Geographic Information System 2-2 Spatial Data Models

2.1 Database Structures

Database in GIS:
A database is a collection of related information that permits the entry, storage, input, output
and organization of data. A database management system (DBMS) serves as an interface between
users and their database.
A spatial database includes location. It has geometry as points, lines and polygons.
GIS combines spatial data from many sources with many different people. Databases connect
users to the GIS database.
For example, a city might have the waste water division, land records, transportation and fire
departments connected and using datasets from common spatial databases.
The database structure is the collection of record type and field type definitions that comprise
your database:
 Record Types: These define the type of entities or research objects you wish to capture
(e.g. Person).
 Fields: These are the properties or attributes that describe your record types
(e.g. Gender, Age, Height etc.).
Collectively, these define the information or data that can be stored in any record of that type.

2.2 Data Structure Models (Structures of Databases)

 Data models are the conceptual models that describe the structures of databases.
 Structure of a database is defined by the data types, the constraints and the relationships for
the description or storage of data.
Following are the most often used data models:
 Relational Model
 Object oriented Model
 ER Diagram

2.2.1 Relational Model

The relational data model was introduced by Codd in 1970. The relational database relates or
connects data in different files through the use of a common field. A flat file structure is used with
a relational database model. In this arrangement, data is stored in different tables made up of rows
and columns. The columns of a table are named by attributes. Each row in the table is called a

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tuple and represents a basic fact. No two rows of the same table may have identical values in all
columns.
There are two crucial data integrity constraints viz. primary key and foreign key. A primary key
is an attribute whose value is unique across all tuples (rows) in a relation (table). The primary key
of one table appearing as an attribute of another table is known as a foreign key in that table.

Fig. 2.2.1 Relational Data Model

[Link] Relational Model Concepts

 Attribute: Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which define a relation.
e.g., Student_Rollno, NAME,etc.
 Tables – In the Relational model the, relations are saved in the table format. It is stored
along with its entities. A table has two properties rows and columns. Rows represent records
and columns represent attributes.
 Tuple – It is nothing but a single row of a table, which contains a single record.
 Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with its attributes.
 Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the degree of the
relation.
 Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
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 Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
 Relation instance – Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS system.
Relation instances never have duplicate tuples.
 Relation key - Every row has one, two or multiple attributes, which is called relation key.
 Attribute domain – Every attribute has some pre-defined value and scope which is known
as attribute domain.

[Link] Operations in Relational Model

Four basic update operations performed on relational database model are
Insert, update, delete and select.
 Insert is used to insert data into the relation
 Delete is used to delete tuples from the table.
 Modify allows you to change the values of some attributes in existing tuples.
 Select allows you to choose a specific range of data.
Whenever one of these operations are applied, integrity constraints specified on the relational
database schema must never be violated.

[Link] Relational Integrity Constraints

Relational Integrity constraints are referred to conditions which must be present for a valid
relation. These integrity constraints are derived from the rules in the mini-world that the database
represents.
There are many types of integrity constraints. Constraints on the Relational database
management system are mostly divided into three main categories are:
 Domain constraints- Domain constraints specify that within each tuple, and the value of
each attribute must be unique. This is specified as data types which include standard data
types integers, real numbers,
 Key constraints- An attribute that can uniquely identify a tuple in a relation is called the
key of the table. The value of the attribute for different tuples in the relation has to be
unique.
 Referential integrity constraints- is base on the concept of Foreign Keys. A foreign key is
an important attribute of a relation which should be referred to in other relationships.

Advantages of using Relational model

 Simplicity: A relational data model is simpler than the hierarchical and network model.
 Structural Independence: The relational database is only concerned with data and not with

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a structure. This can improve the performance of the model.

 Easy to use: The relational model is easy as tables consisting of rows and columns is quite
natural and simple to understand.
 Query capability: It makes possible for a high-level query language like SQL to avoid
complex database navigation.
 Data independence: The structure of a database can be changed without having to change
any application.
 Scalable: Regarding a number of records, or rows, and the number of fields, a database
should be enlarged to enhance its usability.

Disadvantages of using Relational model

 Few relational databases have limits on field lengths which can't be exceeded.
 Relational databases can sometimes become complex as the amount of data grows, and the
relations between pieces of data become more complicated.
 Complex relational database systems may lead to isolated databases where the information
cannot be shared from one system to another

2.2.2 Object Oriented Model

This data model is another method of representing real world objects. It considers each object
in the world as objects and isolates it from each other. It groups its related functionalities together
and allows inheriting its functionality to other related sub-groups.

Elements of Object oriented data model

 Objects
The real world entities and situations are represented as objects in the Object oriented
database model.
 Attributes and Method
Every object has certain characteristics. These are represented using Attributes. The
behaviour of the objects is represented using Methods.
 Class
Similar attributes and methods are grouped together using a class. An object can be called as
an instance of the class.
 Inheritance
A new class can be derived from the original class.
The derived class contains attributes and methods of the original class as well as its own.

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For an example consider an Employee database to understand this model better. In this database
we have different types of employees – Engineer, Accountant, Manager, Clerk. But all these
employees belong to Person group. Person can have different attributes like name, address, age and
phone.

Fig. 2.2.2 Object oriented model

Advantages
 Because of its inheritance property, we can re-use the attributes and functionalities. It
reduces the cost of maintaining the same data multiple times. Also, these informations are
encapsulated and, there is no fear being misused by other objects. If we need any new
feature we can easily add new class inherited from parent class and adds new features.
Hence it reduces the overhead and maintenance costs.
 Because of the above feature, it becomes more flexible in the case of any changes.
 Codes are re-used because of inheritance.
 Since each class binds its attributes and its functionality, it is same as representing the real
world object. We can see each object as a real entity. Hence it is more understandable.

Disadvantages
 It is not widely developed and complete to use it in the database systems. Hence it is not

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accepted by the users.

 It is an approach for solving the requirement. It is not a technology. Hence it fails to put it in
the database management systems.

2.2.3 Entity-Relationship Model

Entity-Relationship (ER) Model is based on the notion of real-world entities and relationships
among them. While formulating real-world scenario into the database model, the ER Model creates
entity set, relationship set, general attributes and constraints.
ER Model is best used for the conceptual design of a database.
ER Model is based on −
Entities and their attributes.
Relationships among entities.
These concepts are explained below.

Fig. 2.2.3 ER Diagram

 Entity − An entity in an ER Model is a real-world entity having properties called attributes.

Every attribute is defined by its set of values called domain. For example, in a school
database, a student is considered as an entity. Student has various attributes like name, age,
class, etc.
 Relationship − The logical association among entities is called relationship. Relationships
are mapped with entities in various ways. Mapping cardinalities define the number of
association between two entities.

Mapping cardinalities
1. one to one 2. one to many
3. many to one 4. many to many

Attributes
Entities are represented by means of their properties, called attributes. All attributes have
values. For example, a student entity may have name, class, and age as attributes.

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There exists a domain or range of values that can be assigned to attributes. For example, a
student's name cannot be a numeric value. It has to be alphabetic. A student's age cannot be
negative, etc.

Types of Attributes
 Simple attribute − Simple attributes are atomic values, which cannot be divided further. For
example, a student's phone number is an atomic value of 10 digits.
 Composite attribute − Composite attributes are made of more than one simple attribute.
For example, a student's complete name may have first_name and last_name.
 Derived attribute − Derived attributes are the attributes that do not exist in the physical
database, but their values are derived from other attributes present in the database. For
example, average_salary in a department should not be saved directly in the database,
instead it can be derived. For another example, age can be derived from data_of_birth.
 Single-value attribute − Single-value attributes contain single value. For example −
Social_Security_Number.
 Multi-value attribute − Multi-value attributes may contain more than one values. For
example, a person can have more than one phone number, email_address, etc.
 In the below diagram, Entities or real world objects are represented in a rectangular box.
Their attributes are represented in ovals. Primary keys of entities are underlined. All the
entities are mapped using diamonds. This is one of the methods of representing ER model.
There are many different forms of representation.

Fig. 2.2.4 Example - ER diagram

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Basically, ER model is a graphical representation of real world objects with their attributes and
relationship. It makes the system easily understandable. This model is considered as a top down
approach of designing a requirement.

Advantages
 It makes the requirement simple and easily understandable by representing simple diagrams.
 One can covert ER diagrams into record based data model easily.
 Easy to understand ER diagrams

Disadvantages
 No standard notations are available for ER diagram. There is great flexibility in the notation.
It’s all depends upon the designer, how he draws it.
 It is meant for high level designs. We cannot simplify for low level design like coding.

2.3 Spatial Data Models

Spatial data refers to the data or information that describes the absolute or relative location of
geographic features on the earth. The non spatial data or the attribute data on the other hand
describes the characteristics of the spatial features. These characteristics can be quantitative or
qualitative.

2.3.1 Representation of Space

Burrough & McDonnell (1998) described two ways to represent the space (an area, landscape
or some bigger unit), which are as follows:
a) Discrete Entities: The space could be seen as occupied with entities that are described by
their properties and can be located on earth using coordinate systems. The entities have a
clear boundary.
Buildings, roads, land parcels etc. are the example of discrete entities.
b) Continuous fields: The variation of an attribute over the space as a continuous field. No
physical boundary can ever be observed in such case.
Temperature, pressure, elevation etc. across an area are the examples of continuous fields
The term spatial data model is used to describe, how geographical data are organized within a
GIS in order to represent real world phenomena.

2.3.2 Data Models

 A data model is a description or view of the real world.
 Data modeling is a process that formalizes the description or view at different levels of data
abstraction.

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 Since, the real world is made up of complex spatial objects and phenomena, it is practically
impossible for a single data model to represent everything that is present.
 This means that different users may have different data models when they attempt to collect
data in the same location.

GIS uses one of two spatial data models

a) Raster data model

 It divides the study area into cells, usually rectangular grid cells.
 It is location based because emphasis is placed upon the location of each cell relative to
other cells.
 It is frequently used to model field data.
 They correspond to regularly spaced points on a continuous surface.

b) Vector data model

 It is used to represent discrete phenomena, represented by geometric primitives ( point, line
and polygon).
 It is object – based.
 3D (TIN) Triangular irregular Network.
Data models are conceptual models of the real world. These describe us the representation and
storage of the geographic data. The data models used in GIS are described below:

[Link] Vector Data Model

The vector data model is closely linked with the discrete object view. In vector data model,
geographical phenomena are represented in three different forms;-point, line and polygon. The
shape of a spatial entity is stored using two-dimensional (x, y) coordinate system.
Point : A location depicted by a single set of (x, y) coordinates at the scale of abstraction.
The wells in a village, electricity poles in a town and cities in the world map are the examples
of spatial features described by points
Note : A city can be marked as a single point on a world map but would be marked as a
polygon on a state map. The scale plays an important role in deciding the geometry of a
geographical feature.

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Fig. 2.3.1 Vector data model

Line/Arc : Ordered sets of (x, y) coordinate pairs arranged to form a linear feature. The curves
in a linear feature are generated by increasing the density of points/vertices.
The roads, rails and telephone cables are the examples of the spatial features described by lines.
Polygon : The set of (x, y) coordinate pairs enclosing a homogeneous area
The land parcels, agricultural farms and water bodies are the examples of the spatial features
described by polygons.

[Link] Raster Data Model

The raster data model is commonly associated with the field conceptual model. Here,
geographic space is represented by array of cells or pixels (aka picture elements) which are
arranged in rows and columns. Each pixel has a value that represents information. The value can be
in the form of integer, floating points or alphanumeric.
A point can be represented by a single pixel in raster model. A line is a chain of spatially
connected cells with the same value. Similarly, a water body in raster data is represented as a set of
contiguous pixels having same value that represents a homogeneous area.

Fig. 2.3.2 Raster data model

Comparison between Vector and Raster Data Models

Data Advantages Disadvantages

Model
Simple data structure Cell size determines the resolution at which
the data is represented

Compatible with remote sensing or Requires a lot of storage space

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scanned data

Raster Spatial analysis is easier Projection transformations are time

consuming

Simulation is easy because each unit has Network linkages are difficult to establish
the same size and shape

Data is represented at its original The location of each vertex is to be stored

resolution and form without explicitly
generalization

Require less storage space Overlay based on criteria is difficult

Vector
Editing is faster and convenient Spatial analysis is cumbersome

Network analysis is fast Simulation is difficult because each unit has

a different topological form

Projection transformations are easier

2.4 Raster Data Structure

In a simple raster data structure the geographical entities are stored in a matrix of rectangular
cells. A code is given to each cell which informs users which entity is present in which cell.
The simplest way of encoding a raster data into computers can be understood as follows:
 Entity model
 Pixel values
 File structure

a) Entity model :

Fig. 2.4.1 Entity model

 It represents the whole raster data.

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 Let us assume that the raster data belongs to an area where land is surrounded by water.
 Here a particular entity (land) is shown in SHADED color and the area where land is not
present is shown by white.

b) Pixel values :
 The pixel value for the full image is shown.
 Cells having a part of the land are encoded as 1 and others where land is not present are
encoded as 0.

Fig. 2.4.2 Pixel values

(c) File structure:

 It demonstrates the method of coding raster data.
 The first row of the file structure data tells that there are 5 rows and 5 columns in the image,
and 1 is the maximum pixel value.
 The subsequent rows have cells with value as either 0 or 1 (similar to pixel values).

Fig. 2.4.3 File structure

 The huge size of the data is a major problem with raster data.
 An image consisting of twenty different land-use classes takes the same storage space as a
similar raster map showing the location of a single forest.

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 To address this problem many data compaction (Compression) methods have been
developed.

2.5 Raster Data Compression

 Data compression is the process of modifying, encoding or converting the bits structure of
data in such a way that it consumes less space on disk.
 It enables reducing the storage size of one or more data instances or elements. Data
compression is also known as source coding or bit-rate reduction.
 Data compression enables sending a data object or file quickly over a network or the Internet
and in optimizing physical storage resources.
 Data compression has wide implementation in computing services and solutions, specifically
data communications. Data compression works through several compressing techniques and
software solutions that utilize data compression algorithms to reduce the data size.
A common data compression technique removes and replaces repetitive data elements and
symbols to reduce the data size. Data compression for graphical data can be lossless compression
or lossy compression, where the former saves all replaces but save all repetitive data and the latter
deletes all repetitive data.

Compression techniques
 Run length encoding
 Block encoding
 Chain encoding
 Quadtree

2.5.1 Run Length Coding (Lossless)

 Geographical data tends to be "spatially autocorrelated", meaning that objects which are
close to each other tend to have similar attributes:
 "All things are related, but nearby things are more related than distant things"
(Tobler 1970) Because of this principle, we expect neighboring pixels to have similar values.
Therefore, instead of repeating pixel values, we can code the raster as pairs of numbers -
(run length, value).
 The run length coding is a widely used compression technique for raster data. The primary
data elements are pairs of values or tuples, consisting of a pixel value and a repetition count
which specifies the number of pixels in the run. Data are built by reading successively row
by row through the raster, creating a new tuple every time the pixel value changes or the end
of the row is reached. Describes the interior of an area by run-lengths, instead of the
boundary.

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 In the example , the first row is blank and is stored as (0,8). This means there are 8 cells and
they are all zeros. In the second row, there are 4 consecutive zeros so it gets a value of (0,4).
After this, we have three consecutive cells with the value 1 so it gets a value of (1,3). This
continues until it reaches the bottom-right cell.

Fig. 2.5.1 Example for Run length coding

2.5.2 Block Coding-Grouping Blocks of Data

 The block coding raster storage technique assigns areas that are blocks to reduce
redundancy.
 The block coding raster image compression method subdivides an entire raster image
into hierarchical blocks. It’s an extension of the run length encoding technique, but extends
it to two dimensions.
In the example :
Instead of storing 64 grid cells, all it takes is just 7 blocks. Using block coding, it requires one
3×3 block, two 2×2 blocks and four 1×1 cell blocks to encode this raster image.
In this block coding example, the top-left corner is used as a reference for each block.

Fig. 2.5.2 Example for Block coding

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2.5.3 Chain Coding (Freeman Coding)-Defining the Exterior Boundary

 Chain coding defines the outer boundary using relative positions from a start point. The
sequence of the exterior is stored where the endpoint finishes at the start point.
 During the encoding, the direction is stored as an integer. However, in this example we use
cardinal directions for simplicity. For example, the value 0 is north and 1 is east, 2 is south,
3 is west
 In the example, we start at position (5,2). From here we define the border using cardinal
directions and number of movements. We move east 3 positions until we hit the edge. At
this location, we move south 4 positions. This process continues until the end point hits the
start point.
Note : Only for the purpose of this exercise, we used north, east, south and west as alphabetical
values. When encoded, it is a numerical value.

Fig 2.5.3 Example for chain coding

2.5.4 Quadtree Encoding - Subdividing Data into Quarters

 Quadtrees are raster data structures based on the successive reduction of homogeneous cells.
It recursively subdivides a raster image into quarters. The subdivision process continues
until each cell is classed.
 It reduces raster storage requirements. It also is dependent on the complexity of the feature
and the resolution of the smallest grid cell.
 In the example, the top-left and bottom-right 8×8 grids do not need to be subdivided further
because they are homogeneous. The top-right 8×8 grid is subdivided into three 4×4 grid. The
remaining 4×4 grid is separated into 4 individual classes.

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Fig. 2.5.4 Example for quadtree coding

2.5.5 Image Compression Reduces File size

 GIS data is abundant. With satellites acquiring images each day, raster data is the spatial
model of choice.
 Deploying efficient raster image compression techniques means reducing storage space. This
is the primary benefit of compressing your data.
 It can save money and time. You can also improve your network performance because you
are working with a reduced amount of data.

2.6 Vector Data Structure

 Geographic entities encoded using the vector data model, are called features. The features
can be divided into two classes:

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a. Simple features
 These are easy to create, store and are rendered on screen very quickly.
 They lack connectivity relationships and so are inefficient for modeling phenomena
conceptualized as fields.
This is also called Feature data. Shapefiles are ArcView's native file format for geographic
features and attribute data. ArcView can also display Arc/Info Coverages, which comprises a
more complex representation of vector data. Vector comprise the following:
 Point - a pair of x and y coordinates.
 Line - a sequence of points
 Polygon - a closed set of lines
Attribute information is stored in Feature Tables.
Point entities : These represent all geographical entities that are positioned by a single XY
coordinate pair. Along with the XY coordinates the point must store other information such as
what does the point represent etc.
Line entities : Linear features made by tracing two or more XY coordinate pair.
 Simple line: It requires a start and an end point.
 Arc: A set of XY coordinate pairs describing a continuous complex line. The shorter the line
segment and the higher the number of coordinate pairs, the closer the chain approximates a
complex curve.
Simple Polygons : Enclosed structures formed by joining set of XY coordinate pairs. The
structure is simple but it carries few disadvantages which are mentioned below:
 Lines between adjacent polygons must be digitized and stored twice, improper digitization
give rise to slivers and gaps
 Convey no information about neighbor
 Creating islands is not possible

b. Topological features
 A topology is a mathematical procedure that describes how features are spatially related and
ensures data quality of the spatial relationships.
 Topological relationships include following three basic elements:
I. Connectivity : Information about linkages among spatial objects
II. Contiguity : Information about neighbouring spatial object
III. Containment : Information about inclusion of one spatial object within another spatial
object

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Connectivity- Information about linkages among spatial objects

 Arc node topology defines connectivity
 arcs are connected to each other if they share a common node.
 This is the basis for many network tracing and path finding operations.
 Arcs represent linear features and the borders of area features.
 Every arc has a from-node which is the first vertex in the arc and a to-node which is the last
vertex.
 These two nodes define the direction of the arc.
 Nodes indicate the endpoints and intersections of arcs.
 They do not exist independently and therefore cannot be added or deleted except by adding
and deleting arcs.

Fig. 2.6.1 Arc-node Topology

 Nodes can be used to represent point features which connect

segments of a linear feature.
 (e.g., intersections connecting street segments, valves
connecting pipe segments).
 Arc-node topology is supported through an arc-node list.
 For each arc in the list there is a from node and a to node.
Fig. 2.6.2 Node showing
 Connected arcs are determined by common node numbers.
intersection

Fig. 2.6.3 Arc-Node Topology with list

 Contiguity- Information about neighbouring spatial object

 Polygon topology defines contiguity.
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 The polygons are said to be contiguous if they share a common arc.

 Contiguity allows the vector data model to determine adjacency.

Fig. 2.6.4 Polygon Topology

 The from node and to node of an arc indicate its direction, and it helps determining the
polygons on its left and right side.
 Left-right topology refers to the polygons on the left and right sides of an arc.
 In the illustration above, polygon B is on the left and polygon C is on the right of the arc 4.
 Polygon A is outside the boundary of the area covered by polygons B, C and D.
 It is called the external or universe polygon, and represents the world outside the study area.
 The universe polygon ensures that each arc always has a left and right side defined.

Containment
Geographic features cover distinguishable area on the surface of the earth. An area is
represented by one or more boundaries defining a polygon. The polygons can be simple or they can
be complex with a hole or island in the middle. In the illustration given below assume a lake with
an island in the middle. The lake actually has two boundaries, one which defines its outer edge and
the other (island) which defines its inner edge. An island defines the inner boundary of a polygon.
The polygon D is made up of arc 5, 6 and 7. The 0 before the 7 indicates that the arc 7 creates an
island in the polygon.

Fig. 2.6.5 Polygon ArcTopology

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Polygons are represented as an ordered list of arcs and not in terms of X, Y coordinates. This is
called Polygon-Arc topology. Since arcs define the boundary of polygon, arc coordinates are stored
only once, thereby reducing the amount of data and ensuring no overlap of boundaries of the
adjacent polygons.

Topologic Features
Networks : A network is a topologic feature model which is defined as a line graph composed
of links representing linear channels of flow and nodes representing their connections. The
topologic relationship between the features is maintained in a connectivity table. By consulting
connectivity table, it is possible to trace the information flowing in the network.
Polygons with explicit topological structures : Introducing explicit topological relationships
takes care of islands as well as neighbors. The topological structures are built either by creating
topological links during data input or using software. Dual Independent Map Encoding (DIME)
system of US Bureau of the Census is one of the first attempts to create topology in geographic
data.

Fig. 2.6.6 Polygons with explicit topological structures

 Polygons are formed using the lines and their nodes.

 Once formed, polygons are individually identified by a unique identification number.
 The topological information among the polygons is computed and stored using the
adjacency information (the nodes of a line, and identifiers of the polygons to the left and
right of the line) stored with the lines.
Poly Arcs Arc ID From To ARCID Left Poly Right
ID Poly
A 1, 2 1 x y 1 A U
B 2, 3, 4 2 x y 2 B A
C 3 3 z z 3 B B
4 x y 4 U B

Fig. 2.6.7 Arc node Topology, Polygon Topology, Polygon Arc Topology

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Fully topological polygon network structure

A fully topological polygon network structure is built using boundary chains that are digitized
in any direction. It takes care of islands and lakes and allows automatic checks for improper
polygons. Neighborhood searches are fully supported. These structures are edited by moving the
coordinates of individual points and nodes, by changing polygon attributes and by cutting out or
adding sections of lines or whole polygons. Changing coordinates require no modification to the
topology but cutting out or adding lines and polygons requires recalculation of topology and
rebuilding the database.

2.7 Vector and Raster - Advantages and Disadvantages

There are several advantages and disadvantages for using either the vector or raster data model
to store spatial data. These are summarized below.

Vector : Advantages
 Data can be represented at its original resolution and form without generalization.
 Graphic output is usually more aesthetically pleasing (traditional cartographic
representation);
 Since most data, e.g. hard copy maps, is in vector form no data conversion is required.
 Accurate geographic location of data is maintained.
 Allows for efficient encoding of topology, and as a result more efficient operations that
require topological information, e.g. proximity, network analysis.

Vector : Disadvantages
 The location of each vertex needs to be stored explicitly.
 For effective analysis, vector data must be converted into a topological structure. This is
often processing intensive and usually requires extensive data cleaning. As well, topology is
static, and any updating or editing of the vector data requires re-building of the topology.
 Algorithms for manipulative and analysis functions are complex and may be processing
intensive. Often, this inherently limits the functionality for large data sets, e.g. a large
number of features.
 Continuous data, such as elevation data, is not effectively represented in vector form.
Usually substantial data generalization or interpolation is required for these data layers.
 Spatial analysis and filtering within polygons is impossible.

Raster Advantages :
 The geographic location of each cell is implied by its position in the cell matrix.

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Accordingly, other than an origin point, e.g. bottom left corner, no geographic coordinates
are stored.
 Due to the nature of the data storage technique data analysis is usually easy to program and
quick to perform.
 The inherent nature of raster maps, e.g. one attribute maps, is ideally suited for mathematical
modeling and quantitative analysis.
 Discrete data, e.g. forestry stands, is accommodated equally well as continuous data, e.g.
elevation data, and facilitates the integrating of the two data types.
 Grid-cell systems are very compatible with raster-based output devices, e.g. electrostatic
plotters, graphic terminals.

Raster : Disadvantages
 The cell size determines the resolution at which the data is represented.
 It is especially difficult to adequately represent linear features depending on the cell
resolution. Accordingly, network linkages are difficult to establish.
 Processing of associated attribute data may be cumbersome if large amounts of data exist.
Raster maps inherently reflect only one attribute or characteristic for an area.
 Since most input data is in vector form, data must undergo vector-to-raster conversion.
Besides increased processing requirements this may introduce data integrity concerns due to
generalization and choice of inappropriate cell size.
 Most output maps from grid-cell systems do not conform to high-quality cartographic needs.
It is often difficult to compare or rate GIS software that use different data models. Some
personal computer (PC) packages utilize vector structures for data input, editing, and display but
convert to raster structures for any analysis. Other more comprehensive GIS offerings provide both
integrated raster and vector analysis techniques. They allow users to select the data structure
appropriate for the analysis requirements. Integrated raster and vector processing capabilities are
most desirable and provide the greatest flexibility for data manipulation and analysis.

2.8 Triangular Irregular Network (TIN)

 A TIN is a data structure that defines geographic space as a set of contiguous, non-
overlapping triangles, which vary in size and angular proportion. Like grids, TINs are used
to represent surfaces such as elevation, and can be created directly from files of sample
points.

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Fig. 2.8.1 Anatomy of a TIN

 The TIN data structure is defined by two elements: a set of input points with x,y, and z
values, and a series of edges connecting these points to form triangles. Each input point
becomes the node of a triangle in the TIN structure, and the output is a continuous faceted
surface of triangles
 The triangles are constructed according to a mathematical technique called Delaunay
triangulation. The technique guarantees that a circle drawn through the three nodes of any
triangle will contain no other input point.

Fig. 2.8.2 Delaunay Triangulation

 Because points can be placed irregularly over a surface a TIN can have higher resolution in
areas where surface is highly variable. The model incorporates original sample points
providing a check on the accuracy of the model. The information related to TIN is stored in a
file or a database table. Calculation of elevation, slope, and aspect is easy with TIN but these
are less widely available than raster surface models and more time consuming in term of
construction and processing.

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Node attribute table

Vertex ID X Y Z
a 780,034 33,020 90
b 780,017 33,035 102
c 780,007 33,052 115
d 780,023 33,070 135
…

Fig. 2.8.3 TIN model

Polygon attribte table Arc attribute table

Triangle Area Edge1 Edge2 Edge3 Nighbors Edge Length From To

ID ID Node node
A 8200 1 2 12 B, F 1 160 f a
B 7040 3 4 2 C, A 2 140 a g
C 6000 5 6 4 D, B 3 130 a b
D 5440 7 8 6 E, C 4 140 b g
… …

The TIN model is a vector data model which is stored using the relational attribute tables. A
TIN dataset contains three basic attribute tables: Arc attribute table that contains length, from node
and to node of all the edges of all the triangles.
 Node attribute table that contains x, y coordinates and z (elevation) of the vertices
 Polygon attribute table that contains the areas of the triangles, the identification number of
the edges and the identifier of the adjacent polygons.
Storing data in this manner eliminated redundancy as all the vertices and edges are stored only
once even if they are used for more than one triangle. As TIN stores topological relationships, the
datasets can be applied to vector based geoprocessing such as automatic contouring, 3D landscape
visualization, volumetric design, surface characterization etc.
TIN GRID
Advantages  Ability to describe the surface at  Easy to store and manipulate
different  Easy integration with raster database
 Efficiency in storing data  Smoother, more natural appearance of
derived terrain features
Disadvantages  In many cases require visual  Inability to use various grid sizes to reflect
inpection and manual control of areas of different complexity of relief.
the network.

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2.9 The Open Geospatial Consortium

The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international not for profit organization
committed to making quality open standards for the global geospatial community. These standards
are made through a consensus process and are freely available for anyone to use to improve sharing
of the world's geospatial data.

Description of the OGC

The OGC provides open standard specifications with the aim to facilitate and encourage the use
of these standards when organisations develop their own geospatial software, or online geoportals
offering data and software services online. The collection of geoportals and various other
complimentary services, create a Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI).

Benefits of the OGC

Interoperability of geospatial data and reduced fragmentation in data delivery.
Consensus based approach. Participation of organisations from the public sector, private sector,
academia and research when developing standards assures the interests and needs of the geospatial
community are considered.
OGC helps to bring together geospatial data and services from multiple sectors.

2.9.1 Common OGC standards

OGC Web Services (OWS) are the OGC standards that use the internet or alternatively the
World Wide Web to view, edit, manage and share geospatial data. To understand OGC web
services you must be able to understand how web services work.
How do web services work?
A fully operable web service requires the service itself, a server, a client and the internet. The
client is an application that will use the web service (e.g. an internet browser) and the server is
where the data and information is stored. The web service will process a request made by the client
and then collect the appropriate service from the server and return this to the client via the internet
for the client to retrieve. Facebook is a good example where the SERVER is Facebook's servers,
the CLIENT is either the website you access on a computer or the app you have on your phone or
tablet, while the WEB SERVICE is the image you requested or the status update you posted.

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Fig. 2.9.1 Working of web service

The requests being made by the client are commonly known as Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP) requests. HTTP is the protocol used for data communication on the World Wide Web and
there are two types of HTTP requests that need to be defined for this course:

Fig. 2.9.2 Working of HTTP

So to appropriately define the use of web services: A web service is used to provide access to
data and information from a server via the internet to a client.

2.9.2 OGC Standards

● Web Map Service (WMS)

This standard visualises geographic data that can be displayed across the web and multiple
platforms. This standard does not provide the actual geospatial data; instead it just provides a
georeferenced image (e.g. PNG, JPEG or GIF files) of the data.

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● Web Feature Service (WFS)

This standard allows the sharing of geographic data at a feature level (i.e. sharing vector based
data for example ESRI Shapefiles (.shp)). This standard allows the user to request specified
geographic data from a client and receives the requested data via the web.

● Web Coverage Service (WCS)

This standard allows the visualisation and provision of geospatial data according to temporal
and spatial characteristics from a web server and the data can be in multiple raster based data
formats (e.g. GeoTiffs, .img, ENVI (.hdr) file types)

● Web Processing Service (WPS)

This standard allows the potential for geospatial processing tools and applications to be used on
geographic data within an interface via the web. For example this standard could use digitising,
spatial analysis and network analysis tools to edit geospatial data.

● Web Map Context (WMC)

This standard allows for the creation of a XML document that will save the layers and
parameters of a web map project so that it can be used at a different time and/or location. The OGC
service layers being used in the map (e.g. WMS layers) and the map parameters (e.g. map extent,
projection scheme information) are saved within the xml context document.

● Web Map Tile Service (WMTS)

This standard allows the pre-rendering of image tiles for a web map application. The pre-
rendering allows the web map to add or remove data layers between different map extents. This
tiling can provide higher or lower detailed maps depending on the map extent being viewed and the
specific web map properties being used.

● Catalogue Service for the Web (CS-W)

This standard allows a user to find, request and modify geospatial metadata that is stored within
a spatial database via the web. The metadata can be utilised from multiple sources and is an
important part of understanding and applying data that is being shared to different users, locations
and to varying platforms.

● Styled Layer Descriptor (SLD)

This standard allows for the application of style properties to the geographic features of a web
map and also allows the retrieval of the web map style legend.

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● KML
This standard is a XML language that is based around the visualisation of geographic data, and
is used within Google Earth and Google Maps. Geographic data that this standard commonly
represents include place marks, image overlays, polygon features and paths.

● Geography Markup Language (GML)

This standard is an encoding standard similar to XML, but is used for the description and
representation of points, lines and polygons to be made into specified geographic features. For
example lines could represent roads, points could represent and polygons could represent specific
buildings.

● Sensor Model Language (SensorML)

This standard allows for the encoding of models and XML for sensor and observation
processing. This standard was established for the OGC Sensor Web Enablement (SWE) that aims
to enable applications and services to gain access to sensors of all types overthe web.

● OpenGlS@ Open Location Service (OpenLS)

This standard allows for the sharing of Location Based Services (LBS) through various
interfaces. LBS include emergency response (E-911), personal navigation, traffic information
service, and travel directions.

● open GeoSMS
This standard provides an encoding and interface that offers the potential for the
communication of location content betvveen different Location Based Service (LBS) devices or
applications via a Short Message Service (SMS).

● GeoAP1
This standard defines a Java language application programming interface (API) that can be used
to manipulate geographic information via the use of a Java based standard library that contains the
types and methods that can be implemented.

2.10 Data Quality

Data quality is the degree of data excellency that satisfy the given objective. In other words,
completeness of attributes in order to achieve the given task can be termed as Data Quality. Data
created from different channels with different techniques can have discrepancies in terms of
resolution, orientation and displacements.

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Data quality is a pillar in any GIS implementation and application as reliable data are
indispensable to allow the user obtaining meaningful results. The following review of data quality
focuses on three distinct components, data accuracy, quality, and error.

2.10.1 Accuracy
The fundamental issue with respect to data is accuracy. Accuracy is the closeness of results of
observations to the true values or values accepted as being true. This implies that observations
of most spatial phenomena are usually only considered to estimates of the true value. The
difference between observed and true (or accepted as being true) values indicates the accuracy of
the observations.
Basically two types of accuracy exist. These are positional and attribute accuracy
Positional accuracy is the expected deviance in the geographic location of an object from its
true ground position. There are two components to positional accuracy. These
are relative and absolute accuracy.
Absolute accuracy concerns the accuracy of data elements with respect to a coordinate scheme.
Relative accuracy concerns the positioning of map features relative to one another.
Attribute accuracy is equally as important as positional accuracy. It also reflects estimates of
the truth. Interpreting and depicting boundaries and characteristics for forest stands or soil
polygons can be exceedingly difficult and subjective.

2.10.2 Quality
Quality can simply be defined as the fitness for use for a specific data set. Data that is
appropriate for use with one application may not be fit for use with another. It is fully dependent
on the scale, accuracy, and extent of the data set, as well as the quality of other data sets to be used.
The recent U.S. Spatial Data Transfer Standard (SDTS) identifies five components to data quality
definitions. These are :
 Lineage
 Positional Accuracy
 Attribute Accuracy
 Logical Consistency
 Completeness

Lineage
The lineage of data is concerned with historical and compilation aspects of the data such as the:
 source of the data;

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 content of the data

 data capture specifications
 geographic coverage of the data
 compilation method of the data, e.g. digitizing versus scanned;
 transformation methods applied to the data; and
 the use of an pertinent algorithms during compilation, e.g. linear simplification, feature
generalization

● Positional Accuracy
The identification of positional accuracy is important. This includes consideration of inherent
error (source error) and operational error (introduced error).

● Attribute Accuracy
Consideration of the accuracy of attributes also helps to define the quality of the data. This
quality component concerns the identification of the reliability, or level of purity (homogeneity), in
a data set.

● Logical Consistency
This component is concerned with determining the faithfulness of the data structure for a data
set. This typically involves spatial data inconsistencies such as incorrect line intersections,
duplicate lines or boundaries, or gaps in lines. These are referred to as spatial or topological errors.

● Completeness
The final quality component involves a statement about the completeness of the data set. This
includes consideration of holes in the data, unclassified areas, and any compilation procedures that
may have caused data to be eliminated.
The ease with which geographic data in a GIS can be used at any scale highlights the
importance of detailed data quality information. Although a data set may not have a specific scale
once it is loaded into the GIS database, it was produced with levels of accuracy and resolution that
make it appropriate for use only at certain scales, and in combination with data of similar scales.

2.10.3 Error
Two sources of error, inherent and operational, contribute to the reduction in quality of the
products that are generated by geographic information systems.
Inherent error is the error present in source documents and data.
Operational error is the amount of error produced through the data capture and manipulation
functions of a GIS.
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Possible sources of operational errors include:

 Mis-labelling of areas on thematic maps;
 misplacement of horizontal (positional) boundaries;
 human error in digitizing
 classification error;.
 GIS algorithm inaccuracies; and
 human bias.
An awareness of the error status of different data sets will allow user to make a subjective
statement on the quality and reliability of a product derived from GIS processing.
The validity of any decisions based on a GIS product is directly related to the quality
and reliability rating of the product.
Depending upon the level of error inherent in the source data, and the error operationally
produced through data capture and manipulation, GIS products may possess significant amounts of
error.

2.10.4 Sources of Spatial Data Discrepancy

● DataInformationExchange:
Data information exchange is basically the information about the data provided by the client to
organization. The degree of information provided by the client defines the accuracy and
completeness of data.

● TypeandSource:
Data type and source must be evaluated in order to get appropriate data values. There are many
spatial data formats and each one of them is having some beneficiary elements as well as some
drawbacks.

● DataCapture:
There are many tools that incorporate manual skills to capture the data using various softwares
like ArcGIS. These softwares allows user to capture information from the base data. During this
data capture, the user may misinterpret features from the base data and captures the features with
errors. Data capture must be performed on a perfect scale where one must be able to view the
features distinctly.

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● CartographicEffects :
After capturing the data, some cartographic effects like symbology, pattern, colors, orientation
and size are assigned to the features. This is required for a better representation of reality. These
effects must be assigned according to the domain of the features

● DataTransfer:
Some discrepancies may occur while transferring the data from one place to another “There is
no bad or good data. There are only data which are suitable for a specific purpose.” So, Data must
be evaluated according to the domain for which it is supposed to be used.

● Metadata:
Sometimes metadata is not updated according to the original features. So, metadata must be
updated with the original data.

2.10.5 Data Quality Improvement Techniques

 Choice of relevant data from a relevant source.
 Derive precisions in the origin itself.
 Data quality testing in each phase of data capture.
 Using automated software tools for spatial and non-spatial data validation.
 Assessment of the mode of data uses and user.
 Determining the map elements like scale, visualization and feature orientation.

2.11 Two Marks Questions with Answers

Q.1 What is data model?
Ans. : Data Models: Vector and Raster Spatial data in GIS has two primary data formats: raster
and vector.
Raster uses a grid cell structure, whereas vector is more like a drawn map. Raster and Vector
Data Vector format has points, lines, polygons that appear normal, much like a map. Raster
format generalizes the scene into a grid of cells, each with a code to indicate the feature being
depicted. The cell is the minimum mapping unit. Raster has generalized reality: all of the
features in the cell area are reduced to a single cell identity.

Q.2 What is vector data?

Ans. : Vector data uses two dimensional cartesian coordinates to store the shape of spatial
entity. Vector based features are treated as discrete geometric objects over the space. In the
vector data base point is the basic building block from which all the spatial entities are

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constructed. The vector spatial entity, the point is represented by a single x,y coordinate pair.
Line and area entities are constructed by a series of points into chains.

Q.3 Define Raster data.

Ans. : Raster is a method for the storage, processing and display of spatial data. Each area is
divided into rows and columns, w hich form a regular grid structure. Each cell must be
rectangular in shape, but not necessarily square. Each cell within this matrix contains location
co-ordinates as well as an attribute value.
The origin of rows and column is at the upper left corner of the grid. Rows function as the
“y”coordinate and column as”x”coordinate in a two dimensional system. A cell is defined by its
location in terms of rows and columns.

Q.4 Why is compression needed for remote sensing data?

Ans. : Data compression method provides compact raster representation using a variable sized
grid. Large cells are used in areas of low detail while small cells are used in areas of high detail

Q.5 What is Vectorization?

Ans. : Vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the maplike
drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape is better
retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format.

Q.6 What is raster coding?

Ans. : In the data entry process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size and each
cell assigned a code or value. The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by
ground units, also termed resolution. There are three basic and one advanced scheme for
assigning cell codes.
Presence/Absence: is the most basic method and to record a feature if some of it occurs in the
cell space.

Q.7 Compare vector and raster data structure.

Ans. : Vectors are data elements describing position and direction. In GIS, vector is the maplike
drawing of features, without the generalizing effect of a raster grid. Therefore, shape is better
retained. Vector is much more spatially accurate than the raster format.
In the data entry process, maps can be digitized or scanned at a selected cell size and each cell
assigned a code or value. The cell size can be adjusted according to the grid structure or by
ground units, also termed resolution. There are three basic and one advanced scheme for
assigning cell codes. Presence/Absence: is the most basic method and to record a feature if some
of it occurs in the cell space.

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Q.8 What do you understand about data compression?

Ans. : Data compression method provides compact raster representation using a variable sized
grid. Large cells are used in areas of low detail while small cells are used in areas of high detail

Q.9 What is buffering?

Ans. : Buffering is the creation of polygons that surround other points, lines or polygons.
Buffers M/J be created either to exclude a certain amount of area around a point, line or polygon
or to include only the buffer area in a study

Q.10 List the advantages of raster data.

Ans. : Raster data also known as grid based system or cellular system consists of rectangular
cell. The raster system used minimum time for process in a and easy to program
Advantages : It is a simple data structure, Overaly operations are easily and efficiently
implemented, High spatial variability is efficiently represented in a raster format.
Disadvantage : 1. Less compact 2. Topographical relationship are more difficult to represent

Q.11 What you mean by data compression?

Ans. : Reducing the 'electronic space' (data bits) used in representing a piece of information, by
eliminating the repetition of identical sets of data bits (redundancy) in an audio/video, graphic,
or text data file. White spaces in text and graphics, large blocks of the same color in pictures, or
other continuously recurring data, is reduced or eliminated by coding(encryption) with a
program that uses a particular type of compression algorithm. The same program is used to
decompress (decrypt) the data so that it can be heard, read, or seen as the original data.

Q.12 List out the basics elements of GIS modeling.

Ans. : Geographic Information systems have three important components. They are
1. Computer hardware,
2. Set of application software modules
3. Spatial data
4. Data management and analysis procedures
5. Personnel to operate the GIS

Q.13 Write short notes on topographical overlay.

Ans. : Map overlay is the process by which it is possible to take two or more different
topographical layers of the same area and overlay them on top of the other and form a composite
new layer this techniques is used to overlay vector data on a raster image. In Vector base

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systems map overlay is time consuming, complex and computationally expensive. In raster
based systems it is quick, straightforward and efficient

Q.14 Discuss about network model.

Ans. : A network is a generalized graph that captures relationships between objects using
connectivity. A network database consists of a collection of records that are connected to each
other through links. A link is an association between two records. It allows each record to have
many parents and many children thus allowing a natural model of relationships between entities.

Q.15 Describe about object oriented model.

Ans. : The aim of object oriented model is to allow data modeling which is closer to real world.
An object-oriented database uses objects as elements within database files.
An object is a logical grouping of related data that represents a real world entity.
Each object is a distinct entity which is identified using a key attribute called ObjectID.
The object can be grouped together to form a class.
Objects of the same class have same attributes, behavior and relationships with other objects

Q.16 Write about relational model.

Ans. : The relational data model was introduced by Codd in 1970.
The relational database relates or connects data in different files through the use of a common
field. A flat file structure is used with a relational database model. In this arrangement, data is
stored in different tables made up of rows and columns. The columns of a table are named by
attributes. Each row in the table is called a tuple and represents a basic fact. No two rows of the
same table may have identical values in all columns. There are two crucial data integrity
constraints viz. primary key and foreign key. A primary key is an attribute whose value is
unique across all tuples (rows) in a relation (table). The primary key of one table appearing as
an attribute of another table is known as a foreign key in that table.

Q.17 What are the three basic elements of topological relationships?

Ans. : Topological features
A topology is a mathematical procedure that describes how features are spatially related and
ensures data quality of the spatial relationships. Topological relationships include following
three basic elements:
I. Connectivity: Information about linkages among spatial objects
II. Contiguity: Information about neighbouring spatial object
III. Containment: Information about inclusion of one spatial object within another spatial object

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Q.18 List the three models of encoding raster data.

Ans. : The simplest way of encoding a raster data into computers can be understood as follows:
 Entity model
 Pixel values
 File structure

Q.19 Define raster data model.

Ans. : The raster data model is commonly associated with the field conceptual model. Here,
geographic space is represented by array of cells or pixels (aka picture elements) which are
arranged in rows and columns. Each pixel has a value that represents information. The value can
be in the form of integer, floating points or alphanumeric.
A point can be represented by a single pixel in raster model. A line is a chain of spatially
connected cells with the same value. Similarly, a water body in raster data is represented as a set
of contiguous pixels having same value that represents a homogeneous area.

Q.20 What are the classifications of vector structures?

Ans. : Geographic entities encoded using the vector data model, are often called features. The
features can be divided into two classes:
a. Simple features : These are easy to create, store and are rendered on screen very quickly.
They lack connectivity relationships and so are inefficient for modelling phenomena
conceptualized as fields.
b. Topological features : A topology is a mathematical procedure that describes how
features are spatially related and ensures data quality of the spatial relationships.

2.12 Long Answered Questions with Answers

Q.1 Explain about Relational and Object oriented model in detail. (Refer section 2.2)

Q.2 Compare raster and vector data representation with suitable examples. (Refer section 2.7)

Q.3 With neat sketch explain briefly about Raster Data structures. (Refer section 2.4)

Q.4 Explain briefly about E-R diagrams. (Refer section 2.2.3)

Q.5 Discuss in detail about the data compression techniques. (Refer section 2.5)

Q.6 Describe TIN. Give the difference between TIN and GRID. (Refer section 2.8)

Q.7 Explain the concepts of Data quality. (Refer section 2.10)

Q.8 Write in detail about OGC standards for GIS. (Refer section 2.9)


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