CHAPTER 1

1.0. INTROCUCTION

Meat stands as a crucial dietary component for humans, being the primary source of animal

protein when compared to vegetable-based products. A 100g serving of fresh beef contains

approximately 18.8g of protein. Its nutritional value is notably high due to the presence of

complete and balanced amino acids (A.N. Mukhlisah, 2023).

Sausage is a food product primarily made from ground beef, mixed with various fillers, binding

agents, and seasonings before being encased in sausage casing. This blend can then be packed

into a casing of specific size and shape. The process of making sausage is relatively

straightforward, focusing on carefully controlling the structural and chemical alterations in the

meat influenced by the ingredients used (Eny Sri Widyastuti, 2020). There are five main types of

sausages based on their preparation methods: fresh, fermented, smoked precooked, emulsion-

type, and cooked sausages. While sausages are rich in protein, they also contain high levels of

fats, primarily in the form of both saturated and unsaturated fats, which contribute to their calorie

content. In beef sausages specifically, the protein content typically ranges from 10.63% to

16.43%, while the fat content ranges from 1.1% to 12.22% (Nur Huda Faujan, 2022)

Beef sausage is a popular meat product enjoyed worldwide due to its rich flavor and versatility in

culinary applications. As consumer preferences continue to evolve towards healthier and more

natural food choices, there is a growing interest in enhancing the nutritional profile of meat

products while maintaining their sensory appeal. In this context, the incorporation of alternative
ingredients such as coconut flour and the exploration of different salt types present promising

avenues for improving the physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of beef sausage.

These additives are chosen for their ability to bind water, which in turn impacts the texture,

stability of the mixture, color, cooking loss, and flavor of the sausage (Eny Sri Widyastuti,

2020).

The choice of salt type and the addition of coconut flour can significantly impact the quality

characteristics of sausage products. Salt serves multiple functions in meat processing, including

flavor enhancement, water retention, and microbial inhibition. However, the type of salt used can

influence the final product's texture, color, and taste. Additionally, coconut flour,a result of the

coconut milk industry, obtained after extracting the milk from coconuts. This residue is

processed into coconut flour and is thought to be rich in dietary fiber. Dietary fiber is known to

play a significant role in preventing chronic diseases like cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and

diabetes mellitus, thus making coconut flour potentially beneficial for health (Trinidad P.

Trinidad, 2004). Its benefits also includes unique sensory attributes that may complement the

flavor profile of beef sausage.

Table salt, often used as a simple seasoning and preservative, was once extremely valuable in

ancient times. It played a big role in the development of ancient civilizations, being as precious

as gold for many people throughout history (Miguel Elias, 2019). Salt is composed of sodium

and chloride, with sodium making up as much as 40% of the compound. Our bodies need sodium

and chloride, and we usually get them from the foods we eat. Salt, along with methods like

fermentation and dehydration (through exposure to air or sunlight), has been used since ancient

times, dating back about 5000 years, for preserving food. The significance of salt in food
production lies in its ability to preserve food and enhance flavor, texture, and color. As a

preservative, salt works by reducing the water content to levels below what certain bacteria need

to grow (Edel Durack, 2008).

Understanding the effects of salt types and coconut flour on the physicochemical properties and

sensory attributes of beef sausage is essential for the meat industry to develop healthier and more

appealing products that meet consumer expectations. This research aims to investigate the impact

of different salt types, including common table salt (sodium chloride) in combination with

varying levels of coconut flour, on the quality characteristics of beef sausage.

By systematically analyzing the physicochemical properties, including moisture content, pH,

color, and texture, alongside sensory evaluation parameters such as taste, aroma, and overall

acceptability, this study seeks to provide valuable insights into the formulation and optimization

of beef sausage recipes. The findings of this research could inform meat processors, food

technologists, and consumers alike, contributing to the development of healthier, tastier, and

more sustainable meat products.

1.1. JUSTIFICATION

The research would justify that;

The research aims to thoroughly examine and explain the chemical and physical properties of

beef sausage, including its makeup and how it behaves. It also seeks to carefully evaluate

how beef sausage tastes, smells, feels, looks, and overall how much people enjoy eating it.

This will help us better understand what makes beef sausage appealing to consumers.

 The chemical and physico chemical properties of beef sausage.

  The Sensory quality of beef sausage.

[1.2.] AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study wasis to determine the effect of salt types and coconut flour on

physicochemical properties, and sensory attributes of beef sausage.

 CHAPTER 2

2.0. Literature Review

This literature review explores the impact of salt types and coconut flour on the physicochemical

properties and sensory attributes of beef sausage. Consumer demand for healthier meat products

with reduced sodium content and increased fiber is rising. This research aims to investigate salt

types and the functionality of coconut flour in beef sausage formulation.

2.1. Beef Sausage

The development of beef sausage dates back thousands of years, originating as a method to

preserve and utilize meat efficiently. Ancient civilizations, including the Romans, Greeks,

and Chinese, created early forms of sausage by grinding meat, mixing it with salt, spices,

and other ingredients, and then encasing it in animal intestines or stomachs. This process

allowed for the extended storage of meat and added variety to their diets (Abdolghafour &

Saghir, 2014).

Over centuries, sausage-making techniques evolved and spread across cultures.

Innovations in curing, smoking, and drying further diversified sausage types. The

introduction of spices from trade routes enriched recipes, leading to regional variations

and unique flavor profiles. In modern times, advancements in food science and technology

have refined production processes, ensuring consistency, safety, and high quality in beef

sausage (Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014).

Beef sausage also plays a role in various cultural rituals and holidays. Its preparation and

consumption often bring communities together, symbolizing hospitality, tradition, and

celebration. This enduring popularity underscores its importance not only as a food

product but also as a cultural icon that reflects the diverse culinary practices of societies

worldwide.

2.1.1. Composition of beef sausage:

Beef sausage can be made in many different ways with various ingredients, depending on

the maker's preferences and local cultural influences. The choice of spices, herbs, and other

ingredients often reflects the traditions and resources of the region. This variety shows how

beef sausage can adapt to different tastes and cultural backgrounds. Below are the basic

composition of beef sausage (IS et al., 2017)

1. Ground Beef: The main ingredient, providing the base flavor and texture.

2. Fat: Often added for moisture and richness, commonly beef fat.

3. Salt: Essential for seasoning and preservation.

4. Spices and Seasonings: Commonly used spices include black pepper, garlic powder,

paprika, and nutmeg.

5. Herbs: Such as thyme, sage, or parsley, for additional flavor.

6. Binders and Fillers: Ingredients like bread crumbs, flour, or rice may be added to

improve texture and cohesion.

7. Preservatives: Such as nitrates or nitrites, to extend shelf life and maintain color.

8. Water or Broth: Added to help blend the ingredients and ensure juiciness.

2.1.2. Importance of beef sausage

Nutritional Value: Beef sausage provides a significant source of protein, essential vitamins,

and minerals such as iron and vitamin B12. These nutrients are crucial for maintaining

muscle mass, energy levels, and overall health (IS et al., 2017).
Culinary Versatility: Beef sausage is highly versatile in cooking, making it a popular

ingredient in various dishes. It can be grilled, fried, baked, or added to stews, casseroles,

and pasta, enhancing the flavor and texture of meals.(Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014)

Cultural Significance: Beef sausage holds cultural importance in many regions around the

world. It is a staple in traditional cuisines and is often featured in cultural celebrations,

festivals, and communal gatherings, reflecting the culinary heritage and social practices of

different communities. (Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014)

Economic Impact: The production and sale of beef sausages contribute significantly to the

food industry. They support local farmers, butchers, and businesses involved in the supply

chain, from meat processing to retail. This sector creates jobs and stimulates economic

activity in related industries. (Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014)

Convenience: Ready-to-cook and pre-cooked beef sausages offer convenience for busy

consumers. They provide a quick and easy meal solution without sacrificing taste, making

them a popular choice for modern lifestyles. (Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014)

Flavor Diversity: The wide range of flavors available in beef sausages caters to diverse

consumer preferences. From traditional recipes to innovative blends with exotic spices,

beef sausages can appeal to a broad audience, making them a versatile product in the

culinary market. (Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014)

Overall, beef sausages play a vital role in nutrition, culture, economy, and culinary

practices, highlighting their multifaceted importance in daily life and society

(Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014)

2.1.3. Nutritional and functional component

[Link]. Nutritional Components

The essential nitrients and macronutrients present in beef sausage that contibute to its

nutritional value includes the following

Protein: Beef sausage is a rich source of high-quality protein, essential for muscle repair,

growth, and overall bodily functions. A typical serving provides a substantial amount of the

daily recommended protein intake.(Cunningham et al., 2015)

Fat: Depending on the recipe, beef sausage can contain varying levels of fat, including both

saturated and unsaturated fats. Fat contributes to the flavor and juiciness of the sausage

but should be consumed in moderation as part of a balanced diet (Cunningham et al.,

2015).

Vitamins: Beef sausage is a good source of several essential vitamins, particularly: Vitamin

B12: Vital for red blood cell formation, neurological function, and DNA synthesis. Vitamin

B6: Important for protein metabolism, cognitive development, and immune function.

Niacin (Vitamin B3): Helps convert food into energy and supports skin health and the

nervous system.

Minerals: Key minerals found in beef sausage include:

Iron: Crucial for oxygen transport in the blood and energy production.

Zinc: Supports immune function, wound healing, and DNA synthesis.

Phosphorus: Essential for bone health and energy metabolism.

Amino Acids: Beef sausage contains essential amino acids that the body cannot synthesize

on its own. These are necessary for protein synthesis and various metabolic processes.

(Cunningham et al., 2015)

[Link] Functional Components

The ingredients or additives in a food product that serve a specific functional purpose

beyond basic nutriton of beef sausage includes

Functional Proteins: The proteins in beef sausage contribute to its texture and binding

properties, essential for maintaining the structural integrity of the product during cooking

and consumption.

Preservatives: Ingredients like nitrates and nitrites are often used in beef sausages for their

preservative qualities. They inhibit bacterial growth, extend shelf life, and help maintain

the sausage’s color and flavor.

Spices and Herbs: Various spices and herbs not only enhance flavor but also offer

antioxidant properties. Ingredients like garlic, paprika, and black pepper contain

compounds that may have health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial

effects.

Binders and Fillers: Ingredients such as breadcrumbs, flour, or rice may be added to

improve the texture and cohesiveness of the sausage. These components can also affect the

nutritional profile, adding carbohydrates and fiber.

Water and Broth: Added to improve juiciness and texture, these liquids help distribute

flavors evenly and maintain moisture during cooking.

Understanding these nutritional and functional components highlights the complexity and

versatility of beef sausage as a food product, making it a significant contributor to dietary

patterns and culinary practices worldwide (Cunningham et al., 2015).

2.2. Physicochemical properties of meat products

The physicochemical properties of meat products encompass various characteristics related to

their physical and chemical makeup. These properties play a crucial role in determining beef

quality and consumer acceptance. Here are some key physicochemical properties and their

relevance:

1. Color: Color in meat is influenced by factors such as myoglobin content, oxidation state, pH,

and cooking method. Fresh beef with a bright red color is associated with freshness and high-

quality. Changes in color, such as browning or discoloration, may indicate spoilage or

deterioration. Consumers often judge beef quality based on color. Vibrant red color is generally

preferred, signaling freshness and quality.(Bressan et al., 2011)

2. Texture: Texture encompasses attributes like tenderness, juiciness, and mouthfeel, influenced

by factors such as muscle fiber structure, connective tissue content, and cooking method. Tender,

juicy beef is indicative of high-quality meat. Factors such as muscle composition and aging

affect tenderness and texture. Consumers prefer beef that is tender, juicy, and easy to chew.

Tough or dry meat may lead to dissatisfaction and lower consumer acceptance (Bressan et al.,

2011).

3. Flavor: Flavor in beef is influenced by compounds like amino acids, fatty acids, and volatile

compounds generated during cooking. Factors such as breed, diet, and aging influence flavor
development in beef. Proper cooking techniques can enhance or diminish flavor. Flavor is a

critical factor in consumer acceptance of beef. Rich, savory, and well-balanced flavors are

generally preferred (Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014).

4. Juiciness: Juiciness refers to the moisture content and distribution within the meat, influenced

by factors like fat content, cooking method, and muscle structure. Juicy beef is perceived as more

palatable and enjoyable. Factors such as fat content and cooking temperature affect juiciness.

Consumers prefer beef that is moist and juicy, as dry meat can be perceived as unappetizing and

less flavorful (Bressan et al., 2011).

5. Aroma: Aroma in beef is influenced by volatile compounds released during cooking and

storage, as well as factors like lipid oxidation and Maillard reactions. Fresh beef should have a

pleasant, meaty aroma, free from off-flavors or odors. Proper storage and handling help maintain

aroma quality. Aroma plays a significant role in consumer perception of beef quality. Unpleasant

odors or off-flavors can deter consumers, while enticing aromas enhance consumer satisfaction

(Abdolghafour & Saghir, 2014).

6. pH: The pH of meat significantly impacts its color, texture, water-holding capacity, flavor,

and microbial stability. Optimal pH levels enhance tenderness, juiciness, and shelf life, while

poor pH management can lead to undesirable qualities and increased spoilage risks. Proper

handling and processing are essential to maintain ideal pH (Bressan et al., 2011).

In summary, understanding the physicochemical properties of meat products, such as color,

texture, flavor, juiciness, and aroma, is essential for assessing beef quality and predicting

consumer acceptance. By optimizing these properties through proper handling, processing, and
cooking techniques, producers can deliver beef products that meet consumer expectations and

preferences.

2.3. Salt in Meat Processing

Salt stands out as one of the most widely utilized additives in the food industry due to its

affordability and versatile properties. Its role as a preservative and antimicrobial agent is

primarily attributed to sodium chloride's ability to lower water activity levels, thus inhibiting

microbial growth. Furthermore, sodium chloride acts as a flavor enhancer by influencing various

biochemical mechanisms (Albarracín et al., 2011). It also impacts enzymatic activity, either

reducing or enhancing it, which in turn affects the development of different sensory attributes in

food. This multifaceted nature of salt makes it indispensable in food processing and culinary

applications, adding both safety and savory delight to our meals (Albarracín et al., 2011)

Salt comes in various types, each with unique characteristics and uses, particularly in meat

processing. Here are some of the main types of salt:

2.3.1. Common Types of Salt

1. Table Salt: Finely ground and often iodized to prevent iodine deficiency. it is widely used

in meat processing due to its consistency and easy integration into recipes. It dissolves

quickly and evenly S.

2. Kosher Salt: Coarser than table salt with larger, irregular crystals. Named for its use in

koshering meat. Preferred for its ability to draw blood from meat, making it suitable for

koshering. It’s also easier to handle and measure by hand, making it popular in curing and

seasoning (Erin, 2016).

3. Sea Salt: Derived from evaporated seawater, containing trace minerals that can affect

flavor. Often used for finishing and in artisanal meat products for its complex flavor and

texture. Variations in grain size can impact its dissolution rate and flavor intensity (Erin,

2016).

4. Himalayan Pink Salt: Mined from ancient salt deposits, typically has a pink color due to

mineral content. Used for its unique flavor and visual appeal in gourmet and specialty

meat products (Erin, 2016).

The diffenrt types of salt affect different properties of the meat whicle processing it. In this

study, we will be using sodium chloride (NaCl) And Potassium chloride (KCl) both common

salt.
2.4. Coconut Flour

Coconut flour is a by-product orf the residue gotten from making coconut milk (Divina D.

Bawalan, 2000), Coconut flour refers to the screened food grade product obtained after drying,

expelling and/or extracting most of the oil or milk from coconut meat. The granulation is

dependent upon the degree of grinding and meshing to which the raw material has been

subjected and varies from 30-250 mesh. Coconut flour is proven to contain dietary fibre (FPDD

Guide No. 4, 2019).

2.4.1. Composition and health benefits of coconut flour

[Link]. Coconut Flour Composition

Coconut flour is made from dried, ground coconut meat and is notable for its high fiber content,

moderate protein levels, and low fat. It is rich in essential minerals like iron, potassium,

magnesium, and phosphorus, and contains small amounts of vitamins such as Vitamin C,

Vitamin E, and B vitamins. The flour also provides beneficial medium-chain triglycerides

(MCTs) and antioxidants. Its high fiber content aids digestion and promotes satiety, while its low

glycemic index makes it suitable for managing blood sugar levels. Coconut flour’s unique

composition makes it a versatile and health-promoting ingredient for various culinary

applications (Divina D. Bawalan, 2000).

2.4.2. Coconut Flour as a Functional Ingredient in Beef Sausage Processing

[Link]. Nutritional Benefits:

1. High Fiber Content: Coconut flour is rich in dietary fiber, aiding digestion and promoting a

healthy gut.

2. Low Glycemic Index: It helps in managing blood sugar levels, making it suitable for

diabetics.

3. Gluten-Free: Ideal for those with gluten intolerance or celiac disease.

4. Protein Source: Provides a moderate amount of protein, beneficial for muscle maintenance

and repair (FPDD Guide No. 4, 2019).

[Link]. Functional Benefits in Food Processing:

1. Texture Enhancement: Adds a soft, moist texture to baked goods due to its high fiber

content.

2. Thickening Agent: Acts as a natural thickener in soups, sauces, and gravies.

3. Moisture Retention: Helps retain moisture in food products, preventing them from becoming

dry and crumbly.

4. Flavor: Imparts a subtle, natural coconut flavor, enhancing the taste profile of various dishes.

(FPDD Guide No. 4, 2019)

[Link]. Health-Promoting Properties:

1. Weight Management: High fiber content helps in satiety, aiding in weight management.
2. Heart Health: May help lower cholesterol levels due to its fiber content.

3. Digestive Health: Supports regular bowel movements and overall digestive health. (Makinde

& Eyitayo, 2019)

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 Source of experimental materials

Beef thigh (consisting of Semimembranosus, Semitendinosus, and Biceps femoris muscles) was

obtained from a meat shop. Coconuts and other sausage ingredients wereould be obtained from a

local market. Analytical grade sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), potassium

citrate (C6H5K3O7) and potassium lactate (C3H5KO3) wereas obtained from reputable

laboratory/chemical stores.

3.2 Preparation of meat

The muscle was trimmed free of visible fat, connective tissues, and bones and weighed. The

weighed meat was sliced into thin sheets of 0.15-0.20 cm thick and between 70-100 cm long
using a local butcher’s knife with a sharp thin blade. The thin sheets of meat was minced using a

food processor.

3.3 Preparation of coconut flour

Coconuts was deshelled, and the flesh was minced in blender. Thereafter, coconut milk was

strained through a muslin cloth, and the residual pulp was oven-dried at 60 oC to obtain the flour.

The dried flour was packaged in zip lock bags until use.

3.4 Preparation of infusion ingredients

Each of the infusion ingredients was ground into powder using an electric blender. The infusion

ingredients were packaged in zip lock bags until use.

3.5 Preparation of beef sausage

Approximately 4 kg beef was minced using a Food processor. The minced meat was divided into

four parts, corresponding to four treatments and homogenized with other ingredients. The batter

was kept at 4°C for 2 h for curing. The batter was divided into 50 g samples and oven-cooked at

200°C for 15 min. The composition of the beef sausage is presented in Table 1.

TABLE 1. :Composition of beef sausage

Ingredient (%) T1 T2 T3 T4
Beef 70.00 70.00 70.00 70.00
Tallow 10.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Wheat flour 15.00 5.00 5.00 5.00
Coconut flour 0.00 10.00 10.00 10.00
Ginger 0.50 0.10 0.10 0.10
Garlic 0.50 0.10 0.10 0.10
Red pepper 0.50 0.40 0.40 0.40
 NaCl 1.50 0.00 0.00 1.50
KCl 0.00 1.50 0.00 0.00
C6H5K3O7 0.00 0.00 1.50 0.00
Seasoning 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Ice 1.50 1.50 1.50 1.50

3.5 Data collection

3.5.1 Measurement of pH

A compact digital pH meter (MW102 pH meter, MILWAUKEE® instruments, Inc. NC, USA)

with temperature (MA830R) and pH (MA920B/1) probes was used to measure the pH of the

beef sausages. The pH meter was calibrated (pH 4 and 7) prior to use. A 10 mL distill water was

used to homogenize each 5 g sample, and the homogenate's pH was measured three times.

3.5.2 Measurement of color values

A pre-calibrated colorimeter (WR-10, Shenzhen, China) with 8 mm port size, 10 o standard

observer and a D65 illuminant was used to measure color using the International Commission on

Illumination's (CIE) L* a* b* grouping method. Blooming time was 30 min. Four spectral

readings was taken on various sections of each sample, and the results was averaged.

3.5.3 Determination of cook loss

Raw beef sausage was weighed and the weight was recorded as initial weight (Wa). After oven

cooking at 200 oC for 20 min, the samples was reweighed (Wb). Cooking loss was calculated

using the equation below:

 Cooking loss (%) = [(Wa-Wb)÷Wa]×100

3.5.4 Sensory analysis

Sensory qualities of beef sausage were evaluated using the AMSA (1995) methods. Four-digit

random numbers was used to code a plastic container with a cover that held a 5 g sample of beef

sausage. Beef sausage was assessed organoleptically with a 9-point hedonic scale. About fifty

assessors who are familiar with beef sausage was chosen from among the staff and students of

University of Ilorin to participate in the sensory assessment. Verbal recruiting was used to find

assessors. One assessment session was conducted. Four samples, representing the four treatments

was evaluated by each panelist. The assessors was briefed on the sensory characteristics and

protocols prior to the sensory evaluation. The assessors was given water and unsalted crackers to

clear their palates after rating each sample. The 9-point hedonic scale questionnaire used is

represented below:

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEDONIC SCALE

PANEL NO_____________________ DATE___________________

SEX_____________________ AGE_______________________

Instruction: You are presented with four (4) coded samples of beef sausage. Please taste the

sample and indicate how well you like or dislike each of the sample’s characteristic. Please rinse

your mouth with water before tasting each sample. Taste the sample in the following order

SAMPLES

Attributes 588 072 437 156

Taste
 Saltiness

Aroma/flavour

Texture/tenderness

Colour

Juiciness

Overall acceptance

Like extremely ………9, Like very much ……...8, Like moderately………7, Like

slightly…………..6,

Neither like/ dislike…...5, Dislike slightly………..4, Dislike moderately…….3, Dislike very

much……..2,

Dislike extremely……...1.

Comment:_____________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________

Thank

you.

3.5.5 Statistical analysis

The data was subjected to analysis of variance model for a completely randomized design. When

the F test is significant, the means was separated using Duncan's multiple range tests. Level of

significance was considered at p <0.05.