Challenges of Parenting and Kinship
Problems of Kinship
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Who would you save?
• If two people were drowning at the same time?
• A stranger? A relative?
• Are there other factors than relatedness?
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Hamilton’s Rule – c < rb
formulation of inclusive fitness
• Altruism incurs a cost to self and benefits another. Then, why
would we help?
• Cost must be outweighed by benefit, and the benefit must be
multiplied by relatedness
Cost < relatedness X benefit
• Sacrifice more for closer relatives
• Hamilton’s rule is a prediction about the general form of kin
mechanisms if they evolve Hamilton’s rule defines the conditions under which adaptations for aid to kin can
evolve. It defines the selection pressure to which genes for altruism—indeed any genes—
c is the cost to the actor, r is the degree of genetic relatedness between
the actor and the recipient (genetic relatedness can be defined as the probability are subject.
of sharing
a particular focal gene with another individual over and above the average
population
frequencyofthegene;seeDawkins,1982;Grafen,1991),
andb is the benefit to the
recipient. Both costs and benefits are measured in reproductive currencies. 3
fullsisterswere
far more likely than half sisters to cooperate in the mutual defense of
their young.
Theoretical implications
But sibs,
menopause
itself evolved as a means of ceasing direct reproduction to invest
in children and then
perhaps more than all other relatives, are also major competitors for parental resources. grandchildren,inwhathasbecomeknownasthe
“grandmotherhypothesis”
• Sibships, sibling vs half-sibling, grandparents and grandchildren
ego-centered kin terminology will be
• Universal aspects of kinship “Myuniversal. That is, in all societies, all kin will be classified in reference to a focal individual
parents are not the same people as your parents”
• Kin terminology is egocentric Mothers, for example, have 100 percent certainty in their genetic relatedness to children,
whereas fathers do not. Sons might become highly reproductively successful through
• Kinship systems distinguish sex multiple matings, whereas daughters cannot.
• Kinship systems distinguish generations With advancing age, children become increasingly valuable vehicles
for their parents, whereas parents become less and less useful to their
children.
• Closeness will be linked to relatedness kin relationships will be universally arrayed on a dimension of
closeness, and
• Cooperation will be linked to relatedness closeness will be highly linked with genetic relatedness.
• Elders encourage altruism toward extended family
• Your beliefs about “who you
Self is linked to kin network are” will include kin linkages, such as “son of X,” “daughter of Y,” or “mother of Z.”
• Awareness of relatives is universal people everywhere
seem keenly aware of who are their real kin.
• Terms of kinship are used for persuasion/influence
Because we would be
more likely to help a brother than a total stranger, the use of the term “brother” might in 4
some small way trigger the psychology of kinship
Alarm calling in squirrels
The alarm call might function to confuse the predator by creating a mad scramble, in which all the ground squirrels rush around for safety. This confusion might help the
squirrels, including the alarm caller, to escape.
• Predator confusion hypothesis ✗
• Parental investment hypothesis ✗
• Inclusive fitness hypothesis ✔︎
Although the alarm caller is placed at greater risk by sounding the signal, perhaps children are more likely to survive as a result. In this way, the alarm call might function
as a form of parental investment.
Although the signaler might suffer premature death, the squirrel’s aunts, uncles, brothers, sisters, father, mother, and cousins all ben efit. According to this hypothesis, the
signal alerts the “vehicles” that contain copies of the squirrel’s genes, providing an inclusive fitness benefit.
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Kin recognition & classification
Association
during childhood in human also produces subsequent sexual aversion, functioning as an
• Association (early exposure) incestavoidanceadaptation
• Odor We can detect kin by smell.
• Kin classification system: kin terms
• Includes distance, social rank, group membership
• Physical similarity Genealogical
distancereferstohowclose(e.g.,parentsandsiblings)ordistant(second-
people do indeed use facial resemblance as a degreeor
cue to kinship related third-degreecousins)[Link] rank refers to relative age, with the older being
ness more highly ranked than the younger. Group membership distinguishes different clumps
of kin, such as maternal versus paternal kin or same-sex versus opposite-sex siblings.
• Helps us recognize likely allies, who not to antagonize, who is
exploitable
The ability to
detect kinship clusters in others might be critical for solving important adaptive problems:
(1) Knowingwhoislikelytobealliedwithwhomifhostilitiesbreakout;(2)whonotto
antagonizebecausetheyhaveformidablekinincloseproximity;and(3)whomightbe
“exploitable”becausetheyhavefewkinprotectorsnearby
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Life-or-death help
• We invest (help) for a good return as increase in fitness (other’s
likelihood of producing offspring)
• 2 types of help: substantial vs. trivial
helpingotherswillbe
a direct function of the recipient’s ability to enhance the inclusive fitness of the helper.
(1)helpingthatissubstantial,suchasactsthat
affectwhethertherecipientwill
liveordie;and(2)helpingthatisrelativelytrivial,such
asgivingsomeonealittlespare
change. The predicted patterns of altruism should be stronger under the first
type than
the second.
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Other empirical evidence
• Genetic relatedness is a strong predictor of emotional
closeness. Frequency of contact, doing favors, grief also
indicate emotional closeness
(1)Individualswillmaintaingreatervigilanceoverthe
matingrelationshipsoftheirclosethandistantkin;and(2)individualswillmaintain
greatervigilanceoverthematingoftheirfemalethanmalekin
• We are vigilant about closer kin’s relationships
close kin in creating less stressful environments and also indicate
• Being around kin reduces stress the stress to which kids are exposed without kin around.
• Being around kin increases actual survival rate havingoldersiblingsof eithersexislinkedwith
• We divide inheritance between closer kin. In remarriages, highersurvivalrates
younger spouse is less likely to get inheritence
(1)Peoplewillleavemoreoftheirestatestogeneticallyrelatedkinandspouses
than to unrelated people. (2)Peoplewillleavemore
toclosekinthantodistantlyrelatedkin.(3)Peoplewillleavemoretooffspringthan
to siblings, even though the average genetic relatedness is the same in these two types
of relationships. 8
Investment by grandparents
Findings show that the mother’s
mother is closer to, spends more
time with, and invests most
resources in the grandchild,
whereas father’s father scores
lowest on these dimensions.
Findings
presumably reflect evolved
psychological mechanisms
sensitive to the degree of
certainty of genetic
relatedness.
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Evolution of families
remainingintheparentalnest(ordelayingdeparturefromthenest)
carries a tremendous reproductive cost.
• Only 3% of all birds and mammals form families
• Families cost reproductive opportunities
• Ecological constraints model
• Families emerge in scarcity of reproductive opportunities that might be available to
the sexually mature
• Familial benefits model [Link]
theseconditions,
• Help from family, inheritance, inclusive fitness boththecostof
stayingwithinthe
familyandtheben
(1) enhancedsurvivalasaresultofaidandprotectionfromfamilymembers,(2) an
efits of leaving are low. The
enhancedabilitytocompetesubsequently,perhapsbyacquiringskillsorgreatersize
heavy cost of staying within
andmaturityasaresultofstayingathome,(3)thepossibilityofinheritingorsharing
the family—delayed reproduc
thefamilyterritoryorresourcesasaresultofstayingathome,and(4)inclusivefitness
tion—vanishes because
benefits gained by being in a position to help and be helped by genetic relatives while
staying at home.
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Familial conflicts
siblings sometimes compete by increasing their level
of suckling, draining the maternal teats to the detriment of their littermates.
• Sibling conflict Selection favors adaptations in children to manipulate parents to secure a larger
• Parent-offspring conflict share
of resources and counteradaptations in parents not to bend solely to one child’s
desires.
• Parental conflict
over resource allocation, or parental conflict. Conflict between mothers and
fathers centers on how much parental investment each will give to the offspring within
the family.
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