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Hou

Resistor, Inductor,
Capacitor, and Circuits

Dr. Yunhe Hou

Dept. of Electrical & Electronic Eng.
The University of Hong Kong
yhhou@[Link]
[Link]

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Basic Circuit Elements

• An electrical circuit is an interconnection of circuit
elements involving one or more signal or power sources,
and one or more loads
• The most basic circuit elements are the resistor, inductor
and capacitor

Circuit Symbol

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Resistor

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Resistor
• A resistor is a physical two-terminal energy-dissipative
device
• It possesses a constant value of electrical resistance to
convert electrical energy into heat energy

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Unit of Resistance
q Resistance opposes or resists the flow of electrons
q The unit of electrical resistance is ohm
q The symbol for ohm is Ω

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Law of Resistance
• ALL electrical conductors have a small resistance
• The resistance (R) of a conductor
a. is not a physical device, but is inherently present
b. varies directly with its length (L)
c. varies inversely with its cross-sectional area (A)
s. is dependent on the nature (resistivity ρ) of the material
e. is dependent on the temperature of the conductor
• Temperature is neglected for the time being

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Resistance (R) of Conductors

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Example (1)
What is the resistance of R1 and R2?
"!
𝑅! = 𝜌! "
#( !)#
# R1
&.! )
= 640 Ωm ∗ $.$& ( #
#∗ # d1=4 cm I

= 50929.6 Ω,
"#
𝑅+ = 𝜌+ "
ρ1=640 Ωm L1=10 cm
#( ##)#

&.+ ) R2
= 0.46 Ωm ∗ $.$# ( #
#∗ # d2=2 cm I
= 292.8 Ω
ρ2=0.46 Ωm L2=20 cm

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Relationship of V, I, and R
• From Ohms Law (V = RI) Polarity of p.d. is reverse
of polarity of EMF

I / Amps +
p.d. = V

‒
q Straight line through the origin tells us that
current is directly proportional to voltage

Constant R

q Ratio (gradient) of V/I is constant and is

equal to resistance of the circuit

p.d. / Volts
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Example (2)

The figure shows the graph of potential difference across a cable against its
current. Find the resistance of the cable
,
𝑅= -
= Gradient of the graph
,
𝑅= -
=5Ω

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Power Loss of Resistance

• When current passes through resistance, some of the
energy carried by the current will be converted into heat
• This causes a loss in the electrical energy, and is known as
power loss
• The power loss on resistance R is
! !
𝑃 = 𝐼 𝑅 or 𝑃 = 𝑉 /𝑅
where I is the current through the resistance and V is the
potential difference across the resistance

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Conductor
• A good conductor has a small resistance and a small power
loss as heat

• In contrast, a poor conductor has relatively higher resistance

and is power lossy

• Electrical cables are made very good conductors with

minimal power loss
• The resistance of conductors can be equivalently modelled
as a physical resistor in electrical circuit diagram
• This resistor is not a physical device but a representation of
the conductor resistance

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Electrical Loads
• Electrical loads (fan, computer, light bulb etc.) and
electrical power loss are equivalently modelled as a
physical resistor in electrical circuit diagram

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Resistor Applications
Resistors are used
• For limiting current in electric circuits
• For lowering voltage levels in electric circuits (using voltage
divider)
• As current provider
• As a sensor (e.g., photoresistor detects light condition,
thermistor detects temperature condition, strain gauge
detects load condition)
• In electronic circuits, resistors are used as pull-up and pull-
down elements to avoid floating signal levels

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Resistor Rating
• Resistors are rated in Watts (W)

• This defines its upper power limit and should not

be violated

• A higher power-rated resistor can dissipate more

power than a lower power-rated resistor

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Resistor Types

qMost resistors have color bars to indicate their resistance

(fixed) value
qThere are usually 4 to 6 bands of color on a resistor

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Resistor Value

wide gap
q The right most color bar indicates the resistor tolerance (wide gap exist between this and
next bar)
q The color bar immediately left to the tolerance bar, indicates the multipliers C (in tens).
q To the left of the multiplier bar are the digits, starting from the last digit to the first digit

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Resistor Colour Codes

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Resistors - 4 and 5 bands

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Example (3)

• First band is yellow - first digit is 4

• Second band is violet - second digit is 7
• Third band is red - multiplier is 102
• Resistor value is 47´102 ± 5%(W)
• Resistor value is between 4465 W to 4935 W

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Variable Resistor
• The relationship between length of the material and
resistance allows us to make a variable resistor (or
rheostat)

Variable
Resistor
Symbol

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Actual Variable Resistor

A B
Incoming current slider

Outgoing current

• If the slider is moved in the direction A→B, the resistance will

increase because the length of wire through which the
current passes increases
• Variable resistors can be used as volume or brightness
controls on televisions, volume control on audio systems, light
dimmer switches

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Variable Resistor: Rotary Potentiometer

Trimmer resistors: used to calibrate and fine-tune circuits

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Different Types of Circuits

• There are different ways to connect
cells/battery and components (such as lamps)
to create a circuit:
Ø series
Ø parallel
Ø a mixture of both

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Series Vs Parallel Circuits

Series Circuits Parallel Circuits
• Components are connected • Both ends of the
end-to-end components are connected
• Only a single path for together
current to flow through • There are multiple paths for
each component current to flow

Components
(i.e., resistors, batteries, loads, etc.)

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Kirchhoff’s Laws (1845)
q Kirchhoff’s circuit laws are two laws
that are used to describe the current
and voltage behaviour of electric
circuits
q The two laws are
q Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
q Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

q Both laws are applicable to DC

circuits and AC circuits

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)
The principle of conservation of energy implies that the
sum of the EMFs in any closed loop is equivalent to the
sum of the potential drops in that loop

+ ‒
+
The sum of all the voltages around a loop is
‒ equal to zero, i.e.,
v1 + v2 + v3 - v4 = 0

‒ +

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Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
q Principle of conservation of electric charge implies that at any node (junction) in an
electrical circuit, the sum of currents flowing into that node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that node
q Current entering a node is assigned positive sign. Current leaving a node is assigned a
negative sign

The current entering any junction is equal to the

current leaving that junction, i.e., i2 + i3 = i1 + i4

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Series Circuits
• A circuit that contains only one path for current flow
• If the path is open anywhere in the circuit, current stops flowing
to all components

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Series Circuit Characteristics

+ ‒ + ‒ + ‒

q One electric current path from positive to negative

q The current is the same at each point
I1 = I 2 = I 3
q Current flowing through resistors creates P.D. of V1 to V3

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Series Circuit Characteristics

+ ‒
Equivalent circuit
q Relationship of voltages (KVL)
Vs = V1 + V2 + V3
q The total resistance of the circuit in series

Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
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Series Circuit Summary

• Current through every series component is equal
• Total resistance (RT) is equal to the sum of all of the resistances
(i.e., R1 + R2 + R3)
• Sum of all the P.D. voltage drops (VR1 + VR2 + VR3) is equal to the
total applied EMF voltage (VT) [KVL]
IT + VR1 -

+ +
VT VR2
- -

- V +
RT R3

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Illustration: Series Circuit
For the series circuit shown on slide 33, use the laws of
circuit theory to calculate the following:
• The total resistance (RT)
• The current flowing through each component (IT, IR1,
IR2, & IR3)
• The voltage across each component (VT, VR1, VR2, &
VR3)
• Use the results to verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

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Illustration: Series Circuit
Total Resistance:
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
RT = 220 W + 470 W + 1.2 kW
RT = 1900 W = 1.9 kW
Current Through Each Component:
VT
IT = (Ohm's Law)
RT V
12 v
IT = = 6.3 mAmp I R
1.89 kW
Since this is a series circuit:
IT = IR1 = IR2 = IR3 = 6.3 mAmp

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Illustration: Series Circuit
Voltage Across Each Component:

VR1 = IR1 ´ R1 = (Ohm's Law)

VR1 = 6.349 mA ´ 220 Ω = 1.397 volts
VR2 = IR2 ´ R2 (Ohm's Law)
VR2 = 6.349 mA ´ 470 Ω = 2.984 volts
V

VR3 = IR3 ´ R3 (Ohm's Law)

I R

VR3 = 6.349 mA ´1.2 K Ω = 7.619 volts

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Illustration: Series Circuit
Verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
VT = VR1 + VR2 + VR3
12 v = 1.397 v + 2.984 v + 7.619 v
12 v = 12 v
Resistor with a larger
resistance will have a larger P.
D. across it

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Example (4)
• Given VBAT=6 V, Rcopper=0.1 Ω, and Rbulb=5 Ω, calculate the
a) Current I flowing through the bulb
b) Power consumed by the bulb
c) Power loss of the circuit
d) Potential difference of the bulb
e) Total voltage drop of the copper wire

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Example (4)
Total resistance of the circuit is I
𝑅./012 = 𝑅3/4456 + 𝑅7827 +𝑅3/4456 = 5.2 Ω
+
(a) Current I
Vbulb ‒
,)*+ :
𝐼= = = 1.154 A
9+,-./ ;.+

(b) Power consumed by bulb

𝑃7827 = 𝐼 + 𝑅7827 = 1.154+ ×5 = 6.656 W

(c) Power loss of circuit

𝑃2/<< = 𝐼 + (2𝑅3/4456 ) = 1.154+ ×(0.2) = 0.266 W

(d) Potential difference of bulb

𝑉7827 = 𝐼𝑅7827 = 1.154×5 = 5.770 V

(e) Total voltage drop of copper wire

𝑉3/4456 = 𝑉=>. − 𝑉7827 = 6 − 5.770 = 0.23 V
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Parallel Circuits
• A circuit that contains more than one path for current
flow
• Even if a component is removed, it does not affect the
flow of current in other current paths in reaching other
components

current current

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Parallel Circuit Characteristics

q More than one current path –

components are connected to different
branches
+ ‒
q Each voltage is equal to supply voltage
(EMF)

+ ‒

+ ‒ VS = V1 = V2 = V3

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Parallel Circuit Characteristics

q Relationship of currents (KCL)

IT = I1 + I 2 + I 3
q The total resistance of the circuit in series

1 1 1 1
= + +
R T
R 1
R 2
R 3

Equivalent circuit

+ ‒

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Parallel Circuit Summary

• Voltage across all parallel components is equal
• The total resistance (RT) is equal to the reciprocal of the
sum of the reciprocal of individual resistances:
1 1 1 1 1
= + + RT =
R T R1 R 2 R 3 1 1 1
+ +
R1 R 2 R 3
• Sum of all currents in each branch (IR1+IR2+IR3) is equal to
the total current (IT) [KCL]
IT

+ + + +
VT VR1 VR2 VR3
- - - -

RT

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Illustration: Parallel Circuit
For the parallel circuit shown on slide 44, use the laws
of circuit theory to calculate the following:
• The total resistance (RT)
• The voltage across each component (VT, VR1, VR2, &
VR3)
• The current flowing through each component (IT, IR1,
IR2, & IR3)
• Use the results to verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law

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Illustration: Parallel Circuit
Total Resistance:
1
RT =
1 1 1
+ +
R1 R2 R3

1
RT = RT = 346.59 W= 350 W
1 1 1
+ +
470 W 2.2 kW 3.3 kW

Voltage Across Each Component:

Since this is a parallel circuit :
VT = VR1 = VR2 = VR3 = 15 volts

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Illustration: Parallel Circuit
Larger resistance,
Current Through Each Component: smaller current

VR1
IR1 = (Ohm's Law)
R1

VR2 15 v
IR2 = = = 6.818 mA = 6.8 mA V
R2 2.2 k W
V 15 v I R
IR3 = R3 = = 4.545 mA= 4.5mA
R3 3.3 k W
VT 15 v
IT = = = 43.278 mA = 43 mA
RT 346.59 W

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Illustration: Parallel Circuit
Verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law:

IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3

43.278 mA=31.915 mA+6.818 mA+4.545 mA

43.278 mA (43 mA) = 43.278 mA (43mA)

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 Series & Parallel

R1

R1 R2

R2

1 1 1
= +
RTotal R1 R2
RTotal = = R1 + R2 R1 R2
RTotal = =
R1 + R2
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Combination Circuits
• Contain both series and parallel arrangements
• What would happen if you removed light 1? Or light 2? Or
light 3?

2 3

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Example (5)
• Calculate the total resistance Rtotal.

Why?

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Potential Divider Circuit

• A voltage divider consists of two devices, usually
resistors, connected in series.

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Potential Divider Circuit

•The current in each resistor is calculated using Ohm’s Law
• It stays the same throughout the circuit

• In a voltage divider circuit

• If the resistance of one resistor is increased, the voltage

across this resistor will increase
• This means the other voltage must decrease

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Law of Voltage Division

R1
V1 = VS
R1 + R2
R2
V2 = VS
R1 + R2
R1
V1 = VS V1 is the voltage across R1
RT
V2 is the voltage across R2
R2 VS is the supply voltage
V2 = VS
RT RT is the total resistance

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Law of Current Division

(Demo Q1 and Q2 [4 min, 5 min])

Can you show how the equation is derived?

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Home Exercise
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If R2 increases, which voltage and current in the circuit

will increase?
I1

+
A. I 3 , V2 R1 V1
B. I 2 , V2 −
+
C. I 1 , V1 V I3 I2
−
D. I 3 , V1 +
R3 R2 V2
−

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Series AC Resistive Circuit

q Current through each element is the same and its

magnitude is dependent on the applied voltage and total
resistance of the circuit
q Regardless of the number of series connected resistors, the
current is always in phase with the applied voltage

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Example (6)
A circuit has an RMS AC voltage source of 280 V and two heating
elements of 40 W and 60 W connecting in series respectively. What
is the voltage drop across each heating element?

ANS:
Total circuit resistance,
RT = R1+R2 = 40 + 60 = 100 W
RMS current flowing through the circuit,
IR1 = IR2=IT=V/RT=280/100 = 2.8 A
RMS voltage drop across heating element-1,
V1 = IT R1 = 2.8 × 40 = 112 V
RMS voltage drop across heating element-2,
V2 = IT R2 = 2.8 × 60 = 168 V

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Parallel AC Resistive Circuit

q Voltage across each branch is the same

q Individual currents are in phase with applied voltage
q Magnitude of individual current through a resistor is dependent on
voltage applied and resistance value
q High resistor gives a lower current flow, and vice-versa. Currents
follow the voltage waveform (i.e., in phase with it) regardless of
their magnitudes

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Example (7)
A circuit has an RMS AC voltage source of 240 V applied across two
parallel heating elements of 390 W and 1 kW respectively. What is
the effective current flowing through each of the heating
elements?

ANS:

Voltage across each resistor is same, i.e.,

V = V1 = V2
RMS current through heating element-1 is
IR1 = V1/R1 = 240/390 = 0.615 = 615 mA
RMS current through heating element-2 is
IR2 = V2/R2 = 240/1000 = 0.24 = 240 mA

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Series Connection of Cells

• Current is the same for each cell

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Parallel Connection of Cells

I1 I2

• Ideally, both batteries provide equal currents to the load, i.e., I1 = I2 = 0.5I

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Delta - Star Transformation

R3 R2
Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 R3
A Rb =
R1 + R2 + R3 A
R2 R3 R1 R2
Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3 Ra
Rc
Rb

C R1 B C B

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Delta - Star Transformation

Impedance between A & C in Delta Network

R2 ( R1 + R3 )
RAC = R2 || ( R1 + R3 ) =
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 ( R2 + R2 )
RBC = R1 || ( R2 + R3 ) =
R1 + R2 + R3
R3 ( R1 + R2 )
RAB = R3 || ( R1 + R2 ) =
R1 + R2 + R3

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Delta - Star Transformation

For Star-Delta networks to be equivalent, Ra + Rb = RAB

R3 ( R1 + R2 ) ( R3 R1 + R3 R2 )
Ra + Rb = = 1
R1 + R2 + R3 R1 + R2 + R3
Similarly,

Rb + Rc =
( R2 R1 + R1 R3 )
2
R1 + R2 + R3

Rc + Ra =
( R2 R1 + R2 R3 )
3
R1 + R2 + R3

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Delta - Star Transformation

Subtracting 2 from 1,

Ra + Rb - Rb - Rc =
( R3 R1 + R3 R2 ) - ( R2 R1 + R1 R3 )
R1 + R2 + R3
R3 R2 - R2 R1
Ra - Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3
Also,
R3 R2 - R2 R1 + ( R2 R1 + R2 R3 )
Ra - Rc + Rc + Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
2 R3 R2
2 Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
R3 R2
Þ Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
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Delta - Star Transformation

• The equivalent star impedance connected to a

given terminal is equal to the product of the two
delta impedances connected to the same terminal
divided by the sum of the delta impedances
R3 R2
Ra =
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 R3
Rb =
R1 + R2 + R3
R1 R2
Rc =
R1 + R2 + R3

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Capacitors

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Capacitors
• Capacitors are two-terminal devices that possess a
specific measure of capacitance for storing energy in the
form of electrostatic charges on their conductive plates
• The unit of capacitance is Farads (F)
• Typical capacitors you can buy are in the range of F, mF,
µF, nF and pF

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Capacitor Construction

q A basic capacitor has two parallel plates that are separated by a dielectric insulating
layer, of which no current can flow through the capacitor
q The material of the dielectric determines the capacitor type, and the common types
are: mica, ceramic, electrolytic, tantalum and polyester-film

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Polarised Capacitor

q Some capacitors are polarised and can only be connected one way
around
q +ve terminal of capacitor must be connected to the higher potential
(+ve) terminal of the EMF and the remaining terminal of capacitor to
the lower potential (-ve) terminal of the EMF
q Electrolytic capacitors are polarised
q They are used in DC circuits

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Charging a Capacitor
q When capacitor is connected across DC supply, it charges up to
the value of the applied voltage (KVL)

Electrostatic Charge Develops on the

Plates
q Capacitor will maintain or hold this charge indefinitely as long as
the supply voltage is present

Electrostatic Field Stores

energy

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Capacitance of a Capacitor
q Capacitance is the amount of charge that a capacitor can store
per unit volt applied

q It is directly proportional to charge and inversely proportional

to voltage, i.e.,

Q
C= or Q = CV
V
where
C is capacitance in Farads (F)
Q is the total charge stored (C)
V is voltage across capacitor (V)

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Energy Stored in Capacitor

The total energy stored in a capacitor in joules (J) is
"
1 " 𝑄
𝑤! = 𝐶𝑉 or 𝑤! =
2 2𝐶
where
C is capacitance in Farads (F)
Q is the total charge stored (C)
V is voltage across capacitor (V)

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Discharging a Capacitor
q Apply a discharging component (here a short circuit
(see (b)) across the capacitor. (Safer to use a
resistor!)

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Capacitor Value Codes

• Physically large capacitors have their values printed directly on the
case
• Smaller capacitors are labeled using a code:
Ø 2-digit code: the number represents the value of the
component in pF
Example: 15 = 15 pF
Ø 3-digit code: first two digits represent the value of the
component in pF and third digit represents a 10’s multiplier
Example: 473 = 47 x 103 pF = 47 nF
Ø 3-digit plus one letter code: same as 3-digit code except that
the letter represents tolerance of capacitance (note that
different system exist)

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Example (8)

1500 µF 10 pF and 47 pF 10 x 104 pF =

0.1 μF

10 x 102 pF ± 10% = 1000 ± 100 pF

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Capacitor Labels
q Consider a ‘6.3 V 1500 µF’ capacitor shown in
the figure
q Note that:
Ø Connecting to the correct polarity (-ve polarity to
lower potential of voltage supply) is important,
otherwise, capacitor can explode
Ø Maximum voltage across the capacitor should not
exceed 6.3 V, otherwise (leakage or) breakdown
may occur
Ø Capacitance of 1500μF means the capacitor holds
1500 μC of charge for every 1 V of voltage across it

Q: What is the maximum amount of charge the capacitor can hold without
breaking down?

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 Capacitance Measurement
• The digital reading LCR
meter shown will allow
you to simply place the
Insert Fig 10.20
capacitor between the
provided clips with the
proper polarity and the
meter will display the level
of capacitance

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Capacitors in Series

+ ‒ + ‒ + ‒

q Capacitors in series have the same current flowing through

them as IT = IC1 = IC2 = IC3
q Each capacitor stores the same amount of electrical
charge, Q regardless of its capacitance, i.e., QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
=> VC1 ≠ VC2 ≠ VC3
q Equivalent capacitance CT of series capacitors is
1/CT = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3

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Capacitors in Parallel

CT = C1 + C2 + C3
+ + + + = 0.1uF+0.2uF+0.3uF
= 0.6uF

‒ ‒ ‒ ‒

q Capacitors in parallel have a “common voltage” supply across

them giving: VC1=VC2=VC3=VAB=12V
q When capacitors are connected together in parallel the total or
equivalent capacitance, CT is equal to the sum of all individual
capacitors added together
C T = C1 + C2 + C3

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General Equations for Ceq

q Parallel Combination q Series Combination

• If P capacitors are in • If S capacitors are in

parallel, then series, then:

-1
P
é 1ù
S
Ceq = å CP Ceq = êå ú
p =1 ë s =1 Cs û

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Example (9)
Figure (a) shows a circuit with capacitor C1 at 5 V potential that is
connected in series with switch S and capacitor C2 at 0 V potential.
When switch S turns on, capacitor C2 is charged by C1, as shown in (b).
After a sufficiently long period, C2 is fully charged and no current flows
between C1 and C2 as shown in (c). What is the voltage V1 and V2 for (c)?

S S S

5V + 1μF 0V V1
+ 1μF
V2
+ 1μF
V1
+ 1μF
V2
+ 1μF
C1 C2 C1 C2 C1 C2

(a) (b) (c)

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Example (9)
For (a), the charges Q1 stored by C1 is obtained as
𝑄" = 𝐶" 𝑉" = 1 ∗ 10#$ F ∗ 5 𝑉 = 5 ∗ 10#$ C
There is no charge stored in Q2. Total charge Qt of circuit
is
𝑄% = 𝑄" + 𝑄& = 5 ∗ 10#$ C
For (c), the voltage of C1 and C2 are equal as they are in
parallel, i.e., 𝑉" = 𝑉&
The charges hold by the capacitors are
𝑄" = 𝐶" 𝑉"
𝑄& = 𝐶& 𝑉&
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Example (9)
Since C1=1 ∗ 10#$ F and C2=1 ∗ 10#$ F,
𝑄" = 𝑄&
The total amount of charge in the circuit (does not
change) remains at 5 ∗ 10#$ C, i. e. ,
𝑄% = 𝑄" +𝑄& = 5 ∗ 10#$
Therefore, 𝑄" = 𝑄& = 0.5𝑄% = 2.5 ∗ 10#$ C
The voltage of the capacitors are obtained as
𝑄& 2.5 ∗ 10#$ C
𝑉" = 𝑉& = = #$
= 2.5 V
𝐶& 1 ∗ 10 F

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Capacitors in AC Circuits
• When an alternating sinusoidal voltage is applied to the
plates of an AC capacitor, the capacitor is charged firstly
in one direction and then in the opposite direction,
changing polarity at the same rate as the AC supply
voltage.
• The instantaneous change in voltage across the
capacitor is opposed by the fact that it takes a certain
amount of time to deposit (or release) the charge onto
the plates and is given by V = Q/C.

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Voltage-Current Relationship

q Current always leads voltage by 1/4 of a cycle or p/2 = 90o “out-of-

phase” with the potential difference across the capacitor because
of the charging and discharging process
q Other than the 90o phase-shift, the voltage and current of the
capacitor are also correlated by its reactance

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Capacitor Applications
(Demo Q3 to Q5 [4 min, 3 min, 7 min])

Capacitors are used

• For storing energy in electric circuits
• For coupling AC signal and decoupling DC signal
• For smoothing and filtering noise in signals
• As a component of a tuned resonant (LC) circuit

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Inductors

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Inductors
• Inductors are two-terminal devices that possess
inductance which stores energy in the form of magnetic
flux when a current passes through it
• The unit of inductance is Henry (H)
• Inductors available can range from µH, mH, and H.

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Inductor Construction
Ring inductor

q Inductors are formed with wire tightly wrapped around a central core that is either a
straight cylindrical rod or a continuous ring
q Inductors are categorized according to the type of inner core they have, for example,
hollow core (free air), solid iron core or soft ferrite core

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Energizing an Inductor

q When the inductor is connected across a DC supply, the

inductor magnetically energizes (as it converts current into
magnetic field) up to a current (I), of which the value will be
proportional to the magnitude of the applied voltage (V) and
inversely proportional to the resistance (R) that exists in its
power flow path, i.e., I = V/R.

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Energy Stored in Inductor

The total energy stored in the inductor in joules (J) is

1 "
𝑤# = 𝐿𝐼
2
where
L is inductance in Henry (H)
I is current flowing through inductor (A)

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Inductors in Series

qInductors in series have the same current flowing

through them as I = IL1 = IL2 = IL3
qSum of the individual voltage drops across each
inductor can be found using Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
(KVL) where, VT = V1 + V2 + V3
qEquivalent inductance LT of series inductors is
LT = L1 + L2 + L3
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Inductors in Parallel

q Inductors in parallel have a “common voltage” supply across

them giving: VL1=VL2=VL3=VAB
q The sum of the individual currents flowing through each
inductor is IT = I1 + I2 + I3
q When inductors are connected together in parallel, the total
equivalent inductance, LT is
1/LT = 1/L1 + 1/L2 + 1/L3
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Example (10)
What is the equivalent inductance Le of the circuit?

30nH
Le
1.25nH
0.47µH
Ans:

Le =1/[1/1.25 n + 1/(30 n + 470 n)]

=1.247 nH

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Inductors in AC Circuits

q Circuit comprises a pure inductance L connected across a

sinusoidal voltage V(t) = Vmax sin ωt
q Voltage causes a current to flow and rise from zero to its
maximum value
q Before the current can reach its maximum value, the voltage
changes polarity, i.e., the current is delayed

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Voltage-Current Relationship

qCurrent always lags voltage by 1/4 of a cycle or p/2 =

90o “out-of-phase” with the potential difference across
the inductor

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Inductor Applications
Inductors are used
• For storing energy in electric circuits
• As chokes to block AC signal and bypasses DC signal
• For smoothing and filtering noise in signals
• As a component of a tuned resonant (LC) circuit

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Mixture of RLC Circuits

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Concluding Remarks
• What you have learnt are only the basics of R, L, and C and
their circuits
• In reality, electric circuits involved more than one of these
components at a time and are connected in different
configurations
• This will NOT BE COVERED in this course
• You can learn about this by taking the course ELEC2346:
Electric Circuit Theory

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