UNIT-V Traffic Signals & Highway Appurtenances

Necessity of Traffic Signals

Traffic signals are essential devices used to control and manage traffic flow at intersections,
pedestrian crossings, and other road junctions. They are vital for ensuring road safety, efficiency,
and order in transportation systems.

🔹 Why Traffic Signals Are Necessary

1. Regulate Traffic Flow

 Prevent chaos and confusion at busy intersections.

 Maintain a smooth, predictable movement of vehicles and pedestrians.

2. Ensure Safety

 Reduce the risk of collisions by assigning right-of-way.

 Protect pedestrians crossing roads by providing designated time intervals.

3. Control Congestion

 Manage traffic at peak hours by coordinating flow from multiple directions.

 Minimize bottlenecks and reduce delays through signal timing.

4. Support Law Enforcement

 Clearly define rules of movement, making traffic violations easier to identify and penalize.

5. Aid Vulnerable Road Users

 Assist children, elderly, and persons with disabilities in crossing roads safely.
 Provide visual and auditory cues for better accessibility.

6. Improve Efficiency at Intersections

 Alternate green lights help reduce waiting times by providing organized access to
the junction.
 Adaptive traffic signals can adjust timing based on real-time traffic volume.

1
Benefits Summary:
Purpose How It Helps

Safety Reduces crashes and protects pedestrians

Order Assigns clear right-of-way

Flow ControlManages heavy traffic at busy intersections

Time Efficiency
Minimizes delays with proper signal timing

AccessibilityAids disabled and vulnerable road users

Types of Traffic Signals

Traffic signals are categorized based on their function and the type of traffic they control. They help in
organizing vehicle and pedestrian movement safely and efficiently.

1. Fixed-Time Signals

 Operate on a pre-set cycle (e.g. 60 seconds green, 30 seconds red).

 Does not change based on actual traffic conditions?
 Ideal for intersections with predictable and consistent traffic flow.

Example: Small urban junctions with equal traffic volumes from all directions.

2. Traffic-Actuated Signals

 Sensors or cameras detect vehicle presence and adjust signal timing accordingly.
 More responsive and efficient than fixed-time signals.
 Helps reduce delays and improve flow during varying traffic conditions.

Example: Intersections near shopping centers or variable-volume roads.

3. Manual Signals

 Operated by traffic police using hand signals or control switches.

 Used in emergency situations, road repairs, or areas with signal failure.

Example: Events, VIP movement, or temporary diversions.

4. Pedestrian Signals

 Allow safe crossing for pedestrians by stopping vehicle traffic.

 Often include visual (walk/don’t walk) and auditory cues.
 May operate independently or in coordination with vehicle signals.

Example: Crosswalks near schools, markets, or hospitals.

2
5. Flashing Signals

 Used to alert or warn in special situations.

 Flashing Red: Stop and proceed when safe.
 Flashing Yellow: Proceed with caution.

Example: Railway crossings, accident-prone zones, or nighttime low-traffic intersections.

6. Special Signals

 Include signals for buses, trams, bicycles, or emergency vehicles.

 May show arrows, letters, or symbols.

Example: Bus-only lanes or tram intersections.

Summary Table:

Type Function Common Use Cases

Fixed-Time Regular cycle, unchanging Uniform traffic flow

Traffic-Actuated Varies with detected traffic Busy or variable intersections

Manual Operated by authorities Emergencies, VIP movement

Pedestrian Ensures safe walking crossings Schools, hospitals, busy markets

Flashing Warns or cautions in special Railway crossings, night-time operation

conditions
Special Used for specific vehicles or road Bus/tram priority, bike lanes
users
Factors Affecting Traffic Signal Design
Designing an effective traffic signal system involves careful consideration of various technical,
environmental, and human factors to ensure safe and efficient movement at intersections.

1. Traffic Volume
 One of the most critical factors.
 Includes vehicular count (by type) and pedestrian flow during different times of day.
 Helps determine the number of phases, cycle length, and green time.

2. Road Geometry
 Refers to the layout and dimensions of the intersection.
 Includes:
o Number and width of lanes
o Turning radii
o Sight distances
o Presence of medians or dividers
 Affects signal placement, visibility, and timing.

3
 3. Type of Intersection
 T-junction, crossroad, roundabout, or multi-leg intersection.
 More complex intersections require multi-phase signals and longer cycles.

4. Pedestrian Movement
 Areas with high foot traffic (e.g., near schools, malls, or transit hubs) must account for
safe pedestrian crossing time.
 May require exclusive pedestrian phases or pedestrian push buttons.

5. Traffic Composition
 Mix of cars, trucks, buses, two-wheelers, and non-motorized traffic.
 Heavier or slower vehicles may require longer clearance times or dedicated lanes.

6. Peak and Off-Peak Variations

 Design must consider hourly or seasonal variations in traffic demand.
 Adaptive signals may be needed to adjust based on real-time traffic flow.

7. Accident History
 Intersections with a history of frequent accidents may require special signal timing,
flashing signals, or dedicated turning phases.

8. Environmental Conditions
 Includes weather, lighting, and topography.
 Poor visibility or fog-prone areas may need brighter signals or longer amber phases.

9. Legal and Policy Guidelines

 Must comply with national or local traffic control standards (e.g., IRC in India, MUTCD
in the US).
 May influence signal height, color, timing, and pedestrian rights.

Summary Table:
Factor Impact on Signal Design

Traffic Volume Cycle length, number of phases

Road Geometry Signal placement, visibility, lane configuration

Intersection Type Phase complexity, timing needs

Pedestrian Movement Crossing time, separate signal phase

Traffic Composition Clearance intervals, lane needs

Peak Hour Variability Adaptive or dynamic timing

Accident Records Safety-driven design changes

Environmental Conditions Signal brightness, timing under poor visibility

Legal Standards Compliance with design norms and policies

4
Merits and Demerits of Traffic Signals

Traffic signals play a key role in managing urban traffic. However, while they improve control and
coordination, they also come with certain limitations.

Merits of Traffic Signals

Merits Description

1. Improved Safety Reduces chances of collisions, especially at busy intersections.

2. Efficient Traffic Flow Regulates traffic movement systematically, minimizing confusion.

3. Right-of-Way
Clearly defines who moves when, improving fairness at junctions.
Assignment

Provides dedicated crossing phases for pedestrians and

4. Pedestrian Protection
vulnerable users.

5. Handles Heavy Traffic Controls traffic in high-volume areas more effectively than stop signs.

6. Adaptability Smart signals adjust timing based on real-time traffic data.

7. Visual Enforcement Helps enforce traffic rules; violations are easier to detect.

Demerits of Traffic Signals

Demerits Description

1. Increased Delay May cause unnecessary stops, especially during low-traffic hours.

2. Cost of Installation Expensive to install and maintain, especially adaptive systems.

3. Risk of Rear-End
Sudden braking at red lights may lead to rear-end accidents.
Collisions

4. Non-compliance Issues Drivers may run red lights, especially when visibility is poor.

Traffic signals stop functioning during power outages unless

5. Power Dependency
backed up.

6. Over-Control Signals at low-volume intersections can frustrate drivers.

7. Pedestrian Delay Pedestrians may have to wait longer during vehicle-priority phases.

Signalized Intersections

A signalized intersection is a road junction controlled by traffic signals (lights) that assign right-of-
way to different streams of vehicles and pedestrians in a cyclical manner. These intersections are
widely used in urban traffic systems to manage complex vehicle and pedestrian movements safely
and efficiently.

5
Key Features of Signalized Intersections

1. Traffic Signals
o Mounted on poles or overhead structures.
o Operate in cycles with green, amber, and red phases.
2. Phases and Cycles
o Each movement (straight, left turn, etc.) gets a time slot (phase).
o A cycle is the total time to complete all phases once.
3. Lane Markings and Directional Arrows
o Help guide vehicles into the proper lane for each movement.
4. Pedestrian Crosswalks and Signals
o Timed signals to allow safe pedestrian movement across the road.
5. Detectors or Sensors (Optional)
o In traffic-actuated signals, detect the presence or absence of vehicles.

Advantages of Signalized Intersections

 Provide orderly movement of traffic.

 Reduce conflicts between opposing traffic streams.
 Allow safe pedestrian crossings.
 Can be coordinated with nearby signals for smoother traffic flow.
 Adaptive signals can adjust timings in real-time to reduce delays.

Disadvantages of Signalized Intersections

 May lead to long delays if poorly timed.
 Increased rear-end collisions due to sudden stopping.
 Higher cost of installation and maintenance.
 Complex design and operation, especially in high-volume intersections.

Common Layout Components:

Component Purpose

Signal heads Display light signals to control traffic

Stop lines Mark where vehicles must stop for red signals

Crosswalks Define pedestrian crossing paths

Lane markings Guide turning and through movements

Detection systems Trigger light changes based on vehicle presence

Signboards Provide instructions or restrictions (e.g. no U-turn)

Example: A 4-Way Signalized Intersection

Phases might include:
1. North-South through traffic
2. North-South left turns
3. East-West through traffic
4. East-West left turns
5. Pedestrian crossing phase

6
 Signal Coordination (Traffic Signal Synchronization)

Signal coordination is the technique of timing a series of traffic signals along a corridor or network
so that vehicles can move through multiple intersections with minimal stops. It’s commonly
used on urban arterial roads to enhance traffic flow efficiency and reduce delays.

Objectives of Signal Coordination

 🚗 Smooth traffic progression along major routes
 Minimize travel time and delays
 💨 Reduce fuel consumption and emissions
 🚦 Avoid frequent stops and restarts at consecutive signals
 Optimize intersection performance in a network

Key Concepts

1. Cycle Length
 Total time to complete all phases at a signal.
 Coordination requires consistent or compatible cycle lengths across intersections.

2. Offset
 The time difference between the start of green at one intersection and the next.
 Critical for creating green waves, where vehicles hit green lights in succession.

3. Split Time
 The portion of the cycle allocated to each phase (e.g., green for northbound, left turn, etc.).

4. Bandwidth

 The time window during which vehicles can travel through the corridor without stopping.

Types of Coordination Systems

Type Description

Time-Based Uses pre-set timing plans; often used where traffic is predictable.

Traffic-Responsive Adjusts signal timing based on real-time sensor data.

Centralized Managed from a traffic control center; allows coordinated city-wide control.

Adaptive Uses AI or algorithms to predict and respond dynamically to traffic flows.

Benefits of Signal Coordination

 ✔ Reduces stopping and idling

 ✔ Improves average travel speed
 ✔ Decreases fuel use and air pollution
 ✔ Enhances road user satisfaction
 ✔ Eases public transport and emergency vehicle movement

7
Limitations

 ❌ Less effective if side street volumes are high.

 ❌ Requires regular retiming as traffic patterns evolve.
 ❌ Cost of installing sensors and communication systems.
 ❌ May not work well during incidents or unexpected congestion.

Delineators and Attenuators

These are essential roadside safety devices used to improve visibility, guide drivers, and reduce the
severity of crashes in hazardous areas.

1. Delineators

Definition:
Delineators are reflective markers or devices placed along roadways to indicate road alignment,
especially during night or low-visibility conditions.

Purpose:

 Guide drivers along curves, ramps, or lane edges.

 Enhance visibility during fog, rain, or nighttime.
 Prevent vehicles from veering off the roadway.

Types of Delineators:

Type Location/Use Case

Post Delineators Placed on roadside or medians

Guardrail Delineators Mounted on safety barriers

Chevron Delineators Used on sharp curves or turns

Installed on concrete barriers

Barrier-Mounted Delineators

Features:

 Retro-reflective surfaces (yellow, white, red)

 Mounted at regular intervals (e.g., every 50–100 meters)
 Not meant to stop vehicles—purely visual guidance

8
 2. Attenuators (Crash Cushions)

Definition:
Attenuators are energy-absorbing devices installed in front of fixed objects or barriers to reduce the
impact force during a vehicle collision.

Purpose:

 Minimize injury or vehicle damage by absorbing crash energy.

 Protect structures like toll booths, bridge piers, signposts, etc.
 Redirect errant vehicles away from hazards.

Types of Attenuators:

Type Description/Use Case

Sand Barrel Arrays Simple and low-cost; filled with sand to absorb impact

Hydraulic/Mechanical Use pistons, springs, or fluid to slow down the vehicle

Crashworthy End Terminals Installed at guardrail ends to reduce severity

Truck-Mounted Attenuators (TMA) Attached to work-zone vehicles to protect crews

Key Characteristics:

 Designed to crumple or deform safely on impact

 Reusable or sacrificial depending on type
 Must meet safety standards like NCHRP 350 or MASH

Comparison Summary
Feature Delineators Attenuators

Guide drivers visually

Function Absorb crash energy

Road edges, curves, medians

Location Fixed hazards, work zones, terminals

ContactNo physical contact expected Designed for crash impact

MaterialReflective plastic or metal Steel, plastic, rubber, or sand

Improves night/low-visibility driving Reduces crash severity

Usefulness

Traffic Safety Barriers

Traffic safety barriers are physical structures installed on or along roads to protect vehicles and road
users by preventing crashes or reducing their severity. They are especially critical in high-risk zones
like highways, bridges, sharp curves, and medians.

9
Objectives of Safety Barriers

 Prevent vehicles from leaving the roadway

 Shield hazards like poles, drop-offs, or bridge piers
 Reduce crash severity through energy absorption or redirection
 Separate opposing lanes of traffic to avoid head-on collisions
 Protect pedestrians, cyclists, and work zones

Types of Traffic Safety Barriers

1. Rigid Barriers

 Material: Concrete (e.g. Jersey or New Jersey barriers)

 Function: Redirect vehicles without deformation
 Best Use: High-speed roads, bridges, medians
 Pros: Strong, low maintenance
 Cons: High impact force, can injure occupants

2. Semi-Rigid Barriers (Guardrails)

 Material: Steel beams (e.g. W-beam or Thrie-beam)

 Function: Flexes on impact and absorbs energy while redirecting vehicle
 Best Use: Highway edges, curves, embankments
 Pros: Moderately absorbs energy, relatively easy to install
 Cons: Still causes moderate deceleration forces on vehicles

3. Flexible Barriers (Cable Barriers)

 Material: Steel wire ropes mounted on posts

 Function: Absorbs impact and deflects vehicle gradually
 Best Use: Medians, wide shoulders, areas needing high energy absorption
 Pros: High energy absorption, low severity crashes
 Cons: Requires more space (deflection area), higher maintenance

4. Crash Cushions (Impact Attenuators)

 Installed at the ends of barriers or in front of hazards

 Absorb and dissipate energy upon impact
 May use sand barrels, hydraulic pistons, or deformable materials

5. Bridge Barriers

 Specially designed to prevent vehicles from falling off bridges

 Often rigid due to limited space and high protection needs

10
Comparison Table
Type Energy Absorption Deflection Maintenance Cost

Rigid Barrier Low Very low Low Moderate

Semi-Rigid Barrier
Medium Medium Moderate Moderate

Flexible Barrier High High High Lower initial cost

Crash Cushion Very High Variable High High

Benefits of Traffic Safety Barriers

 Saves lives by containing or redirecting errant vehicles

 Minimizes vehicle damage and injury severity
 Protects road infrastructure and non-motorized users
 Essential in high-speed and hazard-prone areas

11