Objective

To demonstrate a
function which is one- one and
onto.
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required :
When a mapping is said to be a
function?
When a function is said to be
one-one?
e When afunction is
said to be onto?
aterial Required :
Asheet of cardboard,
plastic strips, strings, nails,
thod of Construction adhesive, etc.
Step 1: Take a sheet of cardboard
and paste on it two strips
as shown in Fig. 5.1. (denoting sets Xand Y) using adhesive,
Step 2: Fix four nails in strip X and
four nails in strip Y. Name the nails of
nails of strip Y as 1, 2, 3 and 4, as strip X as a, b, c and d. Name the
shown in Fig. 5.2.
Step 3: Join nailsof strip Xto the nails
of strip Y with strings as shown in
Fig. 5.3.
X Y X Y X Y
"1
1

bo "2
be 2

C "3

d 4
d 4

Fig. 5.1 Fig. 5.2 Fig. 5.3

stration /Observation :
Every element of X is mapped to an element
of Y,
image ofa is 2; image of b is 3; image of c is 4;
image of d is 1.
Every element of Yhas a pre-image in X.
ore-image of 2 is a; pre-image of 3 is b; pre-image
of 4 is C; pre-image of 1 is d.
Discussion and Conclusion :
Since every element of X is mapped to an element of Y, the mapping defined from X to Yis a funs
Further,
element of Y, the function is one-one.
As every element of X is mapped unigquely to an
function is onto.
As every element of Yhas a pre-image in X, the
and onto.
Hence, the function defined from X to Y is one-one
Objective :
decreasing and increasing functions.
To understand the concept of
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required
Meaning of decreasing and increasing functions.
contained in the domain of a real-valued function f. Then, f is said to be
open
Let I be an interval
all x, X, E I;
(i) increasing on Iif x, <x, in I, thenf (x)s f(x), for
f(X,), for all x, XyE l;
(ii) strictly increasing on I if x, < x, in I, then f (x) <
all x, x,¬ I;
(ii)decreasing on Iif x, < x, in I, thenf (x)> f(x), for
(x), for all x, X, ¬ I.
(iv) strictly decreasing on I if x, < x, in I, thenf (x,) > f
Material Required :
plywood board, pieces of wiresof different lengths, white papers, sketch pens, adhesive,geom
A pieceof
box, trigonometric tables.
Method of Construction:
convenient size, using adhesive.
Step 1: Paste a white paper on a plywood of a
them on the white paper pasted on the plyw
Step 2 : Take two pieces of wires of convenient size and fix
figure below.
to represents x-axis and y-axis as shown in the
in the shape of curves representing
Step 3: Take two more wires of suitable lengths and bend them
functions and fix them on the white paper as shown in the figure below.

P,

Fig. 14.1
Demonstration /Observations
Take one straight wire and place it on the curve (on the left) such that it is tangent to the curve at the
point P and making an angle of o, with the positive direction of x-axis. As 0, is an obtuse angle,
so tan a is negative, i.e,, the slope ofthe tangent at P, (derivativeof the function at P)is negative.
Take another two points P, and P,on the same curve, and make tangents, using the same wire, at P
and P, making angles of a, and a, respectively with the positive direction of x-axis.
Here, again, and a,are obtuse angles, so tan o, and tan d, are negative, i.e., the slopes of the tangents
at P, and P; (derivatives of the function at P, and Pa) are negative.
Thus, the function given by the curve ( on the left) is a decreasing function.
3 On the curve ( on the right), take three points Q,, Q,, Q, and using the other straight wires, form
tangents at each of these points making angles of B,B,B,,respectively with the positive direction of
I-axis, as shown in the figure. B,.B,B, are all acute angles.
So, the derivatives of the function at these points are positive .
Thus, the function given by the curve (on the right) is an increasing function.
Discussion and Conclusion:
Note that some functions are neither increasing nordecreasing on whole of its domain. In some parts of
their domain, they are increasing and in another parts they are decreasing. For example, f () =r is
decreasing from ( o , 0) and increasing from (0, co).
Also, let f (x)be a continuous function on a, b] and differentiable in (a, b). Then,
(i) if f'(x) <0, for all xe (a, b), thenf (x) is decreasingin [a, b];
(ii) if f'(x) >0, for all xe (a, b), then f (x) is increasing in [a, b];
 Actlu
Objective: nd pont of intlecton
mima, lxal minima
Iounderstand the nent of lal
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required :

LZ at =2ii there
Areal - valued function : =i i s said to attain Nl
(a-k.à - h) of a such that iasta) for all x (a - h. i - h).
Afunction v=ndis said to attain : inina at i =2if there eusts a neighbourhO0d (-à:sh
that frl>fa) tor all r= (a- h. 2 - ).
Afuncion v= i) is said to have anoint efinnetion at a
( )does not hange sign s weE
right through i.
Material Required
Apiece of plwood board. pieces of
wires of different lengths, white
Method of Construction : papers, sketch pns s
Step 1: Paste a white paper on
a plwood of a
Step 2: Iake two pieces of convenient size, using adhesive.
wires each of length 10 m
plwood to represents i - ais and ñ them on the
and v -ais as shown in white aper
Step 3: Iake another the igure below.
wireof suitable length
paper pasted on the and bend it in the shape of a
Step 4: Iake five more w pliwood, as shown in the figure. curne.
ires each of
shown in the figure. length, sav 1.3 cm and
ir them at the

Fig. 15.1
JBD Effectug! M-ih
Demonstration and Observation :
3 In the figure, smallwires at the points A, B,Cand Drepresent tangents to the curveand are parallel to
the x-axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are zero, i.e., the value of the first derivatives at these
pointsis zero. The tangent at P intersects the curve.
At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to positive. So, they are the
points of local minima.
* At the points Cand D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to negative. So, they are the
points of local maxima.
Atthe point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of inflection.
Discussion and Conclusion :
* Point of local maximaor local minima of a function areamong the critical points of the function.
Critical points of a functionf(x) are determined by equating f (x) to zero.
There is another test (called second derivative test) for examining local maxima and local minima of
a function,which is as given below:
S Let fbe a given function defined on an intervalI and a [Link]" () exists at a.
(i) Iff a) =0 andf" (a) >0, then x = a is a point of localminima and f (a) is a local minimum value.
(i)If f (a) =0 and f" (a) <0, then x = ais a point of local maxima and f(a) is a local maximum value.
 Objective
absolute minimaof a function in a
given closed inte.
Tohderstand the oept of absolute maina and

through its graph.

Pre-requisite Knowedge Required

(Understand1g of absolute mnavima and absolute miima of afwctionin a givwn closedmteral.
minimum or even a local minim
Ve know that a tunction may have à number of local maximum or local
mav be greater than a relative maximum. Der

Further, a local maximum value may or mav not the greatest value (absolute maximum) and a local minim
valuemav or may not be the least (absolute minimum) value of the function in agiven interval.
Thus, ifa function fis differentiable on a closed la, bl, then it attains the absolute maximum or absol
minimum at some points where f (1) =0 or at the end point of the interval [a, b]
Material Required:
Drawing board, white chartpaper, agraph paper, geometry box, pencil, eraser, sketch pens, ascale, adhesi:
Dis
and acalculator.
Not
Method of Construction :

Step 1: Paste a white chart paper on aplywood of aconvenient size, using adhesive.
Step 2: Draw two perpendicular lines ox and yoy on the White chart paper as the twO
rectangular av
and graduate the two axis as shown in the figure.
Step 3: Let the given function be f (x) = (4r- 1) (r- 1) in the closed interval [-2 21
Step 4: Prepare atableof values of f (x) for some x e(-2, 2]
0+0.5 1 t1.25 t1.27 tI.5 +2
f)9 -1.55 -I.56 0 21
 Step ):ot these points (x, f(r)) on the coordinato axes and ioin them by a free hand
curve, as shown in
the figure.

(2.21)

100,9)

(,0) (1,0) L.5,0)

(1.50)

Fig. 16.1
Demonstration and Observations :
* For the given function, we have f' () =8r (?-1) +2x (4r? -9) =2x (8r2 -13)
o Equating 2x (8r- 13) to zero, we have
21 (8r-13) = 0 ’x=0 and x =t (=+ 1.27)
These values lie in the closed interval (-2, 2]
f(r)=9 at x =0;f (r) =- 1.56 at x = + 1.27; f(x) =21 at x =+2
Thus, the absolute maximum value of f(x) is 21 at x =+2, and absolute minimum value is - 1.56 at
X=+1.27

Discussion and Conclusion :

Note That:
* If fisan increasing function on aclosed interval [a,b], then fattains its absolute maximum value at b;
and absolute minimum value at a.
(For example,fx) =x-2, xe[2,3])
* If fis an decreasing function on a closed interval [a,b], thenf attains its absolute maximum value at a;
and absolute minimum value at b.
(For example, fx) = 5-x,xe [1,3))
If the function is neither increasing nor decreasing , absolute maximum and absolute minimum may
occur at critical points.
(For example, f(x)= sin x + cos x, x e [0, 2r]|
< Every continuous function on a closed interval has at least one absolute maximum value and at least
one absolute minimum value.
 Dbjective:
To Construct an open box of maximum volume
from a given rectangular sheet by cutting equal
from each coner. squares
Wre-requisite Knowledge Required :
Knowledge of basic paper folding.
Knowledge of the formula for the volume of a
cuboid/ cube.
Katerial Required :
Eight sheets of Chart paper of the same size, scissor,
scale, cello tape/adhesive andcalculator.
hethod of Construction:
Step 1: Take a rectangular sheet of chart
paper of any size,say 20 crm z 10 cm.
Step 2: Cut out four equal squares each of side x
cm (say 1 cm) from each corner of the chart
Step 3: By using adhesive/cello tape, make an paper.
open box by folding its flaps.
4

Fig. 17.1
Step 4: By repeating the above process, make open
boxes of different sizes
by cutting out squares of varying
sizes, say x = 1.5 cm,1.8 cm. 2 cm, 2.1cm, 2.2 cm.
2.5 cm.3 cm from the same size chart paper
Demonstration /Observations sheet
When x =1 cm, the volume of the box ( V,) = 144 cucm
When x= 1.5cm, the volume of the box (V,)
=178.5 cu cm
When x = 1.8 cm, the volume of the box (Va) =
188.9 cu cm
When x = 2cm,the volume of the box ( V) = 192 Cu cm
When x = 2.1 cm, the volume of the box ( V,) = 192.4 cu
cm
When x = 2.2 cm, the volume of the box (V) = 192.2 cu cm
When x = 2.5 cm, the volume of the box ( V)
= 187.5 cu cm
When t =3cm, the volume of the box(V,) = 168
cu cm
llere, of the eight V's, V, is the maximun
Discussion and Conclusions :
Vone of theisum whenl m.
* lt the sre ot the chart;
tNNrchnges ani = lcm rennain the sme, it is not true that the vohu
the hr will votu
maimum.
(U for th chart par sze Wm 1l cm volume of the hn is maimum when r =25 cm
(u)For the chart paper size 45 cm 4 cm. volume ot the on ismaimum when = 5 m
(Ihs acthviv is verv meaningtul in mking hees of maimum volume with least cost|

Algebraic Treatment
Let Vbe the volume of the box. Then,
V= (20- 21) (10- 2) (r), ie. 2001-60+4r
=200-1N+12

For max/min, we equate to zero, and get 200-120 +12r- = 0

ie. 50-0 + 3=0
ie., 30:900-600

30-10 127 473

x=21 |Rejecting x=79

Now, -24r-120 ’ is negative.

21
So, V is maimum at x=21 cm.
Objective
Activiky
To locate the ponts to given coodinates
then to verity the distance, using in space measure the distance between
two points in space aTu
distance formula.
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required
Conceptof a pont in space, the coordinates of apoint on axes and
of points in space, coneept of distance of in xy-plane, yz-plane, zx-plarne, plotting
two points of a space, distance formula, etc.
Material Required
Drawing board, geometry box, squared /graph paper, nails of different
lengths, geometry box, adhesive.
Method of Construction :
Step 1: lake adrawing board of suitable size and paste a
square/graph paper on it, using adhestve.

C(4,1,3)
2,2,2 B 4

3
2 cm 3 Cm

2,2)
M
(4,1)
-5432 1 34
D(3;5;4)
A
(-2,31)lcm
L
fE23)-3 4 Cm

6
(3, 5)

Fig. 23.1
 Step 2 : Draw two coordinate
perpendicular linCs x'ox and y'o,O being the origin, depicting axes.
Step 3: Graduate the axes by
taking lunit = cm.
tep : Ix athick wire through ). in the vertical direction, representing ue
Step : Fix nails of lengths 1cm, 2 cm. 3 cm,
4 cm, etc at direret P
on the square pape, Say
L-2,- 3), N(-2, 2), M (4, 1), S (3, - 5),
etc.
{Artist : Show four nails of leneths 1cm.2 cm. 3 cm and 4Cm
nco
OPPer tipsof these nails represent the noints. savA. [Link] the space. The coordnates of A, R
Cand Dare A (-2, 3, 1), B -2.2.2), C(4. 1.3) andD (3, 5, 4) respectively
Demonstration and Observations :
Using ascale, measure the distance AB, BC, CD, DA,
etc.
AB = 5.1 cm; BC = 6.2 cmn; CD = 6.2
cn; DA = 6.2 cm
By distance formula,

AB = /2+2)² +(2 +3)² +(2-1)² = /26 = 5.099

BC = (4+2)² +(1-2y +(3-2)² = V38 = 6.164
CD =J(3-4)? +(-5-1) +(43)2 =/38 6.164
DA = V-2-3)² +(-3+5)² +(1-4 = /38 = 6.164
Discussion and Conclusion :
Since apaper or agraph paper is 2-dimensional, a point in space having three coordinates cannot be shown
on the paper. Hence, actual measurement of AB, BC, CDand DA drawn on the graph paper, using a scale
may not be accurate.
But if we measure these distances as the distances betweern top of nails ixed on the drawing board the
measurements will match the ones obtained using the
distance formula.
 Objective:
through a point a and is normal to the vector >
plane passing
To demonstrate the cquation ofa
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required :
law of addiion of vectors, equation of a plane passing through a point
Knowledge of triangle
normal to the vector n.
Material Required:
sides,three pier.
Two piecesof hard board of suitable size, athin steel rod with nuts and bolts on both
wire, pen/pencil.
Method of Construction
Step 1: Take two pieces of hard board of size, say 10 cm x 12cm and fix thin steel rod perpendicular:
both the pieces by using nuts and bolts. Thus, this steel rod represents the normal to the plarg
Step 2: Take two pieces of wire and fix them as shown in the figure below so that OP represents the vet
a and OA represents the vector r.
Step 3: With the help of the third piece of wire, connect P and A.

NP. r-á A
Plane 1

Plane 2

Fig. 24.1
Demonstration and Observation :
The triangle law of addition of vectors clearly represents
vector Pa as r a
As vector r - a lies in Plane I and vector n Is
perpendicular to Plane 1(r - d ). n =0
This is requiredequation of the plane passing through a point and is normal to the
vector n
Discussion and CConclusion:
Jeing ativity we candenonstrate the cquation of aplane in
normal form
Let r be the posithon vetor of a point D' lying in a plane and dthe perpendicular distance of the plane
from the origin.

Then ON =d and oN = d.
N
Sine NP ION, NP L,

(r -d.n). n =0

r.n =d|: |n|= 1)

This is required equationof the plane in normal form.
 Acttul
0 b j e c t i v e

Ta measure the shortest distance between two skew

lines and verify it analytically.
Pre-requisite
Knowledge Required :
Knowledge of skew lines and distance between skew lines.
Two lines are called skew lines or non-intersecting lines if thev do not lie in the same plane. Skew lines are
neither parallel nor intersecting.
. If r = dj + b and =4+ |b are two skew lines, then the distance between them is given by

(bxb,).(a- a)
’

|hxb,|
Material Required :
Apiece ofplywood of size,say 30 cm x 20 cm,a squared paper,three wooden cubical blocks each of edge
2cm and one cuboidal wooden block of size 2 cm x 2 cm x 4 cm, wire of different lengths, set squares,
adhesive, pen/pencil, a scale.
Method of Construction :

Step 1: Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood.

Step 2: On the squared paper, draw two lines OA and OB to represent x-axis and y-axis, respectively.
block as IV.
Step 3: Name the three cubical blocks as I, IIand III. Name the cuboidal
the points (2, 2),(1, 6
Step 4: Place blocks I, II and IIIon the squared papers such that the base centres are at
base centre at (6, 2).
and (7,6) respectively. Place block IV with its
the bases of the block I and III. Join th
Step 5: Place a wire joining the points P and Q the centres of
as shown in the figure.
centres R and S of the tops of block Iland IV by another wire,
two skew lines.
Step 6: Now, these two wires represent
lines and measure the actual distance, usira
Step 7: Take a wire and join it perpendicularly with the skew
ascale.
 Demonstration and Observation
3 Place one perpendicular side of aset squareon the wire PQ.
Move the square along PQtill its other perpendicular side touches the wire RS.
3 Mark the touching point on the side of the set square and
remove the set square.
Kead the mark and determine the distance between the skew lines. This distance is the
shortest distan
between the two skew lines.
Discussion and Conclusion :
Here the coordinates of the points P, Q,
Rand S are:
P(2, 2, 0), Q (7, 6, 0), R(1, 6, 2) and S (6,
2, 4)
The equations of the two lines PQ and RS
are:
r=2i+2 + (5i+4j)and
r = i+6j +2k +u (5i-4ý+2k)
respectively.
ow, a4,-- a, =-i+4j+ 2k
A
j k
b, x bË =5 4 o =8?-10- 40Â
5 4 2

|b, xb, |= 8 +(-10) +(-40) = 42

 8-40- 80 128

Thus S.D, = |(4x6)(a ) 128]

3.04.
42

Verify that the actual shortest distance is nearly equal to 3.04.

 Actlvlt
Objective: when the event B has
probability of a given event A, alre
explain the computation of conditional
To of dice.
occurred, through an example of throwing a pair pisc
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required : and E be an event such that n(S)
sample space =n
Concept of probability of an event : Let Sbe the
n(E) =m. If each outcome is equally likely, then
m Number of outcomes favourable to event E
P (E) = n
Number of total possible outcomes
Conditional Probability :If A
and Bare two events associated with the same sample space of the rand
experiment, the conditional probability of the event Awhen Bhas already occurred isgiven by
P(ANB)
P(A/B) = P(B) where PB) 0
Material Required :
Plywood board, white paper, pen/pencil, scale, adhesive, a pair of dice.
Method of Construction :
Step 1: Paste a white paper on the plywood board, using adhesive.
Step 2: Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares
of size 1 cm each as shown below :
Step 3: Write pairs of numbers in these 36 unit squares,
as shown below :
1,1|| 1, 2 1,3|| 1,4|| 1,5|1,6

2, 1 2, 2| 2,3 2, 4|| 2, 5|| 2,6

3, 1 3, 2| 3,3| 3, 4| 3, 5|3, 6
4,1|| 4, 2| 4,3 4,4|4, 5| 4,6
5, 1 5,2|| 5,3| 5,4| 5,5| 5,6
6, 1|| 6,2 6,3| 6, 4 6,5|| 6, 6
Demonstration and Observation :
When a pair of dice is thrown, 36 possible
outcomes that are obtained are
These 36 outcomes form sample space of the experiment of shown in
"throwing a pair of dice." the figure above.
 Let Events A and Bbe defined as:
Event A: "number 4 appears on both the dice"
Event B: "number 4 appears on at least oneof the dice "
* Let event Bhas occurred and then we wish to find the probability of eventA.
Here, Number of outcomes favourable to B= 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A=1
Number of outcomes favourable to AnB=1
So, P (A)= 36P(B)= 36P(AnB) = 36
P(ANB) 1/36
’ P (A/B) = P(B) |1/36

Discussion and Conclusion :

Conditional probability P(A/B) can also be found by first taking the sample space of
event B, out of the
sample space of the experiment, and then finding the probability of A from it.
(4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5), (4, 6)}
Sample Space of event B= {(1, 4), (2, 4), (3, 4), (4, 4), (5, 4), (6, 4), (4, 1),
Probabilityof A = 11
Bayes' Theorerm.
and The application of conditional probability can be found in
 Actiiusty
equival..
Objective: defined by R={ (7, m) :1 m) is an
plane,
that the relation R in the set Lof all lines in a
Toverify
relation.
Pre-requisite Knowledge Required

equivalence relation?
When arelation is said to be an
Material Required:
white paper,some pieces of wires (10), nails, glue, etc.
Arectangular plvwood board,
Method of Construction :
it a white paper with glue.
Step 1: Take arectangular plywood board and paste on
help of nails such that some of them are paralle
Step 2: Fix the wires randomly on the board with the
shown below.
perpendicular toeach other and some are inclined as
someare
Step 3: Denote the lines represented by wires as , l,, l3 .... 0

Fig. 2.1
Dermonstration /Observation :
I, is perpendicular to each of the lines l,, lay la, l.
l, is perpendicular to each of the lines l and lo:
* I, is perpendicular to each of the lines lg and
lo.
1, is parallel to I, l, is parallel to l4, is
parallel tol, is parallel to l,, lg is parallel to :
Discussiorn
and Conclusions :
In Fig. 2.1, every line is parallel to itself.
Can we say
that the relation Ris reflexive?
Yes

In Fig. 2.1,, , is parallel tol, ie,,l|

Is/,? Yes
It neans if , )eR, then (/, 1,) eR also.

Again,

l, is parallel to 4, i.e., 1,ll,

Isl, ||1,? Yes
It meansif (3 l) eR, then ( 1,) eR also.

Again,
l, is parallel to s, i.e., l,||s
Is l_ ||,? Yes
It means if (l4, l) eR, then (/s, l,) eR also.

Again,
1, is parallel to l, i.e., ; l4.
Is l, || 1,? Yes
It means if (l, l) eR,then (z, l)eR also.

Again,
lg is parallel to l, i.e., Ig || g
Is l,|1;? Yes
It means if (l¡, lo) e R, then (lo, l)eR also.
symmetric? Yes
Can we conclude that the relation R is

- In Fig, 2.1, 1,| 1, and l,||!4

Does it imply that I, ||,? Yes
then (, l) eR
It means if (,,l4) e Rand (l,,l) eR,
relation R is transitive.
Ihus, wecan say that the
symmetric and transitive.
Hence, the relation R is reflexive,
Therefore,R is an equivalence relation.