Nervous System: Communication System Subdivisions of the PNS:

Functions: A. Sensory Division (Afferent Division)-toward

1. Receiving Sensory Input  Conducts action potentials from sensory receptors to

o Monitors numerous external and internal the CNS through sensory neurons.
environments through sensory receptors.
2. Integrating Information B. Motor Division (Efferent Division)-away
o Brain and spinal cord process information
received from sensory receptors.  Transmits action potentials from the CNS to effector
3. Controlling Muscles (Voluntary and Involuntary) organs (muscles or glands) as a response to stimuli.
and Glands
o Controls both voluntary and involuntary
b.a Somatic Nervous System
muscles as well as glands.
4. Maintaining Homeostasis
o Detects, interprets and responds to changes o Transmits action potentials from the CNS to
in external and internal conditions to skeletal muscles (voluntary control).
maintain equilibrium.
5. Establishing and Maintaining Mental Activity b.b Autonomic Nervous System
o The brain is responsible for consciousness,
memory, analysis, and thinking. o Transmits action potentials from the CNS to
cardiac muscles, smooth muscles, and
glands (involuntary control).
o Sympathetic Nervous System: Active
during "fight or flight."
Divisions of the Nervous System:
o Parasympathetic Nervous System: Active
during "rest and digest."

Enteric Nervous System: A unique subdivision

with both sensory and motor neurons, managing
the digestive tract.

1. Central Nervous System (CNS):

 Brain: Integrates and processes information from the

peripheral system.
 Spinal Cord: Works similarly, serving as a pathway
for information between the periphery and CNS.

2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):

 Cranial Nerves (8 pairs): Branch from the brain.

 Spinal Nerves (31 pairs): Branch from the spinal
cord.
 Ganglia: Groups of neuron cell bodies found outside
the CNS, which help relay information between the
CNS and body.
Cells of the Nervous System:

1. Neurons

 Neurons are responsible for initiating and conducting

action potentials, transmitting information.

3 Major Parts of a Neuron:

1. Cell Body: Contains a single nucleus and a few

organelles.
2. Dendrites: Short, branching extensions of the cell
body that receive action potentials from other
neurons.
3. Axon: A single process extending from the cell body;
the axon hillock is where the axon leaves the cell
body.

Myelin Sheath:

 A translucent, gel-like insulating layer around the

axon.
 Increases the speed and efficiency of action potential
transmission.
 Gaps in the myelin sheath, known as Nodes of
Ranvier, are where action potentials are generated
and transmitted.

2. Glial Cells (Neuroglia)

 Supportive cells that help neurons function but do not

conduct action potentials.

Peripheral Nervous System Glial Cells:

1. Schwann Cells: Create the myelin sheath for neurons

in the periphery.
2. Satellite Cells: Provide nutrition to neurons in the
peripheral nervous system.

Central Nervous System Glial Cells:

1. Astrocytes: Major supporting cells, maintain the

blood-brain barrier and providing nutrients to the
brain and spinal cord.

 which filters substances entering the brain

from the bloodstream, protecting the brain
from harmful toxins or pathogens.

2. Ependymal Cells: Line the brain’s ventricles and

produce cerebrospinal fluid, which protects the brain
and spinal cord.
3. Microglia: Immune cells that protect the CNS from
pathogens.
4. Oligodendrocytes: Produce the myelin sheath in the
CNS.
 Organization of the Nervous System (CNS)

Gray Matter:

 Composed of groups of neuron cell bodies and

dendrites in the CNS where there is very little or no
myelin sheath.
 Located superficially in the brain.
 In the spinal cord, gray matter is found in the
interior.

White Matter:

Myelin Sheath:  Composed of bundles of axons covered with myelin

sheaths in the CNS.
 Formed by oligodendrocytes in the CNS and  In the brain: White matter is found deeper beneath
Schwann cells in the PNS. the gray matter.
 Insulates the axon and prevents ion movement across  In the spinal cord: White matter is located on the
the cell membrane in myelinated areas. surface.
 Increases the speed and efficiency of action potentials
by allowing them to jump between nodes of Ranvier,
where the myelin sheath is absent.
 Action Potential (AP)

 AP follows an all-or-none principle: the signal is

either strong enough to trigger an action potential or
not.
 AP is conducted more rapidly in myelinated axons.
 A stimulus must be strong enough for AP to occur;
weak stimuli result in no action potential and no
communication between neurons.

Saltatory Conduction:

 The movement of AP in myelinated neurons where it

"jumps" from one Node of Ranvier to the next.
 This process increases conduction velocity as the
action potential does not travel along the entire
neuron but only between nodes.

Spinal Cord Structure

 Extends from the foramen magnum at the base of

the skull to the L2 vertebra.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Cauda Equina:
 In the PNS, gray and white matter are not arranged
based on the presence of myelin sheaths.  The distal portion of the spinal cord where spinal
nerves exiting the lower part resemble a horse's tail.
Key Structures:
Cross-Section of Spinal Cord:
 Ganglion (plural: Ganglia): A cluster of neuron cell
bodies in the PNS.  Anterior (Ventral) Portion: Motor neurons pass
 Nerves: Bundles of axons and associated connective through.
tissue in the PNS.  Posterior (Dorsal) Portion: Sensory neurons pass
through.

Spinal Nerves

 Spinal nerves arise along the spinal cord from the

union of dorsal roots (sensory nerves) and ventral
roots (motor nerves).
 These nerves exit the vertebral column between
adjacent vertebrae.

31 Pairs of Spinal Nerves:

1. 8 Cervical
2. 12 Thoracic
3. 5 Lumbar
4. 5 Sacral
5. 1 Coccygeal
 2. Sensory Neuron: Transmits the stimulus to the CNS
via the dorsal portion of the spinal cord.
Dermatome: 3. Interneurons: Connects sensory and motor neurons
(optional, depending on reflex complexity).
 An area of skin supplied with sensory innervation by 4. Motor Neuron: Transmits the signal from the CNS
a pair of spinal nerves. to the effector.
 Helps identify which spinal nerve is damaged based 5. Effector Organ: Muscle or gland that produces the
on sensory loss. response.

Brain

 Brainstem
 Diencephalon
 Cerebrum
Reflexes  Cerebellum

 Involuntary reactions in response to stimuli, applied

to the peripheral nervous system and transmitted to
the CNS.
 Reflexes allow a person to react quickly to stimuli
without conscious thought.

Reflex Arc

 The pathway by which a reflex occurs.

 The basic functional unit of the nervous system,
capable of receiving a stimulus and producing a
response.

Components of a Reflex Arc:

1. Sensory Receptor: Detects the stimulus.

  Visual reflexes
 Receiving touch and auditory input
 Coordinating eye movement
 Controlling pupil diameter and lens
shape for focusing
o Contains the substantia nigra, a group of
cells that produce dopamine:
 Excess dopamine: Linked to
schizophrenia.
 Low dopamine: Linked to
Parkinson's disease.
4. Reticular Formation
o A group of nuclei scattered throughout the
brainstem.
o A major component of the reticular
activating system (RAS):
 Involved in arousal and
maintaining consciousness.
 Plays a role in regulating the sleep-
wake cycle.

Diencephalon

Brainstem

The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the rest of the brain
and plays a crucial role in regulating vital bodily functions
such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing.

1. Medulla Oblongata Located between the brainstem and the cerebrum, it contains
o Most inferior portion of the brainstem. key structures for sensory and autonomic functions.
o Contains nuclei that regulate:
 Heart rate 1. Thalamus
 Blood vessel diameter (blood o Largest part of the diencephalon.
pressure control) o Most sensory input (except for smell) passes
 Initiation of breathing through the thalamus before reaching the
 Reflex actions like coughing and cerebral cortex.
sneezing o Involved in sensations such as mood,
2. Pons general discomfort, and unlocalized pain.
o Located superior to the medulla oblongata. 2. Epithalamus
o Functions include: o A small area superior and posterior to the
 Breathing regulation thalamus.
 Swallowing o Plays a role in emotional responses to odors.
 Balance o Contains the pineal gland, which is
 Chewing and salivation involved in regulating sleep-wake cycles and
 Plays a role in cycling and seasonal rhythms.
regulating breathing 3. Hypothalamus
3. Midbrain o Located inferior to the thalamus.
o Located superior to the pons, the smallest o Plays a central role in maintaining
region of the brainstem. homeostasis, regulating body temperature,
o Functions include: hunger, thirst, and emotional responses such
 as pleasure, rage, fear, and relaxation after a
meal.
o Controls the autonomic nervous system and 1. Primary Sensory Areas: Regions where sensations
endocrine functions, making it a key are perceived.
regulatory center for various body systems. o Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the
parietal lobe, posterior to the central sulcus.
It processes touch, temperature, and pain
sensations.
Cerebrum (Cerebral Cortex) o Wernicke's Area: Located in the left
hemisphere (parietal and temporal lobes);
essential for understanding and formulating
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, divided into left
coherent speech.
and right hemispheres. It is responsible for higher brain
o Visual Cortex: Located in the occipital
functions such as voluntary movements, perception, reasoning,
lobe, responsible for processing visual
and memory.
information.
o Auditory Cortex: Located in the temporal
 Gyri: Folds on the surface of the cerebral cortex, lobe, responsible for processing sounds.
increasing its surface area. o Taste Cortex: Located in the insula,
 Sulci: Grooves between the gyri.
responsible for taste perception.
 Lobes of the Cerebrum:
2. Association Areas: Adjacent to the primary sensory
1. Frontal Lobe: Involved in voluntary motor
areas, they are involved in the recognition,
function, decision-making, and planning.
interpretation, and further processing of sensory
2. Parietal Lobe: Processes general sensory
input.
information such as touch and pressure.
3. Temporal Lobe: Involved in hearing
(auditory processing) and smell (olfaction). Motor Areas - Frontal Lobe - Cerebral Cortex
4. Occipital Lobe: Primarily involved in visual
processing. 1. Motor Cortex
 Longitudinal Fissure: Divides the left and right o Controls voluntary movement of skeletal
hemispheres. muscles.
 Central Sulcus: Separates the frontal and parietal o Located in the posterior portion of the
lobes of the brain. frontal lobe, anterior to the central sulcus.
2. Premotor Area
o Organizes motor functions before they are
initiated in the primary motor cortex.
o Essential for planning complex movements.
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
3. Prefrontal Area
o Responsible for motivation, foresight, and
planning of movements.
o Plays a key role in initiating voluntary
actions.
 o Innermost, delicate layer that adheres
closely to the surface of the brain and spinal
cord.
o Rich in blood vessels.

Ventricles
Speech Areas
 Fluid-filled cavities in the CNS that contain
1. Sensory Speech Area (Wernicke's Area) cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
o Located in the left parietal lobe.
o Involved in understanding and formulating
1. Lateral Ventricles:
coherent speech. o Found in each cerebral hemisphere.
o Alcohol can impair this area, affecting
2. Third Ventricle:
speech comprehension and production. o Smaller, located in the midline of the
2. Motor Speech Area (Broca's Area)
diencephalon.
o Located in the left frontal lobe.
3. Fourth Ventricle:
o Controls the movements necessary for o Located at the base of the cerebellum and is
producing speech. continuous with the spinal cord.

 Ependymal Cells: Cells lining the ventricles that

produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Commissures

 Sensory information received by one hemisphere is

shared with the other through connections between Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)
the two hemispheres known as commissures.
 Bathes and cushions the brain and spinal cord.
 Provides nourishment and acts as a protective buffer
against injury.
Cerebellum  Choroid Plexus: Specialized tissue that produces
CSF, made of ependymal cells located in the
 Attached to the brainstem. ventricles.
 Responsible for maintaining balance, muscle tone,  Arachnoid Granulations: Structures through which
and coordinating fine movements. CSF passes from the subarachnoid space into the
 Ensures smooth and coordinated muscle activity. blood.
 Damage to the cerebellum results in uncoordinated
movements, affecting activities such as walking.

Cranial Nerves

Meninges  Arise from the brain and are responsible for various
sensory and motor functions.
Connective tissue membranes that surround and protect the
brain and spinal cord. Mnemonic for Cranial Nerves:
"Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Very Good Vagina, Ah!"
 Dura Mater:
o Most superficial and thickest layer. 1. Olfactory (I): Smell.
o Forms the outermost protective covering. 2. Optic (II): Vision.
 Arachnoid Mater: 3. Oculomotor (III): Movement of 4 eye muscles and
o Thin, web-like middle layer located just upper eyelid, pupil constriction, and lens thickening.
below the dura mater. 4. Trochlear (IV): Movement of one eye muscle
o Subarachnoid Space: Found below the (superior oblique).
arachnoid mater, filled with cerebrospinal 5. Trigeminal (V): Sensation to the face and teeth;
fluid (CSF) and contains blood vessels. controls mastication (chewing).
 Pia Mater: 6. Abducens (VI): Movement of one eye muscle
(lateral rectus).
 7. Facial (VII): Taste; facial expression; secretion of
saliva and tears.
8. Vestibulocochlear (VIII): Hearing and balance.
9. Glossopharyngeal (IX): Taste; swallowing; saliva
secretion.
10. Vagus (X): Sensory to the pharynx and larynx;
swallowing; thoracic and abdominal sensations.
11. Accessory (XI): Movement of neck and upper back
muscles (trapezius and sternocleidomastoid).
12. Hypoglossal (XII): Movement of the tongue.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Sympathetic Division ("Fight or Flight")

 Prepares the body to respond to threats by increasing

heart rate, dilating airways, and redirecting blood
flow to muscles.
 Includes the adrenal medulla, an extension of the
sympathetic nervous system, which secretes
adrenaline.
 Key functions: Increases alertness, prepares for
physical activity, inhibits non-essential functions
(e.g., digestion).

Parasympathetic Division ("Rest and Digest")

 Regulates involuntary activities consistent with

resting conditions such as digestion, defecation, and
urination.
 Nerves originate from the brain and sacral region of
the spinal cord.
 Uses acetylcholine as its neurotransmitter to
stimulate smooth muscle activity and conserve
energy.
 Works in opposition to the sympathetic division (e.g.,
slows heart rate).

Effects of Aging on the Nervous System

 Sensory Function: Decreases due to the loss of

sensory neurons.
o This can lead tao a decreased ability to
detect skin injuries.
 Motor Function: Reduced due to the loss of motor
neurons, leading to decreased muscle mass.
 Reflexes: Slower as aging progresses.
 Brain Size: Decreases in size and weight.
 Memory:
o Short-term memory: Declines with age.
o Long-term memory: Generally unaffected.
 Sleep Patterns: Older adults require more time to fall
asleep and often experience more frequent waking
during the night.