The Emergence of Psychology

1. Rene Descartes
- Nativist
- Mind exists only in humans and not in animals
- Mind and body are governed by different laws: Mind: rational spirit, body: animal spirit.
- Supported dualism
- Conarium: point of contact between mind (res cogitans) and body (res extensa): pineal gland (situated
in the epithalamus)

2. Plato:
- Rational self
- Immoral self
- Moral self
3. Chariot that is pulled by 2 horses: Aristotle
- Dark horse: ID: restraint and modesty required
- White horse: moral and spiritual: knows the honor. (2 horses: high superego)
- Charioteer: EGO: intellect
- Righteous path: goes towards heaven

4. Important years and facts:

- 1875: first psychology course by William James in USA.
- 1879: Wundt laboratory
- 1892: APA founded by Stanley Hall
- 1904: Pavlov wins Nobel Prize for his work on digestive system
- 1905: Binet and Simon developed the intelligence test in France.
- First psychology department in India: NN Sengupta
- Book: Escape from freedom: by Erich Fromm
- Sequence:
Calcutta → Mysore → Journal → Madras → Pune
- Book: The frames of mind: by Howard Gardner
- Cognitive psychology: became a domain in 1985.

5. Paradigms:
- General framework for empirical research
- More than just one theory and corresponds to a school of thought

6. Ontology:
- deals with the question of existence
- multiple, shared or unique realities can be present
- ontology can be realist or relativist
7. Epistemology: deals with the pursuit of knowledge
8. Pragmatism: emphasizes results than the methods + accepts methodological views to knowledge.
9. Critical realism: theories can be disproved
10. Terms:
- Zeitgeist: the collective values and beliefs of a particular era (Spirit of time: Hegel)
- Ortgeist: the impact of culture on a place’s development.
- Tropism: natural; occurring form of orientation towards a stimuli
- Gestalt qualitaten: Ehrenfels
- Weltanschauung: fundamental understanding of the universe

11. Positivist movement:

- August Comte
- Empirical data is rooted in observation
- Positivism includes the following:
a. Phenomenalism
b. Objectivism
c. Causality
12. Psychophysical parallelism: this idea is followed by:
- Fechner
- Wundt
13. Structuralists: does not involve the idea of historicality.
14. Functionalism: was introduced in Columbia University by : Cattell + Woodworth + Thorndike

15. 4 phases of psychoanalysis or antecedent analysis:

- Fechner
- Bruer
- Adler
- Sullivan

16. Existentialists:
- ‘You are the architect of your life’
- Kierkegaard
- Nietzsche
- Husserl

17. Associationism: reductionist (Dewey, Locke, Pavlov, Hartley)

18. Aristotle laws of associationism:
- Similarity
- Contiguity
- Frequency
- Contrast

19. Watson’s behaviourism: we cannot predict the stimulus by knowing the response.
- Goal: predict and control human behaviour
20. Gestalt approach:
- Not deterministic (nothing about childhood experiences)
- Nativist + Subjective
- Aka phenomenology
- Attempts to apply field theory of physics: Lewin (Gestaltist)
- Whatever happens to a person influences everything that happens to the person.
- Introjection: internalization of rules from t, f & b of influential figures.
- Confluence: IP relationships where there is absence of conflict and everyone agree with each other.
- Retroflection: the process whereby we do to ourselves what we would like to do someone else.
- P.S. factors: nature of the task and person’s abilities
- Phenomenology: includes what and how questions.

21. Brentano’s phenomenology:

- Subjectivity + descriptive + we are different from physical sciences
- Consciousness is a unity
- Diachronic unity: present + few moments ago is perceived as unity.
- Characteristics:
~ mental objects can be perceived only
~ outer objects can be both perceived and experienced
~ feeling and willing can be combined into one category
22. Conscious mentalism: attention to thinking activities. (related to Brentano’s intentionality)
23. Dilthey:
- Opposed reductionism, i.e., opposed the idea of positivism to find a few causes.
- Opposed psychophysical parallelism
- Followed Brentano’s phenomenology
24. Titchener rejected Wundt’s idea of Apperception.
25. William James:
- James-Lange theory of emotions
- First psychology course
- Types of self:
~ Social
~ Material
~ Spiritual
- Gave the concept of stream of consciousness
26. Dasein analysis:
- Binswanger, Rollo May and Martin Heidegger
- Here and now, idiographic approach.
 Eastern Philosophies
1. Yamas:
- Ahimsa: (non-violence)
~ “Vairagya” is required for it: as suggested by Mahatama Gandhi & Patanjali.
- Asteya (non-stealing)
- Satya (truthfulness)
- Aparigraha: (non-possessiveness)
- Brahmacharya: (celibacy or fidelity)

2. Niyamas:
Saucha Cleanliness
Santosha Contentment
Tapas Training the senses
Swadhyaya Self-regulation
Ishwara Paridhaan

3. Chakras:
- Shushmana nadi passes through each chakra
Chakras Associated element Color (VIBGYOR)
Mooladhara Root Earth Red
Savadishthana Sacral Water Orange
Manipura Solar Plexus Fire Yellow
Annahata Heart Air Green
Visuddha Throat Ether Blue
Ajna Eye Indigo
Sahasrara Crown Violet/White

4. Yoga nidra: an idea from Sankhya Philosophy

5. Buddhism:
- “All human experiences are constructed and are constantly changing”
- Terms associated with Buddhism:
• Adhibhautika: anything related to the Buddha/living things.
• Adhyatmika: systematic knowledge of the self and the environment attained through precise
observation and critical reasoning OR spiritual knowledge.
• Dukkha-samudaya: every suffering has a cause
• Samacariya: healthy virtuous or right conduct or harmonious behavior.
• Tanha: desire
• Satori: transformation wholeness ~ awakening/understanding
• Sammadithhi: right view: 4 noble truths and eightfold path.
- The eight fold path:
• Prajna (wisdom):
~ right understanding
~ right thought
 • Sila (morality):
~ right speech
~ right action
~ right living/livelihood
• Samadhi:
~ right concentraiom
~ right effort
~ right mindfulness
- 5 factors of human personality: 5 skandhas
~ Rupa: Material/matter/corporeality
~ Sanna: Perception/recognition
~ Vedana: Feeling/sensory experience/pleasure/pain
~ Sankhara/Sansakara: Disposition/mental formations/habits/opinions
~ Vinnana: Consciousness/Intelligence/Reasoning
- Basic aspects of early buddhism: (doesn’t talk about perception)
~ theory of knowledge
~ theory of society
~ theory of reality.
- Mahayana Buddhism: collective freedom from suffering and feeling the ways of enlightenment.
- Vajrayana Buddhism: supernatural powers, chanting and tantric practices.
- Theravada Buddhism: Path: sotapanna → sakadagami → anagami → arahant

6. Jivatama: the centre of self in all Upanishads

7. Bhagvadgita: 18 chapters: Jagrata Yoga is not a part of it.
8. Pancha Kosha (Taittiriya Upanishad): order:
- Annamaya
- Pranamaya
- Manomaya
- Vigyanmaya
- Anandmaya

9. Arthashastra: Kautilya/Chanakaya: 5 aspects

- Shastra
- Anushashana
- Apoh: refutation or the ability to change or refine ideas
- Vyavavahara
- Uha
10. Advaita Vedanta: sensory knowledge is:
- possible in transcendental state
- and is relatively true
11. Mandukya Upanishad:
- Jagratavastha:
- Turiyavastha: where the essential nature of atman is experienced
- Prajnavastha: super-consciousness: where the dichotomy between grossness and subtlety disappear.
12. Graha Chikitsa: Psychiatry according to Ayurveda.
13. Purusharthas:
- Dharma
- Artha: economic values
- Kama
- Moksha

14. Terms:
- Aparvidya: empirical
- Paravidya: transcendental
- Nidhidhasana: Transcognitive realisation
- Turyavastha: highest state of consciousness.

15. Sequence of perception:

- Registration of external object on mind
- Sensorial transformation attended by the manas
- Assimilation and discrimination by the manas
- Information to Ahamkara
- Reaction by buddhi (intelligence, d.m.)
- Chitta (higher order consciousness )

16. Nafs: Self in sufism:

- Commanding self
- Blaming self/Regretful
- Inspired: genuine pleasure in prayer
- Serene/Secure
- Pleased/Content
- Self, pleasing to god/Gratified
- Pure/Complete self

17. Sarvastivadin/Vaibhashika:
- Buddhist school of thought: implies that dharma exists in past, present and future; it is eternal.
- ALL IS REAL
- Sautantrika (sutras as the authority): dharmas are not eternal but momentary: transitional school that
led to the development of Mahayana.

18. The Path: Sufism:

- Repentance: tawbah
- Fear: wara
- Renunciation: zuha: give up on desires
- Poverty: faqr
- Patience: sabr
- Trust/surrender: tawakkul
- Annihilation/Satisfaction: rida
19. Integral yoga:
- transformation sequence: mind → vital → physical → subconscient → conscient.
- Focuses on awareness and the awareness of inconscient.
20. Intelligence:
- Pratibha: Nyaya vaisesika
- Prajma: Patanjali yoga
- Vak: tantrik
- Bhavas: Samkhya
 Research Methodology and Statistics
1. Interpretivism:
- Qualitative
- Subjectivist and relativist
- Includes: ethnography, grounded theory, and action research
2. Discrete variables: nominal and ordinal
- Artificially discrete: a continuous variable converted to nominal/ordinal; they have an underlying
numerical value.
- Real discrete:
3. Parametric tests use interval or ratio scales, while the basis for most non-parametric tests is ordinal data.
4. MANOVA:
- Homogeneity of covariance matrices
5. Dunnett’s correction: used for pairwise mean comparison
6. Post-hoc tests:
- Are used in ANOVA
- F-test tells that where the difference exists
- Requires directional hypotheses.
7. Skewness (the side with less participants):
- Positive/Right skew: mean>median: difficult test (mean is pulled towards the skew)
- Negative/Left skew: mean<median: easy test
- Greater skewness indicates greater variability.
8. Independent Variable:
- Significant interaction between two IVs can be:
~ either cross-over disordinal interaction
~ or non-crossover disordinal interaction
9. Retrospective Studies:
- Autobiographical and narrative methods
- Collected data can be analysed.
10. Average deviation: is used in the case of raw or non-sequential data
11. Software:
- SPSS: quantitative
- LISREL & AMOS: structural equation modelling and regression
- QDA: qualitative data analysis
- MAXQDA: qualitative data analysis and mixed methods
- N-VIVO & ATLAS: Qualitative
12. Errors:
- Type-I
- Type-II
13. Decreasing Type-II error:
- Increasing the chosen level of significance
- Increasing the sample size
14. SDs and variance:
- Coefficient of dispersion: variance in terms of mean
- Standard Deviation: positive square root of variance
- Coefficient of variation: SD as a percentage of mean
- Variance: means of SDs of individual scores from the mean

15. Types:
- Grounded: (inductive) deriving a general abstract theory from the views of the people; rooted in data:
example: study on 16 prominent, high-achieving women of India: THEORETICAL CODING
- Phenomenological: understanding lived experiences: EIDECTIC VARIATION
- Narrative: lives of individuals studied and retold to develop a chronology: CONSTRUCTIONIST.
- Ethnography: cultural group/ immersing in the community to make observations.

16. SD of sample: sampling error or standard error of measurement.

17. Dependent Variable: for parametric tests: always on an interval scale.

18. Matching: choosing a group that is homogenous on the extraneous variable: is not matching as it has
only one group involved: matching is done on two groups.

19. Informed consent components (Diener & Crandall):

- Voluntariness
- Information disclosure
- Comprehension/understanding

20. Scales:
- Nominal: categorizing according to labels: giving employees identification numbers
- Ordinal: categorizing according to magnitude: small, medium, large and jumbo.
- Interval: measuring achievement motivation: all psychological variables.
- Ratio: height

21. Between-ANOVA (i.e. 3 groups) + Ranked variable: Kruskal-Wallis H tes

22. Pre-post design: t test: df = n-1
23. Two-way ANOVA (within or between): interaction df = (k-1)(n-1)
24. Within-ANOVA: Friedman’s
- Do the mean ranks of 3 or more RELATED samples under the two factors differ significantly.

25. Non-parametric tests and their parametric equivalents:

Non-Parametric Parametric
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test Single sample t-test, Matched sample t-test,
Paired sample t-test

Mann Whitney U Test Independent samples t-test

Kruskal Wallis H Test One-way ANOVA
Friedman’s Test Repeated measures ANOVA
26. Wilcoxon signed rank test
- Evaluate the median difference between two paired samples.
- Compare a 1-sample median to a reference value.

27. Mann Whitney U test:

- Independent samples (difference between the medians of two groups)
- The groups come from populations with different distributions.

28. Percentiles: standard scores with changed units.

29. SE of measurement: to calculate CIs.
30. NPC: z-scores and respective relative frequencies
31. Action-research: Plan → Act → Observe → Reflect
32. Hypothesis:
- affirmative + conjectural/tentative + falsifiable statement
- it is always in future tense

33. Survey stages:

- Comprehension → Retrieval → Judgement → Response Communication.
- Limitations:
~ difficulties in obtaining representative sample
~ socially desirable responding
34. Problem with cross sectional research: cohort effect
35. Phi-coefficient:
- used to determine effect size for a chi-square test (both variables are dichotomous and nominal)
- inter item correlation.
36. Point-biserial:
- one variable is dichotomous, nominal and the other one: interval or ratio scale.
- Item remainder correlation

37. Netnography: social media

38. Triangulation: relating information collected from different sources to reach a conclusion.
39. Phenomenological Hermeneutics: analysing the experiences of alter ego.
40. Pearson’s r: can be used to score variables.

41. Duhem-Quine Thesis: scientific hypothesis cannot be studies in isolation: requires implicit auxiliary
hypotheses.
42. Occam’s razor: parsimony
43. Incommensurability: we cannot make comparisons between theories that do not have anything in
common.
44. Scientific realism:
- Miracle argument: if a theory refers to miraculous objects: it is miraculous for it to prove those results
as observable
- Corroboration: multiple sources of information to verify a theory.
- Selective optimism/skepticism
45. Univariate normality:
- QQ plots + Shapiro-Wilk (n < 2000) + Jarque-Bera (n > 2000)

46. +5 to all students:

- Will change the skewness
- Mean will be increased by 5
- Will change the rank order

47. Randomized block design:

- Equal representation ensured
- Even if one IV is randomized: it is a RBD.
- Incomplete RBD:
~ one variable is blocked
~ one is randomized
~ but due to the between-subjects design; the randomization does not reach to all groups.
- Complete RBD:
~ In within-group design, where the random variable reaches all groups
48. Random effect model:
- The impact of IV is not constant and differs across various subjects within a group
- Accounts for the individual differences
49. Fixed effect model:
- The IV varied within a pre-decided range
- Constant effects across all observations

50. Boot-strapping: aka resampling

- A technique to measure the variance of parameter when the standard assumption about the shape of
dataset is not met.
- Allows estimating sampling distribution for a statistic
- Making subsamples from the dataset --- calculation of statistic of interest ---- reinserting the
subsample1 --- doing the same for subsample 2 --- requires a large amount of sample.
- Not based on assumptions about the population.

51. Jack-knifing:
- To estimate variability of a parameter
- Sequentially deleting one observation from the dataset and calculating the desired statistic.
- Not ideal for non-smooth (median) and non-linear (correlation) stats.
52. Regression:
- Equation: Y = a + bX + E
a. a = Y intercept on X (the value of criterion ‘Y’, when all the predictors ‘X’ are zero)
b. ‘b’ is the slope; if ‘b’ is significant ‘r2’ is significant.
c. ‘E’ is the random or normally distributed residual (the mean of errors of prediction is zero)
- In bivariate linear regression:
~ Both the partial regression coefficients (bxy and byx) cannot be more than one at the same time;
because rxy (the correlation between the two variables) is the geometric mean between bxy and byx.
- R = multiple correlation
- R2 = coefficient of determination
 - The larger b value for one predictor than the other can be due to the different scales for each variable.
- If predictors are added into the model: they will increase the coefficient of determination as long as
they have a significant correlation with the criterion – regardless of the fact, whether the correlation is
positive or negative.
- % variance = r^2 × 100.
~ if percentage variance is given as 0.49, then r=0.7
- B and β : partial regression coefficients: can be non-significant even when the correlation between the
criterion and the predictor is significant.
- Logistic regression is applied on nominal variables having a curvilinear relationship.

53. A normal two group study with random assignment:

- Independent t test + Mann Whitney + one way ANOVA can be used.

54. Time series design:

- involve the problem of auto-correlation: is NOT explained by the fact that quasi experiments do not
control for secondary variance efficiently.
- Autocorrelation can be solved by statistical method called ARIMA
55. Factor analysis:
- Quantitative equivalent of thematic analysis
- When the unities along the diagonal are retained (One side is mirror image of other ~ across the
diagonal); principal component analysis is used.
- When there is a cross loading between two items: high correlation: one of the two is removed.
- The correlation coefficient may be positive or negative; the items can regardless predict the variable,
either positively or negatively.
- Principal Components Analysis (PCA):
~ a method for factor extraction
~ for the factors that are very good on their own
~ condenses unique variance
~ most important factors are retained (best factor at first)
- Factor extraction methods that condense common variance:
~ Principal axis method (PAM)
~ Maximum likelihood method (MLM)
- FA methods in descending order of variance condensed: PCA > PAM > MLM
- Rotation is done to check whether there are more intercorrelations or can the number of factors be
reduced further.
- Orthogonal rotation:
~ the rotated factors are uncorrelated (rotation is done at 90 degrees)
~ one rotation is enough
~ equimax + varimax + quartimax
- Oblique: further analysis: rotation at less than 90 degrees: promax, oblimin, quartimin
- Bartlett’s test of sphericity:
• To check whether the correlation between the variables between the dataset are sufficiently different
from zero.
• Null hypothesis: the correlation is zero: the correlation matrix is an identity matrix
• It compares the dataset to an identity matrix using chi square.
 • Identity matrix: where all the off-diagonal elements are zero, that is, truly orthogonal factors.
• If p< 0.05; then the factor analysis can be conducted (Ho rejected)
- FA of item scores: common-factor model is more suitable because item scores are less reliable than
psychometrically measured trait variables (Principal component analysis won’t be used if item scores
are involved)
- Communality:
• Common variance = h2
• Uniqueness of a factor => u2 = 1 – h2
• More communality means more reliability
• Higher intercorrelation – higher communality – lesser factors extracted.
56. Multiple Correlation range: 0 to +1
57. Number of three way interactions that can be studied in a 4×3×3: ONE
58. Qualitative research:
- Triangulation
- More emphasis on process
- Serendipity: we only know some aspects of our research and not others.
- Uses inductive reasoning

59. Auto-shaping: spurious correlation between two events

60. F-ratio: ratio between variance estimates: primary variance/ error variance
61. Retrospective and prospective studies are generally: Quantitative
- Used generally to study diseases
- Aka case-control studies
62. Quota Sampling: predetermined number of participants in the groups.
63. 3×2 mixed factorial design: when there are 3 independent groups and 2 conditions; & all three groups
are exposed to both the conditions.
64. Multiple correlation of 0.6 between three predictors and a criteria:
- The three predictors will together 36 percent variance in academic achievement
- None of the three predictors will correlate more than 0.6 with academic achievement.
65. Conditions and the subjects’ interaction is the ERROR DF.
66. Quasi-experimental designs: Regression-discontinuity.
67. Chi square:
- Requires larger sample
- It always involves a between design or the groups the mutually exclusive
- Measure of effect size for chi square: Cohen’s ꞷ
 Psychological testing
Standard Scores:

Standard Scores Mean Standard Deviation

Sten 5.5 2
Stanine 5 2
Z-score 0 1
T-score 50 10

Power of a test:
- Power is a test’s ability to reject a false null hypothesis.
- Test power = 1 – β (β = the probability of a Type II error)
- To increase a test’s power:
a. Increase the sample size
b. Increase the population variance
c. Increase the effect size
d. Increase the critical region (but it might be counterproductive as it increases the chances of false
positives)
Types of validity and how they are measured:

Face validity Cohen’s kappa (also used to calculate inter-rater

reliability )
Content validity Q-sort technique
Discriminant validity Multitrait multimethod (MTMM), Q-sort.
Principal components analysis
Convergent validity Multitrait multimethod (MTMM), Q-sort.
Principal components analysis
Predictive validity Regression or discriminant analysis
Concurrent validity Correlation

Steps of test construction:

- Discrimination index
- Reliability: Cronbach’s alpha
- Validity: Content validity → EFA → CFA → Predictive validity
- Norm formation
General Aptitude Test Battery: (original: US employment)
- Indian adaptation: Ashutosh Dolke
- 9 abilities using 12 subscales
- Abilities:
~ G: general intelligence ~ Q: clerical perception
~ V: verbal aptitude ~ K: motor coordination
~ N: numerical aptitude ~ F: finger dexterity
~ S: spatial aptitude ~ M: manual dexterity
~ P: form perception

Cronbach’s alpha can be used for dichotomous items and polytomous both. KR20: dichotomous.
- Cronbach’s alpha and KR20: how many items should be increased to increase the reliability to a
desired level.
- Alpha value and KR20 value can be the same but the split-half will differ from the two
- Split-half measures the reliability of only half of the test. (KR20 doesn’t have this problem)

Coefficient alpha:
- It is the lower bound
- An average of all split half reliabilities.
- Spearman Brown Formula:
kr 𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
- (k = , r = reliability of the original test)
1 − (k+1)r 𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅
- Reliability of halves = (R = the reliability of the full scale)
2−𝑅
2𝑟
- Reliability of the full scale = (r = reliability of the half test)
1+𝑟

California F-scale: (Adorno) is a scale to measure authoritarianism

Multitrait-multimethod:
- To check construct validity (discriminant and convergent) + reliability + method biases + refining
measurement tools
- Campbell and Fiske, 1959
- While calculating construct validity we first take a theoretical basis to make the questionnaire.

Developmental Screening Tests:

- Gesell
- Denver
Holland: related to organizational psychology
Cohn’s Kappa formula: inter-scorer differences
Determining item bias:
- Item characteristic curve: provides information about discrimination, difficulty & guessing chances.
Attitude Scaling:
- Semantic differential scale: (Osgood)
~ Affected by: finding appropriate pairs, meaning of words and their context.
~ Not affected by: length of items.
- Thurstone: Equal appearing intervals + Paired comparisons
(median is used as the distribution of categories assigned by the judges are generally skewed)
- Guttman: Cumulative Scale
- Bogardus: cumulative scale
- Likert: Summated Ratings
- Stapel: a single adjective in the middle of even number of numerical values.

Aptitude: they are innate + training ensures optimal performance.

Differential Aptitude Test (Elliott): eight subtests + for classes 8-12
Neuropsychological tests: measure language, memory and executive functioning.
Wonderlic Personnel Test: Otis self-administering test
Projective tests: meaning context of creativity

Batteries and indices:

- MMPI: true response inconsistency: L,F,K scales
- MCMI: disclosure index: V,X,Y,Z scales
- Rorschach: coping deficit index: populars
- EPQ, MCMI and MMPI contain a lie scale

Effect size: 2 group design + continuous DV:

- Cohen’s d
- eta square: for one-way ANOVA (typically in repeated measures design)
- partial eta square: 2 or more IVs
Acquiescence bias: the tendency to respond consistently as yes or no: can be detected through negative
scoring.
Increasing the test length also increases the validity and reliability.
Secondary variance is due to extraneous variables.
Hoffman: 1960s: college entrance examinations favour the shrewd and nimble witted + have a bad impact
on recognition of merit.
Word association test: developed by Galton and published by Jung
Population SD: standard score ~~~~
- Known: z test
- Unknown: t test

Thurstone: Law of comparative judgement:

- While comparing two stimuli at a time based on a single criterion: we make comparisons between them
along a continuum.
- Allows ranking stimuli under a unidimensional scale: used in interval scales
- Used in: equally appearing intervals + paired comparison + successive intervals scaling.
𝒏 (𝒏−𝟏)
The formula is used in the paired comparison method to calculate the total number of unique pairs
𝟐
that can be formed from a set of n items.
- The scale values of attitude statement through this method yield INTERVAL data.
- Computes z-scores as estimates of scales
Equally appearing intervals: median can be calculated
Summated ratings:
- outcome can be factor analyzed
- item analysis can be done
- will yield a multidimensional scale

Completion type tests: are partially projective.

Projective ability: the ability to tap the unconscious: sequence
- Association type
- Construction type
- Completion type
- Expression type
- Choice type
- Word association test: also less PA
- PT are difficult to standardize NOT BECAUSE of the fact that they are not timed
Item discrimination/Item validity:
- Point biserial
- Phi coefficient
- Chi square
- Item total correlation and t-test

CTT:
- Assumes that:
a. Latent traits can be measured
b. Individual item difficulty cannot be measured
c. Assumes linear relationship between variables and observed scores
d. True score not measured directly, but are reflected in observes scores
- Reliability can be conceptualized as the ratio of true score variance to observed score variance
BECAUSE true scores and error scores are independent of each other.
- Error component is assumed to be distributed with a mean of zero
- For population or large sample: mean of the obtained scores = mean of true scores NOT because the
errors of measurement are assumed to be independently distributed with a mean and variance equal to
zero (THE SECOND STATEMENT IS FALSE)
Galton:
- anthropometric tests of intelligence.
- Emphasized the importance if nature over nurture
Guilford-Zillman Test: extent of temperamental adaptability.
IRT:
- Requires uni-dimensionality
- Local independence
- Equivalence of all items
- It is the basis for computer-based testing
- For item level and not the test level
- Based on nominal level of measurement
- Heterogeneous sample: works
- Item characteristics curve: dichotomous items
- Monotonicity: the probability of endorsing an item continuously increases as the trait level increases.
~ Items can have differential scoring too: then also applicable
- Models:
~ b parameter: item location parameter: item difficulty
~ a parameter: item discrimination parameter: discrimination + difficulty
~ c parameter: item guessing parameter + other 2 (50-50)
- Item characteristic curve:
~ Participant score graph for each item: tests mastery
~ location shows: difficulty
~ steepness shows: discrimination and item validity
Factor analytically derived inventories:
- 16 PF
- Comrey Personality Scale

- Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale:

- Aka social readjustment rating scale (1967)
- Social stress impact physical health
- Index: life change units: impact of life changes and number of readjustments required on the stress
levels
- 43 events
- Catadismic events: catastrophic events
- Q-sort technique: Rogers: for real and ideal self
- Buck: house-tree-person test
- Scalogram: computes coefficient of reproducibility.
- Correlation coefficient can be disturbed when:
- Measurements are made using scores of restricted range
- Special correlations:
- Phi coefficient: two binary/nominal/dichotomous variables
- Point-biserial: one dichotomous/nominal variable and one continuous variable.
- Spearman’s rho: ordinal variables
- Kendall’s tau: ordinal variables
- Graphic rating scale: evaluator rates performance factors based on incremental factors.
- Incremental validity: to check whether the new assessment is better that the existing measures of the
same construct.
- Tools:
- STAI: State-trait anxiety inventory
- EPPS:
a. Edwards personality preference inventory (based on murray’s theory)
b. It is an ipsative or forced-choice test
- Allport-Vernon Lindzey Value Scale: ipsative assessment
 Biological Basis
1. Limbic system: AKA visceral brain
2. Autonomic Nervous System:
- Contains smooth muscles
3. Somatic Nervous System:
- Contains skeletal muscles
4. Spinal column: (CCTLSC)
- Cranial nerves
- Cervical vertebrae
- Thoracic vertebrae
- Lumbar vertebrae
- Sacral vertebrae
- Coccygeal vertebrae
- 31 pairs
~ sensory dorsal
~ ventral motor

5. Temporal lobe epilepsy: aggression

6. Fusiform gyrus in the temporal lobe is responsible for recognition.
7. Decrease in sensitivity to leptin: weight gain

8. Unipolar/Pseudo unipolar neurons in the somatosensory system: tactile sensation (Meissner’s)

- Pseudounipolar neurons connect to the substantia gelatinosa of Rolando of SC.

9. Last stage of Action Potential: resetting of the sodium and potassium channels.
- Negative charge of neuron during resting potential is due to the more negative charge of K and A ions
inside the membrane than the Na and Cl outside.
10. Third and Fourth ventricles: connected through cerebral aqueduct

11. A specific brain region can be destroyed by:

- Radio frequency lesion method: passing electrical current through an insulated electrode.
- Exitotoxic lesion method
- Experimental ablation method
- Aspiration lesion: in an area of cerebral cortex (the cortical tissue is visible through naked eyes)
- Cryogenic blockage
12. Irreversible lesions:
- Aspiration
- Radiofrequency
- Neurotoxins
13. Dorsal Striatum:
- Caudate
- Putamen
14. Ventral striatum:
- Nucleus accumbens
- Olfactory tubercule
15. Heritability (k2):
- refers to a population, not to individuals.
- Differs from one population to other
16. Multiple sclerosis:
- myelin sheath destroyed
- autoimmune
- jerky movements
17. Acetylcholinesterase: AchE: enzyme is responsible for terminating post-synaptic potential.
18. Efferent Axons: anterograde labelling method to trace its path.
19. Homozygous means having two copies of the same gene.

20. Anti-mullerian Hormone:

- Leads to the development of internal male sex organs, by suppressing the female duct in the 3rd month of
gestation .
- In the 6th week, the sry gene is stimulated

21. Diabetes: Type-I:

- Autoimmune (occurs at young age)
- Lack of insulin production due to beta cells of pancreas.

22. Microelectrodes: single unit recording

23. Macroelectrodes: to detect activity that causes seizures.
24. Linkage analysis: Pattern of familial transmission from one generation to other.
25. Association analysis: in population: to identify possible genetic relationships among individuals.
26. Segregation analysis: to recognize the mode of inheritance of a phenotype (physical features) in a
family: should follow Mendelian Laws

27. Broca’s area: FL and language production.

28. Absolute refractory period: after the AP
29. Vagus nerve: longest cranial nerve (CN10): neck: aka pacemaker of brain.
30. Anterior pituitary:
- Thyroid stimulating hormone
- Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
- Follicle stimulating hormone
- Growth hormone: releases it directly throughout the body
- Prolactin
- oxytocin (periventricular nuclei) and ADH/vasopressin (supraoptic nuclei)
- hormones produced by hypothalamus
31. Posterior pituitary hormones:
- Produced by hypothalamus; stored by posterior pituitary.
- Vasopressin (anti-deuretic hormone)
- Oxytocin
32. Enzymes and weight:
- Leptin: anti-obesity: adipose tissue: gives satiety signals: by detecting high glucose levels
- Cholecystokinin + peptide YY: secreted by small intestine for digestion: decreases appetite
- Ghrelin: hunger signals
- Insulin: increases hunger
- Orexin: increases hunger
- Hypothalamic nuclei:
~ Ventromedial: satiety – impairment can lead to obesity
~ Lateral: hunger and thirst centre – no hunger: aphagia; no thirst: adipsia
~ Anterior: sexual function and temperature homeostasis
- Sensory specific satiety: nucleus of solitary tract.
33. Hormones related to thirst:
- Renin: kidney
- Angiotensin
- Antidiuretic hormone
34. Adult neurons rely heavily on glucose: vitamin B1 required to utilize it.
35. Osmotic Thirst: caused due to the increase in concentration of solutes or salt in the extracellular fluid,
as a result water moves out of the cell.
36. Hypovolemia: (aka volumetric thirst)
- Volume depletion: due to loss of salt, water or a decrease in blood volume
- Causes thirst
- Reduced blood pressure
- Release of angiotensin
37. Receptor downregulation: decrease in total number of receptors: after a repeated exposure to an
agonist.
38. Non-genetic disorders:
- Cerebral Palsy (not a chromosomal disorder): leads to sub-normal IQ but not intellectual disability (ID).
- Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: leads to ID as it causes microcephaly.
39. Chromosomal disorders: involves duplication or deletion
- Autosomal:
a. Down’s (Trisomy 21)
b. Edward’s (Trisomy 18): ID + physical growth issues
c. Patau syndrome (Trisomy 13): severe ID and physical abnormalities
d. Pallister-Killian: (Tetrasomy 12p, 47 chromosomes): ID + gross motor skills + speech delays +
hypotonia
e. Cri du chat: partial deletion on chromosome 5: ID present
- Sex chromosomal:
a. Turner’s: 45XO: one less chromosome.
b. Klinefelter (males): 47XXY on 23rd chromosome: one extra (normal: 46)

40. Mendelian/Hereditary Disorders:

- Genetic mutation in autosomes:
a. Fragile X (23rd chromosome) : leads to intellectual disability or mental retardation
b. Phenyketonuria (PKU): hereditary factor is recessive (must be present in both parents): an
autosomal recessive disorder.
c. Sickle cell anaemia: no ID
- Genetic mutation in sex chromosomes: Haemophilia
41. Tay-sachs disease:
- Genetic and neurological
- Fatty substances (gangliosides) build up to toxic levels in the brain and spinal cord and affect the
function of the nerve cells and leads to motor issues.
42. For studying the relative impact of heredity and environment: comparing identical and fraternal
twins, half of whom have been reared apart.
43. Beta endrophins: releases in the same amount as ACTH from anterior PG during stress.
44. PET scans are functional + invasive.
45. fMRI:
- structural + functional
- detects decrease in oxygen levels
46. MRI: measures variations in hydrogen concentration
47. Apoptosis: programmed cell death
48. Necrosis: unprogrammed cell death
49. WBCs:
- CD4: field marshals: work as a protective wall for immune cells.
- National Killer cells: cytoxic action: stops the germ cell from dividing and growing: done by T and B
cells too.
- Neutrophils: phagocytic action: consume the germ cells
- Examples of phagocytes: monocytes and macrophages.
- Immunoglobins: antibody action: produced by plasma cells

50. Waves: Beta (14-30) > Alpha (8-13) > Theta (4-7) > Delta (0-3): frequencies in hertz
51. Auditory pathway:
- If the three bones deteriorate: problem in conduction only.
- Malleus → Incus → Stapes
- AC-SLIMA
- Auditory nerve → cochlear nuclei → superior olives → lateral lemniscus → inferior colliculi → medial
geniculate nuclei → auditory cortex
52. Visual pathway:
- Photoreceptors → horizontal cells → bipolar cells → Amacrine cells → ganglion cells → optic nerve →
optic chiasm → optic tract → superior colliculus → lateral geniculate nuclei → optical radiations →
PVC
53. Rhodopsin:
- Rods (120 million) pigment – night vision (scotopic) – rods are sensitive to light.
- A G-protein coupled receptor
54. Neurogenerative:
- Parkinson’s: (deep brain stimulation)
~ movement disorder + cognitive deficits
~ substantial loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia niagra
- Huntington’s: motor disorder + severe dementia
- Korsakoff’s: dementia due to thiamine deficiency
55. Huntington’s:
- DYT1 mutation: can occur as juvenile Huntington’s too
- HTT mutation: old age
- Ataxia: incoordination
- Dystonia: involuntary muscle contractions + repetitive.
56. Essential tremor versus Parkinson’s:
- It is a nervous system disorder: involuntary rhythmic shaking: typically in hands.
- Tremors worsen when the body part is working versus resting
- ET: head and neck versus rare in head and neck
57. GLIA:
- PNS:
~ Schwann cells: myelin sheath
~ Satellite cells: shape/structure
- CNS:
~ Oligodendrocytes: myelin sheath
~ Astrocytes: size and shape
~ Ependymal: CSF
~ Microglia: immune function
- Myelin sheath: insulation + communication within the neuron
58. NTs produce graded potential
59. A neuron can release more than one NT.
60. LTP:
- It happens due to high-frequency electrical stimulation of pre-synaptic neuron
- Requires high intensity stimulation
- The postsynaptic potential is graded
- Glutamate + Ach (supporting role)
- Two types of receptors:
~ NMDA: Ach as the catalyst
~ AMPA: NO acts as a catalyst: increased sensitivity and number
61. REM:
- Occurs between stages 2 and 3.
- Alpha, beta and theta waves
- Aka paradoxical sleep
- Feeling more disoriented if awakened
- Physical activity during REM: REM sleep behaviour disorder
62. Lengthy sleep deprivation: rebound effect of slow wave sleep.
63. Somniloquy: is not a diagnosable sleep disorder
64. Parasomnias:
- Undesirable and unusual physical experiences or events
- Involves: moving or talking or having emotional episodes (night terrors)while sleeping
65. Dyssomnia:
- Difficulty getting to sleep or excessive daytime sleepiness
66. Narcolepsy:
- A dyssomnia
- Involves: loss of muscle tone and cataplexy
67. Night terrors: in NREM-IV
68. Nightmares: in REM
69. Excitatory NTs: cause depolarization: EPSP
70. Inhibitory NTs: cause hyperpolarization: IPSP
71. Polarized neuron: at resting potential: -70 mV
72. Depolarized: +67 mV
- The permeability for sodium ions (Na+) is increased during depolarization
73. Hyperpolarized: -72 mV
74. Totally depolarized: + 45mV
75. Excitatory chemicals:
- Kainic Acid
- Glutamic Acid
76. End plate potential: (graded)
- Causes depolarization on skeletal muscle fibers, and leads to muscle contractions
- Caused by NTs like acetylcholine by binding to the postsynaptic neuron.
77. Telencephalon: basal ganglia + LS + corpus striatum.
78. Radio-immunological assays:
- Berson and Yalom, 1960: for the detection of insulin in blood.
- To measure antigens in the blood: hormones/drugs/proteins by the use of antibodies (in vitro)
79. Pick’s disease:
- Frontotemporal lobular degeneration AND depression
- Amnesia + degenerative
80. Tactile sensation:
Free nerve endings Pain and temperature
Pacinian corpuscles Pressure, vibration or sudden displacement of
skin
Meissner’s corpuscles Movement
Krause’s end bulbs Cold
Merkel’s disks Gradual skin indentation and texture
Ruffini endings Gradual skin stretch

81. Methods:
- Plethysmography: blood volume
- Electrooculography: eyes
- Electromyography: muscle tension
82. Somatic NS:
- emergency reactions through spinal and cranial nerves.
- Contains afferent and efferent nerves
83. Myelin stains: neural pathways
84. Nissl stains: neural cell bodies
85. Physiological psychology: non-human subjects used
86. Psychophysiology: functional brain imaging techniques to study neural mechanisms.
87. Cognitive neuroscience: studies relationship between physiological and psychological processes using
non-invasive techniques.
88. Autoradiography: to look for which neurons are active
89. Immunocytochemistry: to identify cellular components.
90. Bilateral lesions are a better method than unilateral: NOT explained by the fact that behaviour effects of
bilateral damage are milder than those of unilateral.
91. Cranial nerves:
- 12 pairs
- Parasympathetic NS: sacral and cranial (brain)
- Sympathetic NS: thoracic and lumbar (decreased skin resistance and increased conductance + no
urination)
92. Epigenesis: each mental event has a different level of influence; plan for which is stored in gene
93. Somatomedin hormone: liver
94. SPECT: single photon emission computerized tomography: CT + PET
95. NIRS: near-infrared spectroscopy: functional imaging

96. Split-brain:
- If image is showed in RH: can point and draw it but cannot name it as language is a function of LH
97. Temporal Summation: (Sherrington)
- Repeated stimulation of pre-synaptic cell has a cumulative impact on post-synaptic
98. Monozygotic twins: same genes – same environment – but can still have different personalities due to
the non-shared environment
99. Neural membrane: two-layered as the lipid molecules turn their tails towards each other.
100. SAM pathway: sympathetic adrenomedullary pathway:
- Adrenal medulla: NE and E
101. Equipotentiality: brain functions as an undifferentiated whole.
102. Lesion studies: most experimental lesion effects are studies of bilateral than unilateral lesions; NOT
because unilateral lesions effects are difficult to detect.
103. Amniocentesis: for prenatal diagnosis of down’s syndrome
104. Kluver Bucy syndrome:
- Bilateral removal of amygdala
- Hippocampus damaged
- Temporal lobe ablation
105. Stem cells: responsible for reproduction of other cells of the body
106. Social behaviour disinhibition: frontal lobe
107. Primary olfactory cortex: TL
108. Striatum: caudate and putamen
109. PF cortex: final destination before action is taken on emotional information.
110. Stains:
- Golgi Silver: to trace single nerve cell
- Horseradish Peroxide: reverse neural pathways
111. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM:
- Catecholamines: norepinephrine, epinephrine, endorphins and dopamine
- Serotonin: indolamine (made from tryptophan)
- Serotonin: (5-HT)
~ It is inhibitory in nature
~ Low levels of 5-HT can lead to increased aggression or antisocial behaviour
~ It can also cause difficulty sleeping
- GABA:
~ majorly inhibitory: sleep and inhibiting movements.
~ Only NT present throughout the NS (with 5-HT and ACh)
- Glutamate and DA: synaptic plasticity (LTP and LTD)
- Acetylcholine:
~ Memory + arousal + attention
~ Inhibitory role in sympathetic nervous system
~ Excitatory role in parasympathetic nervous system
~ Black widow spider venom: acts as an agonist for ACh: can completely deplete its levels.
~ Low levels are associated with Alzheimer’s
- Hypothalamic pituitary axis:
~ increased metabolism
~ increased insulin release (momentary)
- Sympathetic adrenal medullary pathway:
~ increased heart rate
~ increased skin conductance
 Attention, Sensation and Perception

1. Stimulation → Transduction → Sensation → Perception

2. Sensation: psychophysics:
- Differential limen increases proportionately with the stimulus intensity
- Weber’s and Fechner’s laws are complimentary to each other
- Thresholds/Limens: determine the perception of sensory stimulus
- Weber’s law: jnd is a constant
- Fechner’s law: the magnitude of a sensation grows with the log of initiating stimulus
- Fechner suggested that individual differences exist in the intensity of a sensation
- Steven’s law: magnitude of sensation is related to stimulus intensity by a power function

3. Multimodal theory of attention:

- Johnston and Heinz
- Components:
• Visual features
• Semantic
• Semantic + visual
4. Vision:
- information travels from the lateral geniculate nucleus in form of optic radiations to the primary visual
cortex.
- Brain areas: striate cortex, peristriate cortex, posterior pituitary and inferotemporal.

5. Perceptual constancy:
- Explains many visual illusions
- For all sensory modalities
- We perceive the objects as same even when the initial representations are changed by the environmental
factors.

6. Bottom-up approach:
- Driven by external stimulus
- Helps in detecting lines, angles and colors.
- Phonemic restoration as we perceive speech in a noisy party.

7. Top-down approach:
- Driven by past experiences, expectations and memory.
- Gestalt supports this approach
- Constructionism is based on this approach
- Over emphasis on top-down processing can lead to: change and inattentional blindness
8. Stroop Effect:
- Automaticity of the reading process.

9. Stroboscopic motion:
- Still images – presented at regular intervals – continuous motion perceived.
10. Selective attention:
- Listening to interesting music from afar + looking over a crowded street + focusing on a picture
11. Phi phenomenon: 30-200 milliseconds
12. In Atkinson and Shiffrin’s model: sensory memory comes before the attention.
13. What pathway:
- Recognition
- TL (ventral visual pathway): as it is the storage of declarative memory

14. Where pathway:

- OL (dorsal visual pathway)
- Supporting role: posterior parietal cortex for location and motion + infero-temporal
- Complex feature detectors

15. Oculomotor cues of depth perception: (due to ciliary muscles)

- Monocular: accommodation: focusing image
- Binocular: convergence

16. Monocular cues:

- Minimum use of one eye
- Relative size: when the closer of the two same-size objects cast a larger image on the retina than the
farther one.

17. Binocular cues:

- Convergence
- Binocular/Retinal disparity: aka stereopsis
~ the neurons in the striate cortex that respond to absolute disparity: disparity selective cells
~ overlapping of visual fields is crucial for it to occur

18. Absolute disparity: of a point in space is defined as the difference between the angle subtended by the
target at the two entrance pupils of the eyes and the angle of convergence.
- Disparity selective cells in the striate cortex.

19. Linear perspective: tendency of parallel lines to appear to converge to each other.
20. Attention is not an automatic process as it requires conscious allocation of mental resources.
21. Perceptual processes: perceptual learning + motives and needs + perceptual cognitive styles.
22. Pollyana principle: the pleasant information is processed more accurately and efficiently than
unpleasant ones.
23. Magnocellular system: brightness, contrast and movement
24. Parvocellular system: fine detail and color
25. Fourier analysis: analysis of complex wave into sine wave components
26. Coincidence detectors: neurons that fire the most when they receive input from both ears at the same
time.
27. Our percepts are based on: what we sense, what we know and what we infer.
28. Signal detection theory: identifies sensory and decision processes. Following determinants are
assumed:
- Observer’s sensitivity
- Response bias
- Individual’s perceived benefits/costs

29. Active movement: allows adaptation to inverted vision

30. Feature detector cells:
- Simple: respond to linear properties
- Complex: responds to a moving stimulus of a specific orientation going in a specific direction
- Hypercomplex: respond to lines of specific length

31. Gestalt laws: original: 6

- Pragnanz/Good figure and Figure-ground (Edgar Rubin) are not a part of it
32. Attention: divided is most difficult
33. Visual cliff experiment: Gibson and Walk:
- 6 months child
- Perception is an innate ability
34. Gibson’s theory of perception:
- Ecological theory
- A theory of direct perception
- Does not include higher thought processes in the process of perception.
35. Theory of constructed perception:
- Top-down
- Includes complex cognitive processes
36. Korte’s laws of apparent motion:
- Intensity of stimulus
- Stimulus duration
- Spatial separation
- Interval between presentation of the two stimuli
37. Muller-Lyer Illusion: common in people living in rectangular and square buildings.
38. Blind people: adaptation to day-night cycle: non-visual receptors in the eyes.
39. Sensitization: becoming hypersensitive after an upsetting experience
40. Craik bands: the centre - surround organization of ganglion cells that enhance contrast at edges in a
visual environment.
41. Older adults show major decline in:
- Selective attention
- Focused attention
 Learning, Memory and Forgetting

1. Type-S conditioning: S-S: classical conditioning: magnitude of a response is used as the measure of
extent of conditioning.
2. Classical Conditioning:
- Involuntary behaviour (new behaviour or response is created)
- S—S association
- It is impacted by the magnitude of the response and is based on association by contiguity
- Respondent behaviour: is elicited, is unconditioned and conditioned.
- Contingency: how well can the CS predict the UCS
- Contiguity: the time gap between CS and UCS.
- Contiguity and contingency are independent of each other
- Experimental neurosis: excitation-inibition process in central nervous system during classical
conditioning.
- UCS: thunder → CS: lightning → Preparing ourselves for the thunder to follow: CR
3. Classical conditioning strength:
- Delay > trace > simultaneous > backward
- Most rapid and strongest conditioning: short-delay conditioning.

4. Spontaneous recovery of a phobia:

- It is caused by time-dependent spontaneous return; without any new traumatic experiences occurring.
5. Transmarginal inhibition (Pavlov, CC): (in pain/stress conditioning)
- a decrement either in the quantity or quality – of response as a result of exposure to stimuli of rising
magnitude: nerve cells protect themselves against high intensity.
- used by Eysenck in his theory of personality.
- Introverts are easier to condition due to high arousal levels.
- But beyond a certain stimulation level: due to TMI: extroverts are easier to condition.
- Similar to Yerkes-Dodson law
- Stages:
~ Equivalent: big stimuli – big responses
~ Paradoxical: quantitative reversal – significant stimuli – small responses.
~ Ultra-paradoxical: qualitative reversal: positive stimuli – negative response

6. Type-R conditioning: S-R: operant conditioning

- Rate of response is used as the measure of extent of conditioning.
- The graph for rate of responding is known as the cumulative curve
- The behaviour in OC is voluntary, that is, the behaviour is emitted (rate of an existing response is
increased) (active conditioning)
- Operant level: the frequency with which an operant behaviour occurs before it is systematically
reinforced.
- The theory does not endorse the idea of free will but is deterministic, as it posits that the behaviour is
controlled by rewards.
- Negative reinforcement: maintaining fears that are learned
- Examples of negative punishment:
a. Giving a misbehaved child a time out
7. Association value: meaningfulness of verbal material.
8. Three term contingency:
- Antecedent
- Consequences
- Rewards
9. Second-order conditioning:
- One neutral stimulus is paired with US, and then the second one is presented and paired with the first
CS.
- Neutral stimulus: light → US presented → Light – CR elicited → 2nd neutral stimulus presented prior to
light: tone → Tone elicits the CR.
10. Skinner’s categories of verbal behaviour/operants:
- Mand: request – motivative operation – direct reinforcement
- Tact: label – praise – sensory stimuli – non-specific reinforcement
- Echoic: repetition – verbal stimuli – non-specific reinforcement
- Autoclitic/intraverbal: modifies the function of other verbal behaviours. (in conversations) -- non-
specific reinforcement – verbal stimuli

11. Tulving: declarative memory divided into episodic and semantic

12. Forgetting:
Decay Theory Ebbinghaus 1885 Engram disappears and
there is no other trace of
the memory left.
It assumes autonomous
processes.

Interference Theory Bergstorm 1892 Based on response

competition and
unlearning
Motivated Forgetting Sigmund Freud 1895 Due to suppression or
repression
Consolidation Theory Donald Hebb 1949 Disruption in the transfer
of information from STM
to LTM
Retrieval Failure Tulving and Pearlstone 1966 Explains tip of the tongue
Theory phenomenon, and cue-
dependent learning.
Encoding failure The most common and
obvious reason of
forgetting.

13. Contiguity: learning that one event leads to another.

14. LTM: semi-permanent (mnemonics and elaborative rehearsal can facilitate STM → LTM)
15. Transtheoretical model of behaviour change: (Prochaska)
- Pre-contemplation
- Contemplation
- Action
- Maintenance
- Termination
16. Metacognition: doesn’t include declarative knowledge: like communication one’s postal address.
17. Baddeley: added Episodic Buffer to WM model
- It acts as a workbench: not explained by the fact that old and new material from LTM are held in WM.
18. Studied reinforcement:
- Skinner: concept of cumulative recording
- Thorndike
- Hull
- NOT: Guthrie
19. Memory theories sequence:
- Interference
- Multistore
- LOP
- WM
20. Craik and Lockhart: LOP: structural, phonemic and semantic.
- Theoretically: infinite number of LOPs at which information can be processed.
21. Confluent learning: holistic education ~ using introspective, intuitive, kinaesthetic and movement.
22. Teaching practically:
- Increases intrinsic motivation and application of law of effect

23. Zeigarnik effect: the ability to remember unpleasant and unfinished things better.
24. Reminiscence effect:
- (Hull) taking breaks while learning, increases the performance.
(Practice → Rest → Performance increases)
- It supports distributed practice
25. Insight learning: Yerkes:
- Survey/Inspection
- Attitude of concentrated attention
- Trial
- Sharpening and frequent recurrent attention to the goal
- Critical point

26. False memories:

- Reality monitoring error: Misinformation: eyewitness testimony, suggestibility, leading questions
- Source monitoring error: Misattribution: source amnesia, source confusion and cryptomnesia.
27. Diverging style of learning: views concrete situations from different point of views.
28. Premack principle:
- More frequently occurring activity can be used to reinforce less frequently occurring one.
- More preferred activity to reinforce a less preferred one
- AKA grandma’s principle or probability differential: different stimuli have different values (intensity of
like/dislike)
29. Response deprivation:
- Missing: when access to a certain behaviour is restricted; that behaviour can serve as a reinforcer.
- Fed up: repeated access to a response/behaviour – makes it punishing.

30. Proactive interference: old -------- > new

31. Retroactive interference: old < -------- new
32. Albert Bandura:
- In observational learning, the anticipation of reward is more important to learning than the actual
experience of reward.
- Consequences of behavior:
~ External
~ Self-evaluation
- Reciprocal determinism: person, behaviour and environment.
- Self-efficacy is influenced by:
b. Mastery experiences
c. Vicarious experiences
d. Physiological feedback
e. Verbal/social persuasion

33. Hull’s theory: (S—R theory)

- Focuses on the role of primary needs in motivation.
- Talks about reinforcements and incentives.
- Behaviour is rarely a function of single stimuli, but of many.
- Response hierarchies are the habit strength hierarchies.
- sEr = V × D × J × K × sHr – sIr – Ir – sOr – sLr
f. sEr = reaction potential
g. V = need
h. D = psychological drive
i. J = delay
j. K = incentive size
k. sHr = habit strength
l. sIr = conditioned inhibition
m. Ir = reactive inhibition (fatigue)
n. sOr = random error
o. sLr = minimum reinforcement
- sHr increases logarithmically with practice.
- Reward is affected by: reward magnitude, reward delay and need.

34. Crespi effect:

- OC: an increase or decrease in the response that is disproportionate to the amount of reinforcement – due
to sudden change in the amount of reinforcement.
- Also a part of drive reduction theory: denoted as ‘k’
35. Contagion effect: Hatfield: spontaneous spread of emotions.
36. Frequency effect: recognition time is faster for words that are seen frequently.
37. Tolman:
- purposive behaviorism (S—O—R) (also proposed by Woodworth)
- Individual difference variables: age, heredity, amount of training and special endocrine, drug or vitamin
conditions.
- Vicarious trial and error
38. Latent/Place/Expectancy/Sign-stimulus Learning: (Tolman) (not based on subliminal perception)
- Reinforcement is not required for learning but performance is reward contingent.
- Requires more than one trial
- Purposive behaviour is docile (can be conditioned)
- Cognitive maps:
~ sign: start of maze
~ significant: end of maze
~ means-end analysis
- Means-end relation refers to internal thought processes
- Sign gestalts promote conditioning of purposive behaviours
39. External inhibition: when a new stimulus disrupts an existing conditioning.
40. Conditioned inhibition: to prevent the individual from doing something they would typically do. –
aversive conditioning
41. Associative memory: basic units: proposition
42. Vacuum behaviour: occurs when the sign stimulus is not identifiable.
43. Counterconditioning: elimination of undesirable behaviour by pairing CS with US other than the one
that originally reinforced that behaviour.
44. Overshadowing: when using a compound CS; one aspect overpowers the other
45. Blocking: when introducing CS-II after CS-I has been conditioned, no conditioning occurs for the CS-II
46. Learning experiment variables:
- Probability of response
- Latency
- Trials to extinction: multiple trials required
- NOT rate of presentation

47. LOP: Deep processing: distinctiveness and elaboration.

48. Sperling: to study iconic memory: partial-report procedure.
49. Contingent reinforcement: giving reinforcement only when a specific response is made.
50. Terms:
- Pavlov: cortical mosaic
- Wertheimer: isomorphism: perception and the underlying physiological processes are similar.
- Seligman: equipotentiality premise.
51. Aversion therapies:
- Paraphilic disorders
- Addictions
- OCD
52. Partial reinforcement schedules:
- Do not decrease the resistance to change
- They influence the rate of responding
53. Auto-shaping: (spurious correlation)
- S—S associations.
- The responses in such cases are innate and because of the contiguity between the stimulus and the
response – they acquire stimulus related properties
54. Behaviour modification through OC: token economy and time out
55. Adjunctive behaviour: unintentional behaviour that occurs when waiting for reinforcement
56. Ratio strain: when large ratios are used in reinforcement schedule
57. Gambling: variable ratio
58. Magic number: Miller: STM ~ based on chunking
59. Ebbinghaus CVC: based on theory of savings
60. Meaningfulness of verbal material can be indexed in terms of: associative value.
61. Dynamic stereotype: events consistently occurring in the environment come to have a neurological
representation making the responses rapid and autonomic to the familiar environment.
62. Anticipation method: can be used in serial learning and paired associates learning.
63. Programmed instruction: when a task is broken down into smaller parts, immediate feedback is
provided and the learner is allowed his own pace.
64. Strength of response: can be used to measure the amount of learning in both laboratory and natural
settings.
65. Principle of polarity: learned material is most performed in the same direction in which it was
originally learned.
66. The concept of secondary reinforcement is vital in the understanding of fractional antedating goal
response.
67. Own culture effect: affects memory schemas
68. Flashbulb memory:
- new, important and helpful social events
- Brown and Kulik
69. Iconic store: a discrete visual sensory store.
70. Rate of responding:
- Variable schedules are better than fixed schedules
- Ratio schedules are better than interval schedules
- Variable and fixed ratio schedules are the best: in both of them the rate of responding is quicker.
- Followed by variable interval and fixed interval schedules.
- Sequence: Variable ratio > Fixed ratio > Variable Interval > Fixed interval.

71. Bartlett: memory is a constructive process.

- Viewed memory as a problem-solving activity
72. Constructive memory: each time a memory is retrieved: it is altered to include new information.
73. Reconstructive memory: omission or addition to a recall.

74. Iconic memory: (fraction of second)

- Eidetic imagery: iconic memory of more than 30 seconds duration.
- It allows a stable perception of surroundings despite micro-saccades.
75. Echoic memory: (2-3 seconds)
- Smaller capacity than iconic
76. In memory: information is often stored in audio form as internal dialogues.
77. Articulatory repression: in experiments to not let individual rehearse material sub-vocally.
78. LTM encoding and retrieval: central executive

79. Visuospatial sketchpad:

- Visual cache: information like form, color
- Scribe: spatial location
80. Permastore: a very long-term storage
81. Implicit memory: (measured through implicit pursuit tasks)
- Procedural skills
- Priming
- Conditioning
- Non-associative: habituation and sensitization
82. Mnemonics:
- Acrostic: form a sentence to remember words.
- Keyword system: linking the sound and meaning of a known word to a foreign word.
- Pegword system: associate the new word with an already memorized list.
83. HERA model: hemispheric encoding/retrieval model:
- Semantic memory retrieval: more activation in left PF cortex
- Episodic memory retrieval: more activation in right PF cortex.
84. Muller and Pilzecker, 1900: gave the terms consolidation and retroactive interference.
85. Hyperthymesia: remembering almost everything.
- Mnemonist: people who have extraordinary memory: they use the process of synaesthesia.
- They convert the information to be remembered into a different sensory modality.
86. Hypermnesia: retrieval of memories that would seem to have been forgotten.
87. Transcience: decreased accessibility of memory over time.
88. Confabulation: production of fabricated memories to compensate for gaps in memory.
89. Seven sins of memory: Schacter
- Sins of omission: transcience + absent-mindedness + blocking (tip of the tongue)
- Sins of commission: suggestibility + bias (retreospective interference) + perseverance (unwanted
recollections) + misattribution
90. Temporally-graded retrograde amnesia: only recent memories affected
91. Transient global amnesia: temporary and difficulty forming new memories.
92. Forgetting curve: Ebbinghaus:
- Fastest forgetting in the first half of learning and then tapers off.
93. Anterograde amnesia: comorbid with senile dementia (Alzheimer’s)
94. Alzheimer’s:
- Anterograde amnesia at first and then retrograde amnesia
- Neurotransmitters involved: decreased amounts of glutamate and acetylcholine
- Neurons that produce Ach breakdown in its early stages.
- Increased number of plaques (beta-amyloid protein deposits outside nerve cells) and neurofibrillary
tangles (twisted strands of protein tau: found in cell bodies and dendrites).
- Detection now: biomarkers (PET scans)
95. Memory span: the longest list of items that an individual can repeat in the correct order 50% of the
time.
96. Memory type and cause of retrieval failure:
- STM: dissociation
- LTM: inappropriate articulation
- Working memory: inappropriate cues
- Echoic memory: displacement
97. Dementia:
- Vascular dementia: cerebrovascular disease + damage to vessels that supply blood to brain
- Lewy body dementia: balloon like clumps of protein + hallucination + Parkinsonian features
- Frontotemporal dementia: Pick’s disease: break down of nerve cells and neuronal connections in FL
and TL: changes in personality, language, thinking etc.
- Huntington’s: genetic mutation: nerve cells in brain and SC waste away: severe decline in cognitive
skills.
- Parkinson’s: physical symptoms → cognitive decline → dementia
 Thinking, Intelligence, and Creativity

1. Fuzzy sets: based on conceptual clustering:

- Instances belong to a category with varying levels of fitness (liberal) (versus classical categorization)\
2. Prototypes use the similarity- based criteria for categorisation.
3. Thinking: forming new mental representation by manipulating available information.
- Divergent thinking: aka horizontal
- Convergent thinking: aka vertical/critical/analytical/linear

4. Types of concepts:
- Conjunctive concepts: presence of all attributes
- Disjunctive concepts: presence of one of the attributes is enough
- Hierarchical model: Superordinate → Basic → Subordinate

5. Exemplary model of organizing concepts into categories:

- Concepts work as exemplars: all exemplars act as the foundation of that category
- No one concept is the best representation
- Prototypes are just concepts that are used more frequently

6. Mental imagery: analogical representation

- Kosslyn’s experiment of the imaginary island

7. Schema:
- Organization of analogical and symbolic representations: a cognitive framework
- Types: person, event, self, event
- Problem schema: that links the source and target
- Schema induction: activation of the relevant schema
- Transduction: applying the schema

8. Psychological processes involved in concept formation:

- Perception + Generalization + Discrimination + Abstraction
- Levels of CF: Klausmeier, 1974:
~ Concrete: individual can recognize a previously encountered stimulus
~ Identity: recognition in a different perspective too
~ Classificatory: can differentiate between different instances of the same stimulus
~ Formal: can define both name and attributes
9. Reasoning: how do the reasons we supply connect to the conclusion
10. Deductive reasoning: going from general to specific (top-down): provides structurally certain
conclusions (which can be true or false)
11. Inductive reasoning: (bottom-up)
- Specifics to general: identify the underlying general rule
- Laws of probability: not necessarily true that if the premise is true, conclusion will also be true.
- Hypothesis generation from specific instances.
- Used in scientific method (Baconian method)
12. Syllogisms:
- Form of deductive reasoning
- Major premise: general truth or fact
- Minor premise: specific instance of the general truth
- Conclusion (premise: true; conclusion:true)
- Disjunctive syllogism: either-or scenario in the major premise (which cannot coexist)
- Conditional syllogism: if-then scenario in the major premise
- Categorical syllogism: the 3 propositions (two premises and one conclusion) are categorical

13. Wertheimer’s thinking processes:

- Type A: productive: grouping, reorganization, creativity
- Type B: partially productive (may also include rote learning)
- Type Y: blind trial and error
- He used figures like squares, parallelograms, rectangles and triangles to train children to think in a
logical way.

14. Analogies: (Duncker: Radiation problem)

- Literal: direct relationship two occurrences
- Figurative: no direct relationship between the two occurrences but comparisons are still made between
the two.
- The transfer can be positive or negative
15. Logical Fallacies:
- Non-sequitur: making unjustified jumps from one idea to another
- Red Herring: distracting from the topic
- Straw man: misrepresenting the opponent’s opinion or just pointing a single problematic aspect of the
opinion.
16. Fallacies faced by smart people:
- Invulnerability
- Egocentrism
- Omnipotence
17. Problem-Solving:
- Well-defined problems: can be solved using algorithms
- Ill-defined problems: can be solved using trial-and-error method/divergent thinking
- Problem-space concept: given by Newell and Simon.
~ Operators: that allow transitions between states
~ Solutions: the set of operators
- Working backward: when the steps are unclear
- Insight: the opposite of reproductive thinking: where the past experiences are applied.
- Means-end analysis: multiple sub-goals (WORKING BACKWARDS: Tower of Hanoi)
- Peak-end heuristic: we remember the extreme lows and extreme highs from the past
- Restructuring: gestalt approach: how can we come to a new understanding of the problem.
18. Heuristics: Tversky and Kahneman:
- Anchoring and adjustment heuristic: focusing on the first instance of anything.
- Representative heuristic:
• Determining the probability of a situation through its similarity with a mental prototype.
• Leads to the formation of stereotypes.
- Availability heuristic: the salience of an information: commonly viewed: the information might be
wrong.
19. Formal heuristics:
- Means end analysis
- Working backwards
- Lexicographic
- Satisficing
- Problem space
- Recognition heuristic
20. Decision making: the type of PS where choice between two alternatives is to be made
- Classical decision theories: made from an ecological perspective
- Subjective utility: will the decision lead to increased pleasure and decreased pain
- Evaluating the likelihood of alternatives → assessing the consequences → assigning utilities →
weighting the utilities of likelihoods.
- Satisficing heuristic: humans have bounded rationality
21. Gambler’s fallacy: prediction based on the past (aka monte carlo fallacy)
- If the event less frequent in past: more probability of it occurring in the future and VV
22. Hot Hand: the likelihood will continue to the future (less frequent – less probability)
23. Contagion heuristic: avoiding contact with something thought to be contaminated
24. Hindsight bias: levels:
- Predictability
- Inevitability
- Memory distortion
25. Intelligence is a continuous organismic variable.
26. Binet: uni-factor theory: general capacity: g
27. Spearman:
- Three fundamental qualitative principles of cognition:
~ Apprehension of experience: encoding
~ Education of relations: inference
~ Education of correlates: application of inference to a new situation.
- Introduced the specific factor of intelligence (two factor theory, used FA)
- General factor is innate and differs from person to person.
- General factor is directly proportional to IQ (non-verbal)
- Specific factor is learned and differs for a person from activity to activity.
- Specific abilities are correlated due to the ‘g’ factor loadings.
- Positive manifold and tetrad equation as the basis for discovering general intelligence.
- Tetrad Equation:
~ r12 × r34 – r13 × r24 = 0: aka tetrad differences or quantity F
~ this equation should be zero as all the specific abilities have g factor in common
~ if not zero; then the amount of g factor varies in all abilities
~ variations in measures of intelligence: due to specific abilities
28. Sternberg: Triarchic theory of intelligence:
- Creative/Experiential
- Practical/Contextual: street smarts
~ involves the processes of: adapt, change, and select
- Analytical/Componential: three components:
a. Selective encoding (knowledge)
b. Performance: includes the processes of mapping, encoding and cognitive processing.
c. Meta-component: plays a role in decision making, planning and regulation
- Sequence of meta-components:
Identification of problem → defining the givens, goals & obstacles → selection of lower order
processes → choosing appropriate strategy → selecting a mental representation → allocating mental
resources → monitoring → evaluation.

29. Raymond Cattell:

- Used oblique rotation to yield second order factors of abilities (Gf and Gc), in order to understand the
structure of personality.
- Fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallized intelligence (Gc) are related to each other as he used oblique
rotation, but both of them load on different factors.
- Fluid intelligence has a genetic basis and is not influenced by environment.
- There are more individual differences in Gf than Gc as Gf has a genetic basis.
- Investment hypothesis of intelligence:
~ Gf → interaction with the environment → Gc
~ Crystallized intelligence separates from fluid intelligence as an effect of learning.
- Introduced:
~ Cognitive assessment battery
~ Objective analytic test battery (uses the universal index)

30. Gardener: Multiple intelligence:

- No FA
- Studied savants: low IQ but have some exceptional skills
- Gave importance to cultures
- Studied intelligence as a potential
- Linguistic → Logico-mathematical → Musical → Spatial → Bodily Kinaesthetic → Interpersonal →
Intrapersonal → Naturalistic → Existential

31. PASS Model:

- Based on Luria’s theory: neuropsychological
- Based on 3 functional units: arousal, processing and planning (all three FUs have: memory + conceptual
+ perceptual processes)
- Information can be transferred between the three functional units
- Attention/Arousal: BS and thalamus
- Simultaneous Planning: PL and OL
- Successive Planning: TL
- Planning: FL, PF cortex
- PASS reading enhancement programme (PREP) + CAS (independent of schooling)
- It is not controlled by the brain stem or the ascending reticular activating system

32. Hierarchical group theory of structure of cognitive abilities:

- Vernon and Piaget
- Attributed 60% source of variance to genetics
- First level: G-factor
- Second level:
~ verbal educational ([Link])
~ spatial mechanical (k.m.)
- Third level:
~ verbal-educational: creative, verbal, numerical
~ spatial-mechanical: psychomotor, mechanical, spatial

33. Stages of consolidation: (Hebb)

- Formation of cell assembly
- Reverberation (synaptic transmission)
- Long term potentiation
- Dendritic sprouting
- Consolidation

34. Polygraph measures the following:

-
35. Biological/Structural theory: Eysenck: based on Hebb’s theory
- Intelligence A: genetic + biological substrate of intelligence
- B: manifestation of A: behavioural
- C: performance of intelligence tests
- 3 neurological correlates of intelligence:
~ reaction time + inspection time + average evoked potential
36. Faculty theory of intelligence: mental faculties can be developed through rigorous training

37. Confluence Model: (Zajonc and Markus):

- First borns: more IQ: as they gain most attention and are exposed to mature adult language.
- Single children: low IQ than first borns as they do not get the chance to tutor siblings.
38. Sampling/Oligarchic theory: Thompson
39. Ceci’s bioecological theory:
- There is no general intelligence but multiple cognitive potentials which interact.
40. NPC: Percentile thing

41. WAIS: 1955: 6 verbal and 5 performance subscales.

42. WAIS IV:
- Wechsler: introduced the concept of drive and incentives in intelligence
- Subtests:
- Non-verbal tests:
~ Picture completion
 ~ Cancellation
- Matrix reasoning subtest measures:
~ Ability to follow directions
~ Visual organization
- Sequential tests: picture completion and cancellation (visual scanning for feature detection)
- Digit span test measures: anxiety
- Coding measures: visuomotor ability
- Visual puzzles assess: perceptual reasoning
- Matrix reasoning assess: inductive reasoning
- Score on mean: 50th percentile
- Included Deterioration Quotient
43. WAIS: Deviation IQ: mean=100 and SD = 15: to convert the percentile rank into deviation IQ:
- Find out the z score corresponding to rank
- DIQ: 100 + 15(z)
- If DIQ = 85; PR: 16
- T= 10z + 50

44. Intellectual disability:

Severity IQ range
Mild 50-70
Moderate 35-50
Severe 20-35
Profound 20 and below

45. Routing: is not required for speed intelligence tests.

46. Critical thinking sequence:

- Adopt the attitude of a critical thinker
- Recognize and avoid hindrances
- Identify and characterize arguments
- Evaluate information sources
- Evaluate arguments

47. Neuroscience theories of intelligence: Parieto-frontal integration theory.

48. Stanford-Binet Scale: introduced IQ. (peaks at 25). Stability in IQ is due to:
- Overlap hypothesis: overlapping of skills between different cognitive abilities contributes to increased
IQ.
- Pre-requisite problem-solving skills
- Environmental stability
49. Jonah Complex: fear of new responsibilities.
- Supports Maslow’s Theory.
- Progression isn’t automatic because of Jonah complex.

50. Binding effect: association unrelated action and outcomes: also feeling that time passes quickly.
51. Magical thinking: if you believe it, it exists
- make believe play + supernatural + synchronicity + superstitions.

52. Jensen level I and II abilities: didn’t look for gender differences
- Level 1:
a. associative learning
b. no racial or national differences in this ability (homogeneous distribution)
c. Includes neural registration and consolidation of objects
d. Does not include abstract reasoning.
- Level 2: cognitive learning: more in Anglo-American people.
- Difficulty of tasks
- SES differences
- Racial differences
- Genetic factors: explain 80-90% variance in personality
- Term: regression: to understand group differences in intelligence: children of parents with high
intelligence levels will have below average intelligence scores.
- Used MRA on own theory and CFA for Spearman’s
- Assortative mating

53. Cognitive distortions:

- Availability + hindsight + flexible attribution + illusion of control.

54. Components of metacognition: (Flavell, 1970s)

- Regulation:
~ planning
~ monitoring
~ evaluating
- Knowledge:
~ declarative knowledge
~ procedural knowledge
~ conditional knowledge/ acting according to the condition

55. Coloured Progressive Matrices: used for children.

56. Naglieri Non-verbal ability test: for K-12 individuals
57. Johson-Laird: contingencies in scientific study of logic
- Propositional inferences
- Relational inferences
- Syllogisms

58. Lexicographic heuristic: fast and frugal heuristic – decision is made based on the first option that
satisfies a predetermined criterion.
- Includes: search rule + stop rule + decision rule

59. Commitment bias/Escalation of commitment: tendency to remain stuck in the past behaviors
- Rational expectation of positive outcome → occurrence of loss → self-justification → strengthening of
external factors (attribution of failure to external factors)
60. Intelligence sequence:
- FL → focusing attention internally → WM and general reasoning

61. Ardelt: 3 componential view of wisdom: inspired by Clayton

- Reflective: viewing different POVs and decreasing subjectivity
- Affective: sympathy for others
- Cognitive: see reality as it is.
62. Basis of IP approach: retrieval
63. Binet:
- Relative standing remains constant
- Mental competence increases over the childhood years
64. Accomplishment Quotient: (Educational Age/Mental age) × 100
- Mental age: performance on any intelligence test

65. Key issues in study of heredity-environment effects on intelligence:

- Reaction range: limits set on IQ by heredity (genotypes)– manifestation (phenotypes) is according to the
environment.
- Proximal and distal causation: distal/environmental is the ultimate reason (distal events: exert their
influence later on in life): proximal: innate
- Collinearity: there are multiple variables that affect intelligence.
66. Basic elements of thoughts:
- Concepts + images + propositions.

67. Thurstone: Primary mental abilities/Multiple Factor:

- Orthogonal rotation – 7 factors – no general factor: SHOULD HAVE USED OBLIQUE
- Factor analysis is a means of confirming a model; not discovering it.
- Restricted heterogeneity is the sample
- Used 56 intelligence tests for conducting the FA.
- Factors:
~ perceptual speed ~ verbal fluency ~ inductive reasoning
~ associate memory ~ spatial aptitude
~ verbal comprehension ~ number ability

68. Guilford’s 3-D SOI: (all the abilities are correlated, oblique rotation is used)
- 150 (now 180: 6×6×5) first order factors + 85 second order + 16 third order.
- 120: memory not divided and figural content for both auditory and visual
- 150: figural content divided
- 180: memory divided: recording and retention
- Contents: visual, auditory, behavioural, semantic, symbolic
- Operations: cognition, memory, divergent thinking, convergent, evaluation
- Products: units, class, relation, system, transformation, implication

69. Problem isomorphs: (Wertheimer)

- Same underlying structure + the same operations to solve it
- The surface structure is different
70. Terms:
- Clustering: transformation of the sequence of items
- Coding: transformation of the content of items
- Learning to learn: use of coding devices and mediators
- Non-specific transfer: learning how to perform a task

71. Concepts as levels of increasing abstraction:

- Negation → Alternative denial → Disjunctive concept
72. Mental sets:
- Functional fixedness hypothesis: mental manipulation performed on images of objects: which are very
similar to those that would be performed on actual objects
- Functional equivalence hypothesis: would point thoughts into the wrong direction
- Functional manipulative hypothesis: would make the images of all material almost similar
- Functional object imagery: mental representation of visual appearance: which are made to be similar to
those that would be performed on actual objects
73. 1986 Symposium of intelligence:
- Intelligence within the environment
- Intelligence within the individual
- Intelligence within the interaction between the individual and environment
74. Naturalistic decision making involves decisions as they occur in everyday life: as it has serious
ramifications for the decision maker.
75. Concept formation: BRUNER
- Simultaneous scanning: taking all the hypotheses at once and then eliminating: BEST
- Successive planning: taking one hypothesis at a time
- Focus gambling: focusing on more than one attribute at a time.
- Conservative focusing: focusing on just the positive or negative instances of the focus stimuli.

76. Culture fair tests measures:

- fluid intelligence → not impacted by environmental factors → thus, CFTs measure genetic influences
- More gender differences in fluid intelligence
77. Verbal tests:
- Stanford Binet
- WAIS
78. Non-verbal tests:
- RPM: contains 60 items
- Cattell’s CFT
- Visuospatial processing
79. Performance tests:
- Psychomotor
- Alexander Pass-along
- Hand-eye coordination
- Kolb’s block design
80. Thorndike: Multifactor/Atomistic/Anarchic theory of intelligence
- Studied neural bonds
- Concrete/psychomotor + social + abstract
- Level: difficulty of a task that can be solved: measure of intelligence
- Range: number of tasks at a given level of difficulty
- Area: all ranges of all levels
- Speed
81. Flynn effect:
- each successive generation of people is more intelligent than the preceding one.
- To account for Flynn effect, age and cohort are confounded in cross-sectional studies.
82. Chronometric measure of intelligence: reaction time apparatus.
83. A single conclusion from many instances: inductive reasoning.
84. Feature-integration theory: Treisman and Gelade, 1980: two parallel processes:
- Feature detection: automatic
- Objects identification: requires focused attention

85. Receptive-productive lag: infants understand more than they can produce
86. Emotional Intelligence:
- Goleman:
• Self-awareness
• Self-regulation
• Empathy
• Social skills
• Motivation: includes skill like motivating oneself and getting into a flow state.
- Mayer and Salovey:
• Perceiving emotions
• Facilitating thought using language
• Understanding emotion
• Managing emotion
87. Trail making: tests ability to follow directions
88. Creativity is studied as a:
- Person
- Potential
- Process.
- Product
- Persuasion
89. Divergent thinking measurement (Torrance): TTCT: creativity as a process
- fluency, flexibility, elaboration, originality + resistance to premature closure + abstractness of titles.
- Subscales:
~ lateral/innovative thinking factor: fluency and originality
~ vertical/adaptive thinking factor: AOT and elaboration
~ creative personality factor: RPC and 13 checklists of creative strengths
- Creatively handicapped: people who are creative but low academic achievement.
- Verbal and figural tests.
- Creativity is associated with innovative ideas.
- Picture construction is scored on: originality and elaboration
- Picture completion: fluency, flexibility, elaboration
90. Guilford: Creativity Theory:
- fluency, flexibility, elaboration, originality.
- Fluency: the rate of production of ideas
- Ideational fluency: free expression
- Expression fluency: generating new ideas while adhering to a specific criteria
- Spontaneous flexibility: no force from the environment
- Adaptive flexibility: force from the environment
- Sensitivity to problems and re-defining them.

91. Hayes: certification hypothesis: an individual with high creativity and low intelligence will not be able
to express talent adequately

92. Wallas: Creativity:

- Preparation: trial and error
- Incubation: most creative thinking occurs in this stage: as we let our minds wander
- Insight/Illumination
- Evaluation/Verification
- Elaboration

93. Getzel and Jackson hypothesis: there no correlation between intelligence and creativity
94. Guilford’s Threshold Hypothesis:
~ average intelligence required for creativity
~ intelligence is necessary but not sufficient for creativity
~ as beyond a certain point the relationship is ill-defined.

95. 4C Model of creativity: Kaufmann and Beghetto

- Mini-C: personal, day-to-day: occurs during learning process
- Little-C: feedback from others: making something valued by others
- Pro-C: professional creativity: recognition
- Big-C: creativity of eminence – great contributions

96. Margaret Boden:

- P creativity: psychological: new to individual
- H creativity: historical: new to individual + society

97. Systems theory of creativity: Csikszentmihalyi

- Highlighted the importance of context
- Domain: subject area of expertise: also provides set of rules and practices to the individual
- Field: the gatekeepers of the domain
- Individual: who wants to contribute towards the domain (the changes must be accepted by the field)

98. Sternberg: investment theory of creativity: 6 interrelated but distinct resources:

- Intellectual ability and knowledge
- Personality and thinking styles
- Motivation and environment
99. Association Theory: Mednick: 3 types
- Combination of remote elements is creativity
- Serendipitous: instantaneous solution
- Similarity: when we associate two remote elements due to similarities between them
- Mediation: when we associate two remote elements using a common link: a mediator.
 Personality, Motivation, Emotion, Stress and Coping
1. Allport:
- Allport: studied personality as an intervening variable and a dynamic process.
- Focused on both innateness and learning as the modes of development of personality.
- Personality constitutes temperament, intelligence and physique.
- Only talked about intrinsic motivation
- Propriate striving: to increase self-worth
- Perseverative autonomy: day-to-day life
- Secondary traits: have a weaker influence
- Source traits: underlie many other traits
- Cardinal traits: dominate an individual’s entire personality
- Central traits: a bunch of traits that explain an individual’s entire personality

2. Factor analytic theories:

- Cattell + Eysenck + Guilford + Goldberg
- Not Allport
- Kelly did not use factor analysis but fragmentation of constructs

3. Allostasis: adaptation to acute stress by releasing stress hormones (HPA axis) with a goal to restore the
homeostasis.
4. HEXACO personality model:
- Ashton and Lee (inspired by the five factor model)
- H: honesty-humility
- E: emotionality
- X: extraversion
- A: agreeableness
- C: conscientiousness
- O: openness
5. Eysenck’s PEN theory:
- A nomothetic approach
- Used orthogonal rotation
- Hypothesized that there is a relationship between psychoticism and creativity.

6. Self-determination Theory: Deci and Ryan:

- Basic needs to explain well-being: (CAR model)
a. Competence
b. Autonomy
c. Relatedness
- Autonomous orientation: higher autonomy
- Controlled orientation: competence + relatedness: motivation is regulated by external pressures and
negative internal pressures (guilt, obligation and fear of disappointing others)
7. Structural components of the collective unconscious of Carl Jung:
- Archetypes
- Imagoes
- Dominants.
8. Jung:
- Personality types:
~ 2 attitudes: introversion and extroversion
~ 4 functions: thinking versus feeling (rational) and sensing versus intuition (irrational)
- Complexes: emotionally charged group of ideas and images that influence thoughts and behaviour.
- Principle of opposites: every conscious attitude has its counterpart in unconscious.
- Principle of equivalence: energy is never lost but is redistributed within the psyche.
- Principle of entropy: energy is automatically redistributed in the psyche to achieve equilibrium or
balance.
- Rational functions
- 4 stages of analytic therapy:
~ Confession
~ Elucidation: to make unconscious → conscious
~ Education: moving an individual to a realm of adapted social being
~ Transformation: becoming one’s true self

9. Stress:
- Functions as a motivator
- Behavioural indicators of stress can be seen in different domains of life
- General adaptation syndrome:
a. Hans Selye
b. Physiological arousal is general and not specific to stressors
c. Rejected the role of adrenal medulla and focused on the role of adrenal cortex (i.e., cortisol)
d. maximum physiological arousal in alarm stage.
10. Types of stress:
- Anthropogenic stress: stress due to human activities
- Geopathic stress: impact of earth’s energies on human well being.
- Energetic stress: due to radiations
11. Type A personality: heart diseases
12. Type D personality: depression
13. Type C personality: cancer

14. Sullivan basic modes theory:

- Prototaxic: experiences that cannot be communicated: generally: infants.
- Parataxic: pre-logical; erroneous assumptions about C&E: parataxic distortions.
- Syntaxic: logical communicable
15. Adler:
- nothing is predetermined and we are in the process of becoming (future-oriented)
- Distancing: used by the neurotic to avoid problems
- Superiority striving involves two processes:
a. Fictional finalism
b. Compensation
- Protest masculinity:
a. The expression of male characteristics just to meet the societal standards
b. Can be shown by females as a rebellion too
16. Repression: motivated forgetting
17. Introjected motivation: a negative internalized motivation (activation + intensity + persistence)
18. Johari window: known to self: open and hidden

19. Chronological order of tests:

- MMPI → MBTI → EPQ → NEO PI-R

20. NEO-PI-R: does not use any response style scale: as assessment of social desirability leads to a
reduction in validity.

21. Sheldon’s constitutional theory of personality:

- Endomorphism: (fat): viscertonia: calm, tolerant and easy going.
- Mesomorphism: (middle): somatotonia: energetic
- Ectomorphs: (thin): cerebrotonia: introvert and sensitive.

22. Ethological approach to motivation: (instincts) (S—R)

- Lorenz (imprinting), Tinbergen (sickle bach fish mating), Fisch (bees)
- Focused on behaviour (FAPs)
- Biological + evolutionary
- Sign stimulus/releaser + hormonal events + neurobiological events + distal determinants

23. Defense Mechanisms:

- Mature defense mechanisms:
p. Humour
q. Sublimation
r. Suppression
24. Freud on motivation:
- Motivation is related to the following:
• Instincts
• Homeostasis
• Hedonism
- Object relations theory: based on his SAIO theory: Source – aim – impetus – object
- Gave the concept of impetus: amount of energy associated with an instinct.
25. Lewin: opposing forces: stay in a state of equilibrium
- Most stable: avoidance-avoidance, least: approach-approach
- Multiple approach-avoidance: more than two goals, each having both positive and negative aspects.
- Maximum vacillation & equilibrium in approach-avoidance – avoidance-avoidance – least in approach-
approach

26. Murray: unity thema:

- How individual interacts with the environment
- Unconscious
- A compound of interrelated/conflicting needs linked to a press.
27. Extinction transfer theory of aggression: (Zillman, 1971)
Arousing event → increased arousal → stimuli stops → residual arousal → frustration → arousal
attributed to frustration.
28. Berkowitz frustration aggression hypotheses:
- Frustration does not always lead to aggression.
- Cognitive factors can overside aggression
- Social rules inhibit aggression
- Nature and frequency of aggressive behaviour varies across different societies.
- Only for hostile and reactive aggression
29. Opponent process theory of emotion: Solomon, 1982
- When there is repeated exposure to a stimulus, the initial emotion weakens and the opposite emotion
strengthens
30. Biological basis of emotion:
- Valence: + or – is determined by anterior regions
- Arousal: the intensity of emotion – is determined by the posterior regions
- LH (frontal and prefrontal): +ve affect and approach reaction to positive emotions
- RH: -ve affect and avoidance reaction to aversive stimuli
~ recognizing emotional scenes and tone + emotional information and expression

31. Mechanistic view of motivation: S—R (not S—O—R)

- Psychoanalytic
- Ethological
- Sociobiological
- Behaviour can be instigated by external or internal stimuli.
32. Idiographic approach:
- Allport
- Kelley: constructive alternativism
33. Deterministic approaches: (emphasis on childhood experiences)
- Murray
- Erikson
34. Nomothetic approaches: (look for variation among people)
- Eysenck
- Cattell
35. Eysenck: hedonic tone: in arousal theory:
- Cortical arousal is related to hedonic tone (pleasant/unpleasant)
- Extroverts: low level of arousal – unpleasant experience
36. Rollo May:
- Dependence → innocence → rebellion → ordinary consciousness of self → creative consciousness of
self.
- An individual adheres to traditional roles and shows increased conformity in the ordinary
consciousness of self.
- Man’s search for himself
- To grow psychologically, our values must be challenged.
37. Motivating Potential Score: Job Characteristics Model: Hackman and Oldham, 1975
- Skill variety
- Task significance
- Task identity
- Autonomy and feedback
MPS = (SV + TS + TI ÷ 2) × A × F
38. Maslow:
- Motivation and Personality.
- Personal orientation inventory
39. Personality studies: universals + individual differences + uniqueness
40. Erikson:
- Fanaticism: when there is a failure in identity achievement
- occurs due to the failure in identity versus role confusion stage.
41. Arousal levels and performance:
- Performance is optimal when the arousal is low as on easy tasks performance becomes optimal.
42. Oral incorporative character:
- Due to oral fixation
- Being gullible + good listeners + collecting things
43. Extrinsic motivators:
- May interfere with the autonomy of student
44. Last brain area for emotional information before response: prefrontal cortex
45. The superego if formed to resolve the Electra and Oedipus complexes.
46. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES: HATE:
- Heredity
- Age
- Pre-training
- Endocrine factors
47. BANDURA: the mechanisms used by people when they are acting against their moral principles:
- Moral disengagement/justification
- Dehumanization
- Distortion of reality
- Diffusion of responsibility
48. Types of temperament: (Kagen, Thomas & Chess)
- Easy
- Difficult
- Slow to warm up
49. Cathexis: the investment of psychic energy in the thoughts of objects or processes that will satisfy a
need.
50. First to use lexicon descriptors: Allport and Odbert
51. Achievement motivation:
- Individuals with high achievement motivation are more attracted to tasks of intermediate difficulty AS
they are highly motivated to avoid failure.
52. Measurement of emotions:
- Sphygmomanometer (BP)
- Galvanic skin response
- Pupillary measurement camera
53. James-Lange and cognitive theories: differ on the fact that bodily feedback determines which emotion
is felt.
54. Horney: hyper competitiveness
55. Brief stress enhances the activity of immune system components: T cells, B cells and macrophages
56. Personality assessment in forensic settings: GSR and MCMI
57. Underlying motivation for acts of aggression: need to exert control
58. N-Ach: McClelland:
- Self-reliance values → independence training by parents → n-Ach → economic development
- The measure of ACh → 11 categories of scoring TA
59. Alderfer: ERG theory of motivation:
- It is based on Maslow’s theory of motivation; but it suggests individual differences in the order of
needs.
60. Excitation Transfer Theory:
- Individuals believe that aggression is due to minor frustration but it is actually due to residual arousal.
61. Frustration-aggression hypothesis:
- Aggression is always due to frustration
- Frustration always leads to anger
62. La Pierre Study: attitude-behaviour inconsistency: attitude does not always determine behaviour.
63. Schacter Singer: If there is no cognitive explanation to the physiological arousal: the emotional arousal
is more.
64. Rorschach Projective Test:
- Scoring systems:
• Klopfer: qualitative
• Exner
• Beck
- W: whole
- D: common detail
- Dd: uncommon/minor detail
- Dde: rare/unusual detail
65. Sensation seeking:
- Involves the role of dopamine
- Components:
~ thrill seeking
~ experience seeking
~ disinhibition
~ boredom susceptibility
66. Content theories of motivation:
- McClelland
- Herzberg
67. Process theories of motivation:
- Vroom
- Porter-Lawler
68. Herzberg:
- Hygiene factors decrease dissatisfaction, they include:
a. Working conditions
b. Supervisor quality
c. Co-worker relationship
- Satisfaction factor is focused on personal growth.
69. Vroom: Expectancy Theory of Motivation:
- Motivation = E × I × V
- E = expectancy (effort)
- I = instrumentality (performance)
 - V = valence (outcome)
70. Raymond Cattell:
- 16PF → second order factors → Global five factors.
- Global five factors:
~ extraversion
~ anxiety
~ tough-mindedness
~ independence
~ self-control
- Types of data used:
• Q-data:
• L-data: D, J, K, P
• T-data:
- Some factors were only in L-data and not Q and T data.
- Incorporate Q1, Q2, Q3, and Q4 factors in 16 PF
- Attitudes:
- Sentiments:
- Ergs: constitutional source traits
- Metaergs:
~ dynamic source trait with an environmental origin.
~ attitudes + sentiments
- Subsidiation: causal relationship between ergs, sentiments and attitudes.
~ attitudes are subsidiary to sentiments
~ sentiments are subsidiary to ergs
- Syntelity: description of traits that characterize a group
- Self-sentiment: the most powerful sentiment which organizes the personality.
- Dynamic lattice: relationship between ergs, sentiments and attitudes.
- S-technique: to study social interactions
- R-technique: to study the source and surface traits by intercorrelating the scores of many individuals.
- P-technique: to study the unique personality structures of individuals.
- R = f(P, E)
- Dynamic traits are related to one another.
- Hypothetico-deductive spiral: structure-based systems theory:
~ as the personality is dynamic: iterative process to analyse the personality theory.
~ empirical data – hypothesis – tested – empirical data ………
 Social Psychology
1. Father of experimental social psychology: Flyod Allport
2. Father of modern social psychology: Kurt Lewin
3. Sherif:
- Superordinate goals: can be used to decrease prejudice
- Gave the norm formation theory
4. Schemas:
- Made from the process of social interaction
- Effect is not always shown on thoughts and behaviour
- Types of schemas:
~ Person schema
~ Role schema
~ Event schema
5. Errors in social cognition:
- Counterfactual thinking
- Thought suppression
- Magical thinking
6. Social referencing:
- Starts at the age of 10 months
7. Social engineering and trickery
8. Tuckman’s theory of group development:
- Forming – Storming – Norming – Performing – Adjourning.
- Leadership develops in storming
9. Group Tasks:
- Additive tasks: social loafing will be more
10. Lewin’s field theory: (gestalt)
- Field refers to the psychological environment of a person. (IDIOGRAPHIC)
- His theory is present-oriented.
- We are in a state of inertia and require a push (internal) or a pull (external)
- Topological model of psychological environment: everything within an individual is connected
~ Foreign Hull of life space: will eventually affect you but you are unaware of them
~ Force field analysis: we weigh positive and negative factors.
- B = f(P, E) – P is the individual and E is the physical environment and psychological environment.
- Change theory:
~ unfreeze → change → freeze
~ the process is influenced by the positive and negative vectors in a person’s field of experience.

11. Resistance of persuasion in attitude change:

- Reactance
- Fore warning
- Selective avoidance

12. Zimbardo’s prison experiment:

- Studied how situational variables affect obedience and conformity
- Uniforms increase deindividuation in adults.
13. Milgram
- Factors contributing to obedience:
a. Proximity between the teacher (subject) and the learner (confederate)
b. Expertise of the experimenter
c. Lab coat of the experimenter (as it shows authority)
14. Ethical decision making:
- Moral awareness
- Moral intent
- Moral judgement

15. Leadership approaches (chronology):

- Leadership is a process where individuals merely make an attribution about other individuals AS
people perceive leaders as change agents.
- Great person approach
- Trait approach
- Behavioural approach: Michigan State Ohio Study
- Contingency approach: Fiedler
- Transformational approach: McGregor

16. Trait approaches: Carlyle

17. Behavioural approaches: Lewin: differentiated between task and relationship-oriented leaders
18. Contingency approach:
- Factors: leader’s power, degree of task structure and leader-member relationship.
- Fiedler’s contingency approach: the leader can be both task and relationship-oriented according to the
situation.
- Path goal: Robert House: the leader’s behaviour should complement the subordinates’ abilities
- Hershey and Blachard: Situational leadership: leadership depends upon the readiness level of the
subordinates:
~ Directing/telling
~ Coaching/selling
~ Supporting/participating
~ Delegating: low task and low participation

19. Prosocial behaviour

- Altruism is a motive and altruistic behaviour is an act
- Motivators of helping behaviour:
• Empathy
• Personal distress
• Norms and values
- Decision stage model: (Darley and Latane): 5 stages:
• Noticing something unusual
• Interpreting the event as an emergency
• Accept responsibility for helping
 • Decision about possession of required knowledge and skills: how to help
• Deciding to actually help (cost-benefits are weighed)
• Motivators for helping others: personal distress + empathy + personal suffering
- Theories of prosocial behaviour:
• Negative state relief model
• Empathy altruism hypothesis
• Empathic joy hypothesis: helping for rewarding
- Pluralistic Ignorance: when a bystander assumes that nothing is wrong in a situation because the
others do not look concerned.

20. Illusion of invulnerability: the members of a group feel that they cannot fail.

21. Theory of mind: Premack and Woodruff

- ToM: components: perception (of beliefs, desires and emotion) + Perspective taking
- Premack and Woodruff: age: 4 years (same age for empathy)
- Piaget: 7 years

22. Social Identity Theory: (Tajfel and Turner, 1979)

- social categorization → social identity → social comparison.
23. Robbers Cave Experiment: based on equal status contact
24. There is nothing like secondary attribution error.
25. Bullying: more likely to engage in externalizing behaviour
26. Self-fulfilling prophecy: Pygmalion effect
- Something happens because we expect it to happen: Expectations about a person’s behaviour lead them
to elicit behaviour that confirm the expectations.
- Tendency to seek, interpret and create information that verifies our own beliefs.
- Rosenstock and Jacobson: “Pygmalion in the classroom”
27. Golem’s effect: low expectations lead to lower performance
28. Effective Persuasion Process: Conger:
- Credibility
- Common ground
- Evidence
- Emotional connection
29. Grief: Kubler-Ross:
- Denial – Anger – Bargain – Depression – Acceptance.
30. Tokenism (token integration): treating a person differently because of their different social category.
31. Social order maintaining orientation: moral principles should apply to everyone and are not dependent
on close ties to others
32. Robert Cialdini: Influence: The Psychology of Persuasion (1984)
a) Reciprocity:
▪ That’s not all: additional offers
▪ Door in the face
▪ High ball: bargaining
b) Consensus or social proof: by highlighting popularity
c) Authority
 d) Liking:
▪ Ingratiation
e) Scarcity:
▪ Deadline
▪ Playing hard to get
f) Commitment and consistency:
▪ Foot-in-the-door
▪ Low ball (first offer different than actual one)

33. Cognitive dissonance:

- can be decreased
~ both directly (by changing behavior) and indirectly (by changing attitudes)
~ by changing the importance of existing belief
~ by seeking supportive information about existing belief
- Minimal justification: people are more likely to engage in behaviours that contradicts their beliefs for a
smaller reward as compared to a larger reward.
- Cognitive dissonance makes unpleasant experiences seem more rational

34. Social Trap: individual outcomes increase momentarily but overall outcomes in long term decrease.
35. Schism: ideological changes in the core aspects of a group.
36. Kelley & Thibaut: Social Exchange Theory: 1959
- Sampling – Bargaining – Commitment – Institutionalization
37. Theory of social impact: (Latane, 1981)
- Also coined the term bystander effect
- Includes pluralistic ignorance
- 3 variables: (impact of majority over minority)
~ strength: transpersonal and situation-specific
~ immediacy: physical, temporal and social
~ number: psychosocial law: influence increases till 5-6 people.

38. Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory: (aka bioecological)

- Arranged based on the level of influence they exert on the child
- Elements:
~ Person (genetic), process (interaction), context, time (events of past, present, future)
- Microsystem: bidirectional interaction between the child and the immediate relationships.
- Mesosystem: interconnected microsystems
- Exosystem: formal and informal social structures: indirect influence by impacting the microsystems.
- Macrosystem: sociocultural conditions (SES, wealth, ethnicity): independent of cultural bias.
- Chronosystem: shifts and transitions over the child’s lifetime (ecological transitions)

39. Idiosyncracy credit: the ability to deviate from group expectations.

40. Proscriptive norms: how an individual should not behave
41. Social empowerment theory: for LGBTs:
- Increases the group’s personal and collective self advocacy
- They learn that they can lead fulfilling and satisfying lives.
- They realize that they are not suffering from any pathology.
42. Social combination rules for group success: (Steiner)
- Taxonomy of tasks:
~ Component: is the task divisible or not (if it is divisible, specialisation is important)
~ Focused: qualitatively or quantitatively focused
~ Interdependent: how members can impact the group performance
- Maximising: quantitative + Optimizing: quality focused
(In sequence:)
- Additive: inputs of all group members
- Disjunctive: best group member decides the group performance
- Compensatory: averaging
- Conjunctive: weakest group member decides the group performance
43. Social loafing: Ringelmann:
- more in large groups
- requiring efforts from all the members
- accountability
- rewards and recognition
- monitoring and feedback

44. Social facilitation: labelled by Floyd Allport, 1920

- non psychology experiment: Triplett, 1898
- Two types: co-action and audience effects
- Co-action: parallel activity, rather than direct competition or cooperation, can impact individual
behaviour.

45. Internal attributions: dispositions + traits + feelings + abilities.

46. Zajonc’s model of social facilitation:
- Based on Hull’s theory of motivation: high arousal → stress → habitual behaviours.
- Presence of others adds to the arousal: if the task is habitual: facilitation and if it is not enough
practiced: social inhibition.
- Sequence:
~ others present
~ arousal increases
~ evaluation apprehension
~ well learned: facilitation
~ not well learned: inhibition

47. Groupthink (Irving Janis, 1972):

- A charismatic and directional leader : will increase it.
- Groupthink also leads to group polarization
- The members of the group experience high perceived stress.
48. Interactional Justice: the degree to which the people who are affected by decision are treated with
dignity: involves the considerateness and courtesy + rewards distributing.
- Informational justice
- Interpersonal justice: degree to which people are treated with politeness by the authorities.
49. Sequence:
- McDougall → Allport → Lewin → Sherif
50. Mere Exposure Effect: Zajonc
- Unconscious change of attitude
- Repeated exposure leads to liking
51. Sleeper Effect: Carl Hovland:
- The persuasive power of lower credibility sources increases over time.
- The importance of information is more than the source
- Immediate change of perception depends on trustworthiness and expertise
- Delayed persuasion: value of source decreases over time but the information is retained
52. Peripheral route: changing attitudes using emotions
53. Kelly’s attribution theory:
- The methods used by people to describe the events:
~ consistency
~ consensus
~ distinctiveness
- Internal attribution: high consistency, low consensus and low distinctiveness
- External attribution: high consistency, high consensus and high distinctiveness
54. People belonging to a particular group have SOME common perceptual patterns as personal
experiences influence one’s perception.
55. Affiliation: active and controlling social behaviour.
56. Intimacy: passive and less-controlling social behaviour.
57. Improving group decision making:
- Brainstorming + decision tree + consensus mapping
- Delphi technique: third party expert
- Nominal groups: different opinions are taken and ranked
58. Father of:
- Experimental social psychology: Allport
- Modern social psychology: Lewin
59. Jacob L. Moreno:
- Sociometry: single activity
- Guided imagery
- Group therapy
- Psychodrama
 Human Development and Interventions

1. Continuous theories: not age-based; but are based on zone of proximal development: Vygotsky
2. Stage theories: Kohlberg, Piaget
3. Kohlberg’s theory:
- 3 levels; 6 stages
- Longitudinal study: 30 years; upper middle class, young boys only
- Preconventional morality: (till age 9)
~ Obedience and performance orientation: compliance + avoid punishment
~ Individualism and exchange orientation:
= avoid punishment + seek rewards
= understanding of reciprocity (give and take)
- Conventional morality: (early adolescence to adulthood):
~ seeking societal approval + social rules + imp to IP relationships + internalization of social rules.
~ Good interpersonal relationship/morality of IP cooperation:
= good boy, nice girl orientation
~ Maintaining social order: respect towards authority
- Postconventional morality:
~ rules can be changed: society is not always right.
~ Social contract and individual rights:
= social rules are flexible
~ Universal ethical principles: engaging in actions that could lead to universal betterment.
- Heinz dilemma: ethical dilemma about a man who steals a drug to save his dying wife.
- Obedience orientation: adults know what is right or wrong
- Interpersonal norms: to win the approval of other
- Social contract: laws are for the good of all members of the society.
- Universal Ethical Principles: a set of moral principles that applies on everyone.
- Kohlberg’s gender development:
~ gender identity/labeling
~ gender stability: my own gender is stable
~ gender constancy/consistency: understand about others too
4. Gilligan: pointed out beta-bias in Kohlberg’s theory.
5. Beta bias: minimization of gender differences
6. Alpha bias: exaggeration of differences
7. Epigenetic principle of maturation: was adopted by Piaget and Erikson
8. Piaget’s theory:
- Cognitive approach to study intelligence: the study of how individuals adapt to real world situations.
- Children are born with certain abilities (opposes tabula rasa)
- Cognitive equilibration: individuals trying to stabilize their own cognitive structures. It involves using
accommodation and organization.
- Assimilation: (equilibrium)
~ Matching between the cognitive structured and the physical environment
~ Can be roughly equated with knowing or recognizing
- Accommodation (disequilibrium): schema modification or forming a new one
-
 - Sensory motor: (0-2)
~ Object Permanence, A-not-B error, Representative insight
~ Circular reactions: repeating behaviours
~ Tertiary reaction: problem solving behaviour.
~ Extends till acquisition of language
~ Deferred imitation: imitation after a certain time duration
- Pre-operational: (2-7)
~ Egocentrism: 3 mountain task used to study it
~ Centration: focusing on one aspect of a situation
~ Conservation error (round clay ball is bigger than the flattened one)
(Conservation refers to the idea that changing the appearance of an object does not change
its properties)
~ Symbolic representation starts (or semiotic function) (make believe play)
~ Irreversibility: (because they cannot perform conservation tasks)
~ Vocabulary development
~ There is no reflexivity in thinking.
~ Classification errors: cannot comprehend how one object can be classified in multiple ways
~ Transduction: seeing a relationship between two unrelated events
~ Animism: believing that phenomenon contain lifelike properties
~ Artificialism: certain aspects of the environment are manmade.
- Concrete operational stage: (7-11)
~ Decentration
~ Can distinguish facts from fantasy
~ Can do reversibility, classification and conservation tasks
~ Can do seriation tasks (arranging)
- Formal operational: (11-onwards)
~ Abstract thinking + if-then questions + pendulum task.
- Horizontal Decalage:
~ inability to immediately apply the learned function to all problems
~ invariable sequence in which milestones occur in a particular stage of development
- Vertical Decalage:
~ Same cognitive strategies across all the stages of development
~ The invariable sequence in which different stages of development occur.

9. Marcia’s Stages:
- Based on exploration and commitment
- Diffusion: E: low; C: low
- Foreclosure: E: low; C: high
- Moratorium: E: high; C: low
- Achievement: E: high; C: high
- Moratorium and achievement are faced only by those who explore

10. Identity formation in adolescents:

- Differentiation – Exploration – Reproachment – Consolidation.
11. Atchley: 1982: retirement stages:
- Pre-retirement
- Honeymoon
- Disenchantment
- Reorientation
- Stability
- Adaptation
12. Principles:
~ Proximodistal: middle to outwards
~ Cephalocaudal: head to toe
~ Principle of hierarchical integration: simple skills to complex skills

13. Jean Jacques Rosseau: Paedocentrism:

- Recorded life of a child from a rich family.
- Act as a guide to the child: the focus must be on the knowledge, feelings and skills of the child.
- Theorised against hitting children

14. Infant reflexes: mouth/foot/palm

15. Aging theories:
- Disengagement theory:
~ Cumming and Henry
~ gradual withdrawal from the world on psychological, physiological and social levels.
- Activity/Implicit/Normal/Lay theory:
~ Havighurst
~ successful aging: stay active and interact with people.
- Continuity theory:
~ Maddox and Atchley
~ engaging in same activities as earlier life stages.

16. Bruner’s cognitive development theory: (Discovery Learning)

- Spiral curriculum: key concepts are presented repeatedly throughout the curriculum with increasing level
of complexity.
- Piaget: any material can be taught at any age. Bruner opposed this by saying that the material should be
adapted to the needs of the child.
- Although he gave the stages but they are loosely sequential (i.e., he support continuous development)
- A flexible theory: not strict stage-based
- Enactive (0-1): imitation: motor
- Iconic (1-6): by seeing: image
- Symbolic: using abstract reasoning: language based
- Language acquisition support system: the adults who help children acquire language by interacting
with their LAD.
- Language development causes cognitive development
17. Ginzberg’s career development model:
- Fantasy
- Tentative
- Realistic
18. Linguistic relativity hypothesis:
- linguistic determinism: language determines/influences thought; language and thought don’t interact
(one-way influence)
- linguistic relativity: different language: different experiences
19. Piaget:
- Thinking precedes and determines language
- Cognitive development is independent of language
- Directed thoughts: can be communicated
- Autistic thoughts: cannot be communicated (subconscious)
20. Chomsky:
- Studied syntax + transformational grammar + called as Cartesian linguist
- Yerkish language: Glasersfeld
- ‘The dishwasher is running’: can have more than one deep structures as its meaning is ambiguous
- Syntax is the most important level of any language

21. Vygotsky:
- Mozart of psychology
- Children are born with primary mental abilities.
- Rejected the idea of universal framework of development (Stages)
- Speech and language development: (First book: 1962: Thinking and Speech)
~ Speech goes from overt to covert
~ Primitive → Naïve → Egocentric/Personal → Ingrowth
- Zone of achieved development: where the child has reached on his own
- Scaffolding (gradually changing the quantity and quality of guidance) was originally given by Bruner
but is associated with Vygotsky.
- Thought and language come together or interact in the egocentric stage/overt self-talk (around 3
years)
~ Before that: both are independent
~ Thought becomes verbal
~ Speech becomes representational
~ Cognitive development occurs as a result of internalization of language.
- Stages of concept formation:
a. Vague syncretic stage
b. Complex stage
c. Potential concept stage
d. Mature concept stage

22. Piaget versus Vygotsky: (Private speech)

- Piaget:
~ private speech signifies egocentrism where the individual is unable to take other’s perspectives.
~ declines with age
- Vygotsky:
~ private speech signifies that the person is able to self-regulate.
~ curvilinear: increases at young age and gradually decreases as speech becomes internal.

23. Watson: thinking as inner speech

24. Transactional analysis: Eric Berne:
- An insight-based psychoanalytic therapy.
- An intervention for re-parenting
- Ego states: phenomenological realities
- Types of parent ego states:
~ critical
~ nurturing
- Types of child ego states:
~ little professor: imaginative, creative, inventive, curious and manipulative
~ adapted: responds according to situation
~ natural/free: filled with emotions
- Strokes: units of recognition or acknowledgement shared between people: can be
~ positive or negative
~ verbal or non-verbal
~ conditional or unconditional
- Child-child: the statement is said as a child ego state and the expectation is of that too.
- Ulterior transaction: sounds like adult state but is actually from child/parent.
- Complementary transactions
~ adult-adult, parent-child, child-parent
- Life script: unconscious beliefs about the world
- Games: the repetitive patterns that people use to gain certain incentives
25. Reflexes: that stay till 6 months:
- Rooting: touch cheek – will open mouth
- Palmer: gripping
- Babinski: toe curling
- Moro: when startled – throws arms and head back
- Galant: when spine is stroked – fencer like.
26. Order for school students:
- Psychoeducation – identifying and improving goals – counselling – psychotherapy
27. Vocable: a word that refers to a form and not any meaning.
28. Super’s theory of career development:
- Growth: 0 to 14
- Exploration: 15 to 24
- Establishment: 24 to 44
- Maintenance: 45 to 64
- Decline: 65+
29. Children have a remarkable ability to create mental representation of world in the form of language.
30. Overregularization: when children apply language rules too generally: I runned to the car.
31. Blind people: often attain their visual experiences after many years of blindness BECAUSE most of
their knowledge of the world is through the sense of touch.
32. Bender Gestalt Test:
- To assess developmental disorders
- PL damage: continuous figure
- FL damage: perseverance, sequence, planning

33. Bowlby: (psychoanalyst)

- Deterministic
- Influenced by Lorenz’s study of imprinting: thus, aka ethological theory of attachment
- Basis of attachment is not feeding but safety and competence
- Attachment behaviours are instinctive
- Gave the monotropic theory of attachment: there is one prominent attachment figure.
- Social releasers: behaviours that are used to ensure proximity and care (eg: crying)
- Stages of distress when separated from mothers:
Protest → Despair → Detachment
- 44 thieves’ study: affectionless psychopathy: maternal deprivation as the cause of criminal behaviour.
- Characteristics of attachment:
~ safe haven
~ secure base
~ proximity maintenance
~ separation distress
- Pre-attachment phase: 0-6 weeks
~ prefers mother but no attachment developed
~ can be left with a stranger
- Attachment-in-the-making: 6 weeks – 6/8 months
~ indiscriminate attachment
~ respond differently to familiar versus unfamiliar
~ learn that their actions have an impact on others
~ expect the caregiver to be present but still do not protest when separated.
- Clear-cut attachment phase: till 18 months
~ discriminate attachment
~ separation and stranger anxiety
- Formation of reciprocal relationship:
~ understand why parents are leaving: separation anxiety decreases
~ multiple attachments formed
- Internal working model: a set of expectations about
~ others as trustworthy
~ self as valuable

34. Adult attachment styles: (Bartholomew and Horowitz, 1991)

- Secure
- Anxious/preoccupied: clingy
- Avoidant/dismissive: depend on me
- Disorganized/fearful: want intimacy but cannot trust
35. Ainsworth:
- Strange situation studies
- Secure attachment: happy when mother comes back
- Resistant/Ambivalent: angry/temper tantrums/passive-aggressive: suspicious of strangers
- Avoidant: indifferent
- Disorganized (Main and Solomon): no consistent pattern of behaving: avoidance + resistance: feels
comforted + frightened on return
- Attachment Q-sort technique: 90 items, 9 point scale, 1-5 years
36. Baumrind’s parenting styles:
- Based on Lewin’s theory of learning
- Authoritative: demand
- Democratic: love
- Uninvolved: laissez-faire
37. Haploid: single set of chromosomes: sperm and egg
38. Diploid: two set of chromosomes
39. Zygote → Blastocyst → through cell division or mitosis
40. Embryonic stage: the major bodily systems start growing and it is the stage most prone to miscarriage.
41. Newborn can only see hues of blue.
42. Reflexes go away by 6 months: except the blinking reflex.
43. Piaget’s moral development:
- Pre-moral heteronomous morality: (5-9)
~ moral realism
~ rules are unchangeable and respect towards authority
~ immanent justice: attributing the outcomes that a person received to their previous deeds even
without a clear connection between the two.
~ expiatory punishment: repentance is itself a punishment + compensation to the victim.

- Autonomous morality: (9-10)

~ moral relativism
~ rules are changeable and can be negotiated

44. Maturation: automatic biological development

45. Language affects: thought processes and the ability to store information.
46. Carol Gilligan’s moral development theory:
- In a different voice, 1982
- Gender differences in moral development
- Care-based morality: women
- Justice-based morality: men
- Posited that movement from one stage to another occurs in form of transitions (changes in sense of self
rather than cognitive development)
- Preconventional:
~ focus on own needs
~ transition 1: there is a responsibility towards others too
- Conventional:
~ caring for others + self-sacrifice
~ transition 2: realization that there is a need to strike a better balance between own and others’ needs.
- Postconventional:
~ self and others both are considered important + non-violence
 Pathology, therapies and related
1. Alexia: inability to recognize words
2. Egan’s developmental model of counselling: (Book: skilled helper)
- Blindspot – Confronting
- Agenda – Commitment
- Possibilities – Commitment
- Best fit – Leverage
- Steps:
~ Creating a story
~ Finding blind-spots
~ Developing possibilities: finding leverage
~ Brainstorm
~ Force-field analysis
~ Action
- Ways of challenging:
~ Confrontation
~ Encouragement
~ Immediacy
~ Advanced Empathy
~ Self-disclosure
- Advanced Empathy: theme identification + connecting islands + making implicit explicit.

3. Force-field analysis: resources available to client + facilitating and restraining factors.

4. Skills in counselling:
- Self-disclosure
- Information-giving: psychoeducation
- Confrontation

5. Miracle Question: Solution focused brief therapy.

6. Socratic Dialogue: a series of questions designed to help the client arrive at logical answers and
conclude about a certain hypothesis.

7. Euthanasia:
- Passive: withholding treatment to let the patient die naturally
- Voluntary active: at patient’s request
- Assisted Suicide: the patient is made to swallow or is injected a lethal dose
- Involuntary active euthanasia: without consent.

8. Appreciative Enquiry:
- Used in businesses for the growth and development of the employees.
9. Incidence + Prevalence: Morbidity
- Incidence: the number of new cases
- Prevalence: number of existing cases.
- Penetrance: the chances that the presence of a specific gene will lead to full-blown manifestations of a
disorder.

10. Reality therapy: aka choice theory (Glasser): 5 universal human needs
- Survival, love and belonging, power, freedom/autonomy and fun
- Emphasis on self-evaluation: TAKE RESP ONSIBILITY of life
- Wubholding: Stages: Wants → Direction/Doing → Evaluation → Planning
- 3 Rs: reality, responsibility and right/wrong
- Therapy allows the people to reach their quality/ideal world.
- Short-term and solution-focused therapy.
11. Thought field therapy: equivalent to acupressure: not postmodern

12. Postmodern/Contemporary therapies: subjective perspective

- Solution focused: Shazer and Kimberg
- Collaborative therapy
- Narrative analysis

13. ADHD:
- frontal-striatal region
- extinction as a treatment.
14. REBT:
- Has the ABCDE model
- Focuses on the feeling and behaviour + the incident that caused it.
- Involves the use of imaginal disputations

15. Etiological models of psychopathology include:

- NS going awry
- Intrapsychic conflicts
- Learning dysfunctional behaviour.
16. Components of mindfulness:
- Attention
- Intention
- Attitude
17. Eye movement desensitization reprocessing (EMDR) therapy: FOR PTSD
- Shapiro, 1980s
- Not only for combat veterans
- Bilateral stimulation brain done using: inducing side-to-side eye movement.
- Major steps:
▪ History and treatment planning
▪ Preparation: psychoeducation of client: relaxation techniques taught
▪ Assessment: of negative feelings and memories
▪ Desensitization: of negative instances (recall of distressing memory + bilateral stimulation)
▪ Installation: of positive emotions
 ▪ Body scans: focusing on different body parts + bilateral stimulation: increases awareness.
▪ Closure
▪ Re-evaluation
18. Rough assessment of client’s problem severity: Distress × Uncontrollability × Frequency (Mehrabian
& Reed, 1969)
19. Virginia Axline: Play therapy
20. Biofeedback is accurate.
21. Existential Psychotherapy: (May and Yalom):
- Umwelt: being with nature
- Mitwelt: being with others
- Eigenwelt: being with oneself
- Uberwelt: being with the spiritual
- Dasein: individual as being in the world

22. Stop-start relapse cycle of internet addiction:

- Rationalization – Regret – Abstinence – Relapse
- Abstinence violation effect: even a single event of relapse can cause a full blown relapse.

23. New mood therapy:

- David Burns
- Cognitive + behavioural
- popularized CBT (father of CBT: Beck, grandfather: Ellis, mother: Mary Cover Jones)
~ Jones: desensitization, counterconditioning, direct conditioning, Study on Little Peter.
~ Little Albert: Watson and Rayner
- For depression
24. Multicultural Counselling: McFadden’s transcultural perspective:
- Scientific-ideological
- Social
- Cultural-historical
25. Schertzer and Stone (1974): Fundamentals of Guidance and Counseling.
26. Organic inquiry:
- Incorporating spirit, body, feeling and mind to bring about a transformative/qualitative change: is based
on listening and telling stories.
- Preparation
- Inspiration: the researcher’s listens to the participant’s stories: gets deep understanding of it
- Researcher in the liminal realm: where the sense of self is not as strong: going beyond ego – can result
in valuable experiences.
- Integration: examining the meaning of all the experiences and being inspired by it.
27. Focus group: interaction and not interview.
28. Agoraphobia:
- Onset: teen or early adulthood
- Among women
- Shares more kinship with panic disorders than phobic disorders.
29. DSM-5:
- NOT added any neuropsychological or biological roots.
- NOT added any road rage behaviour disorder
- New disorders: premenstrual dysphoric disorders + mild neurocognitive disorder + disruptive mood
dysregulation disorders.
30. Schizophrenia:
- Good prognosis of schizophrenia: positive symptoms + acute & late onset + no precipitating factors.
- Antipsychotics:
a. Used for treatment of schizophrenia: by decreasing dopamine
b. If excessively used – symptoms like Parkinson’s.
- Hebephrenia; is disorganized schizophrenia
31. Therapies and their time periods:
- 1st wave therapy: Systematic desensitization; based on the principle of reciprocal inhibition.
- Wave-3 cognitive therapies: Dialectic behavioural therapy and Action and Commitment Therapy
- Fourth force in counselling: multicultural counselling.
32.
33. Psychoanalytic: categories of client resistance:
- Ego as the source:
~ repression
~ transference
~ gain from the illness (secondary)
- Id as the source:
~ as a resistance that requires working through the product of repetition compulsion.
- Superego as the source:
~ self-sabotaging
34. Techniques:
- Empty chair: to make the client understand how their behaviour impacts others
- Making the rounds: in group therapy: to allow individuals to know each other
- Rehearsal: to allow the individual to break free from prescribed roles
35. Balint’s syndrome:
- Optic ataxia
- Oculomotor apraxia
- Simultanagnosia
36. DSM-III:
- Did not use experimental data: clinical data used
- Introduced the coding system
- Deleted misnomer words
- Axial system
37. Delusional Disorder: someone will poison me while I sleep
38. Meichenbaum (1977): steps of cognitive behaviour modification:
Cognitive modelling → overt external guidance → overt self-guidance → faded overt self-guidance →
covert self-instructions
39. Beck: automatic thoughts: talked about negative events only; which occur at unconscious level
40. Borderline PD: black and white thinking
41. Narrative therapy: White and Epston: 1980s
- Non-directional
- Insight-oriented
42. Gestalt therapy:
- does not ask the question of WHY.
- Includes techniques like empty chair and role-playing
43. Psychosurgery: irreversible:
- Vagus nerve stimulation: epilepsy
- DBS: depression + Parkinson’s + epilepsy
44. Antisocial behaviour: not lifelong persistent
45. Ellis:
- Understanding beliefs
- Understanding the consequences
- Challenging beliefs
- Discriminating new feelings and consequences
- Recognising new feelings
 Emerging Areas
1. Python: technological system to aid, inspire or enhance learning.
2. Synthetic skills: seeing new POVs
- Analytical skills: to recognize which ideas are worth pursuing and which are not.
- Practical contextual skills: to persuade others regarding one’s ideas
- Thinking styles: decisions about how to deploy the skills available to a person
3. Racism:
- Jim Crow Racism: old-fashioned racism: segregation + formal discrimination + racial superiority.
- Laissez faire racism: covert + color blindness + blaming them for their condition.
- Symbolic racism: modern, subtle form: majorly against Black people.
4. Glass ceiling: Loden and Rosener (1980s)
5. Glass cliff: Ryan and Haslam (2005)
6. Feminist theory: helped in human development and growth
7. Gen-D: pertains to how with each passing generation, there are technological advancements.
8. Peace:
- Negative peace: obtained through:
a. Ceasefire
b. Absence of violence
- Positive Peace: obtained through:
a. Structural changes
b. Justice
9. Suler: Online disinhibition effect:
~ Anonymity
~ Easy escape consequences
~ Hierarchies’ negation.
~ Dissociative anonymity
~ Solipsistic introjection
10. PHASES OF DIGESTION: a parasympathetic function
- Two enzymes:
~ beta cells: insulin: distributes glucose
~ alpha cell: glucagon: based on glycogen (from the liver)
- Cephalic phase: preparatory: triggered by smell or sight of food.
- Absorptive: nutrients to the body: rest stored as glycogen: fat stored in the adipose tissue as triglycerides.
- Fasting: break down of glycogen by glucagon
- Low glucose, low glucagon, high insulin → high glucose, low glucagon, high insulin → low glucose,
high glucagon, low insulin.
11. Feminism:
- Cultural: revalue the unique qualities of womanhood
- Radical: stopping traditional domestic roles + rights – change society and remove patriarchy.
- Liberal: legal acknowledgement: reform laws
- Socialistic: aka Marxist: reproductive rights + capitalism + wages
12. Cyber-bullying:
- Disinhibition
- Hierarchy is negated
- Tangible proofs
- Less role of bystanders (more role in physical bullying)
13. Organizational Structures:
- Max Weber
- Clearly defined roles and responsibilities + hierarchies + respect for merit
14. Henry Mintberg: 1970s: introduced the field of industrial psychology.
- 5 basic parts of an organization:
▪ Operating core: who produce products and services
▪ Middle line: managers
▪ Strategic apex: highest level leaders
▪ Technostructure: analysts, accountants and planners
▪ Support staff: indirect support to the organization: HR, PR and lawyers
- 5 ways of coordination of tasks:
▪ Direct supervision
▪ Standardization of work procedures
▪ Standardization of skills required
▪ Standardization of performance measures/specification
▪ Mutual adjustment: informal communication

- 5 organizational structures:
▪ Simple: strategic apex + direct supervision
▪ Machine bureaucratic: technostructure + standardization of work procedures
▪ Professional bureaucratic: operating core + standardization of skills required
▪ Divisionalised: middle line + s. of performance measures/specification
▪ Adhocracy: support staff + mutual adjustment
15. Stress Resilience Sequence:
- Self-awareness
- Attention
- Physically let go
- Emotionally let go
- Positive emotions
16. Romanticism:
- Late 18th and early 19th century
- Curiosity + sentimental self-expression + spontaneity + creativity
17. Humans as better than computers at simultaneous processing
18. Kimberly Young: gave the concept of internet addiction.
19. GATE control theory of pain:
- Substantia gelatinosa gates at the spinal fibres
- Two types of spinal fibres:
~ large: beta fibres: normal signals
~ small: delta and c-fibres: pain-related signals
- These fibres compete with each other: so if normal signals dominate: there won’t be any pain perception.
20. Training and development have nothing to do with personal needs.
21. Just-world hypothesis: MJ Lerner
22. Relational aggression: shown mostly by young adolescent girls
23. On the job training: role playing is not a part of it.
24. Genders:
- Cisgender: sex and gender align
- Transgender: sex and gender do not align: may experience gender dysphoria: no issues with
reproductive organs
- Intersex: reproductive organs do not entirely match those of males or females
- Queer: exploring: not sure: questioning: do not adhere to gender norms
25. Final outcome of curiosity: increases arousal and the individual gains information and resources.
26. Solomon: Stages of friendship:
a. Momentary playmates
b. One-way cooperation
c. Two-way cooperation
d. Intimate sharing
e. Autonomous interdependence
 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY

1. Theories:
- Protective motivation theory: Rogers
- Health Belief Model: Rosenstock
- Self-regulation model: Leventhal
- Theory of reasoned action (behavioural intentions lead to behavior): Fishbein
- Precaution Adoption Process Model: Weinstein and Sandman
- Organismic Integration Theory:
a. A part of self-determination theory
b. Motivation lies on a continuum of external regulation and integrated regulation.

2. Protective Motivation Theory:

- Threat appraisal
- Coping appraisal
3. Empty nest syndrome: occurs in midlife
4. Health belief model:
- Two basic components:
▪ Desire to avoid any illness
▪ Belief that a certain action will help in avoiding that illness
- Includes: ORDER
▪ Reading about things
▪ Perceived susceptibility
▪ Perceived severity
▪ Perceived benefits
▪ Perceived barriers
▪ Cue to action
▪ Self-efficacy
5. Theory of planned behaviour:
- AKA theory of reasoned action
- Components:
• Personal attitudes
• Personal behaviour control
• Subjective social norms
6. Health risk behaviour: maintained by lack of knowledge and the health risk behaviour helping the
individual in avoidance of pain.
7. Matarazzo (1984): behavioural immunogens (healthy behavior) and behavioural pathogens (unhealthy).
8. Antonovsky: Salutogenic model of health
9. Health insurance and good health habits: not a part of HP.
10. Total cholesterol: HDL(good) + LDL(bad)+ 20% of triglycerides
11. HIV:
- Impacts the immune system: CD4 and T lymphocytes
- The virus is a retrovirus: contains RNA → enters the host’s body: converts the RNA to DNA using the
reverse transcriptase process → attaches to the host’s DNA → causes changes in gene expression.
- Treatment: antiretroviral therapy
12. Handicap: perception of own abilities as inferior than others.
- Impairment: loss of many psychological, physiological or anatomical function.
- Disadvantage: inability to perform according to the expected norms
- Disability: not being able to do things in an age-appropriate manner
13. Rogers: Freedom to learn
14. Kohut: The Analysis of Self
15. Entropy: a sudden downward drop in the curve of health behaviour
16. Decay curve: a gradual progressive decline in the health behaviour curve
17. Heart diseases:
- Atherosclerosis: hardening + weakening of arteries due to fat deposits
- Aneurysm: ballooning of arteries
- Angina pectoris: pain in chest due to decreased blood flow: CHD
- Cardiomyopathy: a disease of heart’s muscles
- Peripheral artery disease: of limbs
- Myocardial infraction: heart attack
- Hypertension
18. Illness behaviour: go to a doctor/get check-up.
19. Sick-role: take sick-leaves
20. Ayurveda: health and illness is defined in terms of:
- Trigunas
- Tridoshas
- Pitta (the endocrine system)
 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

1. Vernon and Lindzey Values Scale: has ipsative scores

- Aesthetic
- Religious
- Economic

2. PTG: post traumatic growth: domains: 7 domains: Tedeschi and Calhoun

- Personal strength
- Spiritual change
- Relationship with others

3. Resilience: individuals at risk whose performance is better than expected.

4. Richardson’s resilience model:
- Disruption
- Reintegration with loss
- Biopsychospiritual homeostasis
5. How to stay proactive:
- Predict – Prevent – Plan – Participate
6. Broaden-and-build theory:
- Positive Emotions → Novel thoughts, activities & relationships → Building personal resources →
Enhanced health fulfilment.

7. Four phases of forgiveness: Enright

- Uncovering anger: acknowledging feelings of anger and resentment
- Decision to forgive: goal – move on; evaluating benefits of forgiveness
- Work on forgiveness: understanding the offender in new light (empathy and compassion for the
offender)
- Deepening/Outcome: release negative emotions – closure.

8. Types of love: (Greeks)

- Eros Love: finding an ideal partner
- Ludos Love: treating love as a game
- Storge love: treating love like friendship
- Agape Love: selfless love
9. Diener: bottom-up and top-down theories of happiness.
10. FLOW:
- Clarity of goals
- Immediate feedback
- Balance between challenge and skills
- Merger of awareness and actions
- Exclusion of distractors
11. Viktor Frankl:
- meaning in life can be uncovered by creative, experiential and attitudinal values.
- 3rd Viennese school of psychology: Logotherapy (after Freud and Adler)
- 3 kinds of experiences:
~ through art
~ through deeds
~ through suffering
- Karl Jasper introduced the concept of boundary situation (an addition to Frankl’s theory)
12. VIA scale: 24 CSs & 6 virtues:
~ H: humanity – love + kindness + social intelligence
~ T: temperance – prudence + forgiveness + humility + self-regulation
~ T: transcendence – gratitude + appreciation for beauty + spirituality + hope + humour
~ J: justice – teamwork + fairness + leadership
~ C: courage – bravery + perseverance + honesty + zest
~ W: wisdom and knowledge: love of learning + open-minded + perspective + creativity + curiosity
13. Resilience if not a character strength.
14. Hardiness: control + commitment + challenge
15. Socrates: eudaimonia: virtue.
- Subjective well-being also focuses on bodily pleasures.
16. Undoing hypothesis: positive emotions lead to quicker recovery.
17. Working hard for the fun of it:
- Exploration needs
- Curiosity
- Effectance motivation
- NOT: ILOC

18. Atkinson’s theory on resultant achievement motivation:

- A person who scored high on Hope of Success (as measured by TAT) and high on fear of failure (As
measured by Amandler and Srason’s TAQ): the resultant AM will be intermediate.
- Therefore, the strength of the motive and the expectancy of goal attainment are the two determinants
19. LOVE:
a. Zubin:
- love consists of attachment, caring and intimacy: multiple emotions
- If not reciprocated: infatuation
b. Rollo May:
- Sex: totally physical
- Eros: lasting and ideal
- Philia: stronger bond (not related to physical)
- Agape: altruistic
c. Triarchic: Sternberg: only about romantic love; three components:
- Intimacy/liking
- Passion/Infatuation
- Commitment/Decision
- Intimacy + passion: romantic
- Intimacy + commitment: companionate
- Passion + commitment: fatuous love
- Commitment: empty love
- All three: consummate

d. Elaine Hatfield:
- Passionate: if not reciprocated -- depression
- Compassionate