IV): Movement of one eye muscle
o Thin, web-like middle layer located just (superior oblique).
below the dura mater. 5. Trigeminal (V): Sensation to the face and teeth;
o Subarachnoid Space: Found below the controls mastication (chewing).
arachnoid mater, filled with cerebrospinal 6. Abducens (VI): Movement of one eye muscle
fluid (CSF) and contains blood vessels. (lateral rectus).
• Pia Mater: 7. Facial (VII): Taste; facial expression; secretion of
o Innermost, delicate layer that adheres saliva and tears.
closely to the surface of the brain and spinal 8. Vestibulocochlear (VIII): Hearing and balance.
cord.
 9. Glossopharyngeal (IX): Taste; swallowing; saliva
secretion.
10. Vagus (X): Sensory to the pharynx and larynx;
swallowing; thoracic and abdominal sensations.
11. Accessory (XI): Movement of neck and upper back
muscles (trapezius and sternocleidomastoid).
12. Hypoglossal (XII): Movement of the tongue.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Division ("Fight or Flight")

• Prepares the body to respond to threats by increasing

heart rate, dilating airways, and redirecting blood
flow to muscles.
• Includes the adrenal medulla, an extension of the
sympathetic nervous system, which secretes
adrenaline.
• Key functions: Increases alertness, prepares for
physical activity, inhibits non-essential functions
(e.g., digestion).

Parasympathetic Division ("Rest and Digest")

• Regulates involuntary activities consistent with

resting conditions such as digestion, defecation, and
urination.
• Nerves originate from the brain and sacral region of
the spinal cord.
• Uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter to
stimulate smooth muscle activity and conserve
energy.
• Works in opposition to the sympathetic division (e.g.,
slows heart rate).

Effects of Aging on the Nervous System

• Sensory Function: Decreases due to the loss of

sensory neurons.
o This can lead tao a decreased ability to
detect skin injuries.
• Motor Function: Reduced due to the loss of motor
neurons, leading to decreased muscle mass.
• Reflexes: Slower as aging progresses.
• Brain Size: Decreases in size and weight.
• Memory:
o Short-term memory: Declines with age.
o Long-term memory: Generally unaffected.
• Sleep Patterns: Older adults require more time to fall
asleep and often experience more frequent waking
during the night.