CHAPTER

2 INTERFERENCE

2.1. Introduction
Interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two coherent waves in the region of
superposition. At some points in the medium, the intensity of light is maximum (constructive
interference); while at some other points, the intensity is minimum (destructive interference).
The positions of maximum intensity are called maxima, while those of minimum intensity are called
minima.
Let a, and a, be amplitudes of interfering waves and &the phase difference at a point under
consideration. Then,
Condition of maxima : Phase-difference &
= 2mt
or Path-difference A= mà, m=0, 1,2,... etc.
Max
Maximum amplitude, Ama a, ta, A
Min
Maximum intensity. pma=Amo(a, t a, ' Max
Condition of minima: Phase-diference &=(2m+1 )n B Min

Path-difference A=(2mn+1) N2, m=0, 1,2, 3,...

Minimum amplitude, Amii (a,-a,)
Minimum intensity, in =(a,- a,). Fig. 2.1.
The relation between the path and phase differences is given by
2T
Phase-difference = xpath difference.
Coherent sources : Coherent sources are the sources which either have no phase-difference
or have always a constant phase-difference between them.
Conditions for Sustained Interference of Light Waves
() The two interfering sources must be coherent.
(ii) The interfering waves must have equal amplitudes.
(ii) The two interfering waves must be propagated along the same line.
(iv) The separation between the two sources must be very small.
(v) The two sources must be narrow.
(vi) The two interfering sources should emit light of the same frequency or wavelength.
Young's Experiment
The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.1. Here S is a narrow slit with a source of
monochromatic light behind it. A
and Bare two narrow slits parallel to S. Ifa white screen is placed
37
38 Optics and. SpectrosCop,
interference bands
in the
region
Two waves thatbeyond
add
the slits, a pattern of bright and dark
fringe. Two waves that add
brightalternately
destructivel (fringes) are see
constructively
give aoccur
dark fnnge. The bright and dark fringes

2.2. Theory of Interference

Fringes
at equal distances.
produce,
Sis a source of Aand B are two
light of wavelength (Fig. 2.2). distance
monochromatic
cquid1stant from S. They virtual coherent sources separated by a
d.A narrow shu.
at a d1stance D from the
act as two
coherent
Screen is placer
point C on the screen is [Link]
from A and
B. Therefore, the path
difference -
Both waves reach C in the same BC=
4C 0.
phase. The d/2
point Cis,therefore, essentially
bright. d/2|
Path-difference at P: Consider apoint R
Pat a distance from C. Two B D
rays AP and BP
starting from A and B reach P and
interfere Fig. 2.2.
with each other.
The path-difference between the two waves= BP- AP
Here, d d
PQ =x and PR= x+
2 2
2

and (AP)²= D'

= 2xd

Or [Link] [Link]
(BP - AP) = (:: BP = AP D
BP + AP 2D

Path-difference = BP- AP= xd

D ...()

Phase-difference = 8= 2T xd
D ...2)
Position of bright fringes
If the path-difference is mh, the
point P is bright. Thus for mh bright fringe, we have
= mà where m =
D 0,1,2,3.....
Or DA
d ...(3)
The central bright fringe (mn = 0)
The bright fringes with IS called the zeroth - order
m=1,2, 3,. are called the first, maximum.
the
fringes. Their positions are given by second. the third. etc., orde
x, - d D. D
x=2A, X}=,3,.
D D
D
d X, =mÀ, m-| (m +1)à
The fringe width Bis the
distance between two consecutive bright (or dark)
.. Fringe-width B=xm+
D D fringes.
- Xm (m +I)2 d
...(4
Interference 39

Position of dark fringes

If the path difference is an odd multiple of N2, the point P is dark. Thus for mh dark fringe,
d
D
-(2m + 1) where m-0, 1,2,3,..
2
DA
X =(2m+ 1) ...5)
2d
The positions of the dark fringes are given by
D 32D 52D (2m + 1)2D (2m +3) àD
2d 2d 2d and xm+ I7 2d
D
Fringe width = B=Xm+1-m d
..(6)
Since D, d and Aare all constants, fringe-width is constant.
Further, the width of a bright fringe is equal to the width of a dark fringe.
D
Now, B= d - That is, the fringe-width Bis directly proportional to D and Àand inversely
proportional to d. In order to obtain well-separated fringes, Bshould be large. Since Bo« 1/d, attempts
are made to keep d as small as possible.
2.3. Fresnel's Biprism
It consists of two small angled prisms ABC and ABD cemented along the face AB (Fig. 2.3).
ZAis about 1790. The angles ZACB and ZADBare Screen
about 30' (a). S is a narrow vertical slit illuminated
by monochromatic light of wavelength A. The beam
of light diverging from S falls symmetrically on the M
faces AC and AD. These beams are deviated towards
the base AB, and appear to be diverging from two
virtual sources S,and S,. Thus each half of the biprism
produces a virtual image. The virtual images S, and S
a
S, act as two coherent sources. In the region MN of
the screen, light reaches from both S, and S,. Hence, Fig. 2.3.
interference fringes are obtained in the region MN.
To find d: Let n= refractive index of the prism material,
a= distance between the slit and the biprism and
a=refracting angle of the biprism.
The deviation produced by each half ofthe prism =§= (n- 1) a.
.. Distance between the two virtual sources,
d=28 Xa=2a (n -1) Here, isinradians.
Theory : For complete theory, refer to Article 2.2.
The fringe width B= Dld
Here, D= distance between source and screen.

Experimentaldetermination of the wavelength of monochromatic light

The experiment is performed on an optical bench. The optical bench is about 1.5 mlong.
This bench is graduated in millimetres and carries four uprights (Fig.2.4). The first upright carries
an adjustable slit, the second a biprism, the third a lens and the fourth a micrometer eyepiece. The
heights of uprights are adjustable. The uprights can be made to move along and at right angles to the
length of the optical bench.
44 Optics and Spectroscop

Path-difference afler introducing the mica sheet

x 10°) m=3.6 >X 10-6
(6P- AP) - (n -1)t4.8 x 10-m-(1:5 - 1) x(2.4 of an optically
Stoke's law: When alight wave is reflected from the surface when reflected at denser
it suffers a phase
change of n. But it suffers no change
in phase the mediu
optically rarer medium.
2.5. Colours of Thin films
suriace
When white light is incident on athin flm (such as soap film or filmn of oil floating
different colours are seen. It can be explained by considering interference between over wate li ght reiecte
from the top and the bottom surface ofathin film. Interference in the case of thin flma
due to () reflected light and (ii) transmitted light.
Interference by reflected light : Consider a thin parallel
plac takes
A C.
Sided transparent film of thickness t. refractive index n and
SurTounded by air (Fig. 2.7)., Aray AB of monochromatic light
1s incident on the upper surface, at an angle i. At B, the light Air
undergoes partial reflection in the direction BC and
refraction along BD. The angle of refraction is r. At D, it ispartial n
partially reflected along DE and partially refracted alongagainDI.
The refiected light DE is partially refracted in the 2t
Air
Let us calculate the path difference between the direction EF.
Let EN and BM be rays BC and BDEF.
perpendiculars
t= BH = thickness of the film. to BC and DE respectively. Let
Then HGD =r. Produce ED and BH to meet at G. Fig. 2.7.
The path-difference between the two
reflected rays = n (BD + DE) BN
=n(BD+ DM+ ME) BN
Now, sin i BNI BE BN ..1)
n=

or
Sin r
MEIBE ME
BN= n ME
Path-difference =n (BD + DM+
ME) - nME =n(BD+
DM)
..2)
=n (GD+ DM) =nGM
In the A GM GM ..3)
BGM, cos r =
BG 2t
or

.:. GM=2t cos r

Path-difference
The
= n GM= 2nt
cos r ..(4)
reflected ray BC suffers a
:. Net
path-difference path-difference
of N2 on
between BC and EF= 2nt cos reflection at B.
..(5)

The film appears bright if r-/2.

or
2nt cos r-/2 =m
2nt cos r= (2m t
1)
2
The film appears dark if m=0, 1, 2,3.....
...(6)
2nt cos r -
2 = (2m + l)
2 m=0, 1,2, .. etc
Interference 45

2nt cos r= (m + 1)
mis an integer. Therefore, (m + l)is also an integer.
O 2nt cos r=m, m=0, 1, 2, 3,4.... etc. ... (7)
Transmitted system :Consider athin film of G
thickness and refractive index n (Fig.2.8). Aray AB of A
monochromatic light is incident on the upper surface at H
Air
an angle i. It is partly refracted along BD. The angle of
ofraction is r. At D, it is again partially reflected along
DE and partially refracted along DI. The ray DE after
reflection at E, finally emerges along FK. Let DM and FN
be perpendiculars to EF and Dlrespectively. Produce FE D Air
and DH to meet at G. There is no phase change due to N
reflections at D and E both of which are ata rarer medium.
K
Therefore, the path difference between the two
transmitted rays Dl and FK is
=n(DE + EF)- DN =n (DE + EM+ MF) - DN. Fig. 2.8.
Now,
sin i DN /DF DN
n= or DN =nMF
sin r MF IDF MF
:. Path-difference =n (DE + EM+ MF) -n MF =n (DE + EM)
=n GM
GM
In the ADGM, = COSr GM= 2t cos r
21
.: Path-difference =n GM=2 nt cosr. ..(1)
The film appears bright if
2nt cos r= m., m=0, 1,2,3,...etc, ..2)
The film appears dark if
2nt cos r= (2m + 1) /2, m =0, 1,2,3,...etc. ..3)
These conditions for transmitted light are just opposite to those for the reflected system.
2.6. Production of Colours in Thin Films
When white light is incident on a thin film, the light rays are reflected from the top and bottom
surfaces of the film. The condition for brightness or darkness depends upon () n, (ii) tand (iüi) r.
tand r are constant. White light contains a number of wavelengths (colours ). n for each colour is
different. Condition for brightness in the reflected system is 2nt cosr=(2m + 1) N2. The colour
for which this condition is satisfied, will be present with maximum intensity. Other colours in its
neighbourhood will have lesser intensity. Colours for which the condition of darkness 2nt cos r =
mà is satisfied will be absent. Therefore, the film willappear coloured.
Example 1:Aparallel beam of sodiumlight (= 589 x 10m) is incident on a thin glass plate
(n=1.5) such that the angle of refraction into the plate is 60. Calculate the smallest thickness of the
plate which will make it appear dark by reftection.
Solution: For a dark band in the refiected system
2nt coS r= m
For the least thickness of the plate m= 1
.. For the film to appear dark, the smallest thickness t is given by
2nt cos r= ort=/(2n cos r)
46
Optics [Link]
Here, A=S89 x 10m.n= 1.5 r
and = b0.
589 x 109
= 392.7 x 10 m.
2n cos r 2x1.5x cos 60°

Example 2: White light is incident on a film at an angle sin-I 4 and the

is
observed with as soap 5 reftected light
[Link] 10m. and speciroscope. It is found that two consecutive dark bands
6.0 ×10'm. If the Correspond to wavelength.
Solution : Let mand (m +1) be refractive index of the film be 4/3, calculate its thickness.
and , the orders of the consecutive dark bands
for
respectively. Then, ), wavelengths
2nt cos r= m,
2nt cos r = (m+ 1)y
or m À=(m +1) , ..2)
m = 6x10-7
-d (6.1x 107-6x10)= 60
To find cos r: 4 4
sin i= sin i
Sin i
.. Sin = 4/5
SIn =0.6
4/3
Now, coS r = [1 - sin' r]= 0.8
2nt cos r=m A,
m
60 x 6.1 x10-7
2n cos r
2x (4/3) x 0.8G1.72 x 10-5 m.

2.7. Wedge-shaped Film

Considerat
00 inclined
a
wedge-shaped film of
Therefractive index n enclosed by
is an angle 9 (Fig.2.9).
illuminated
reflected
by a
at the upperparallel beam of
thickness of the film increases two from
plane surfaces OP and
are
twoobserved. The
and lower
fringes
monochromat
surfaces of the i
are parallel to the film. So
c light,
interference
O
to P When the
occurs between
film
equidistantof thealternate dark and bright rays
surfaces. The interfering rays are AB line of intersection
the same
the
incident ray SA. and DE, both fringes
fringeExpression for
is 2nt cos r=mthe fringe width
originating from E
: The
cos 0 = 1. . Here for air n =1. For condition for a dark
Suppose the mth dark
normal incidence cos
air film is t (Fig. fringe is D
2.10). Then, formed where the thickness of the A

2x1xt xl=m P

2r =m Fig. 2.9.
the Suppose the (m + 1) th dark fringe is ..(1)
thickness the air film is .
of formed where
Then,
2t m+) (m + 1) 2 m Im+i
..(2)
Subtracting (1) (2),
Let x and x from
from O.
2(..-)=..3)
and mth dark fringes be the distances of the (m + 1) th Xm
Xml
Fig. 2.10.
Interference 47

d= diameter of the wire; L= distance between 0 and the wire. Then,

m+l
d
m
L
Substituting these values in Eq. (3), we get
d
2(1-,) =À
But m-=B=fringe width.
d

B=
2d 20
d,h and Lare constants. Therefore, fringe width Bis constant. Similarly, if we consider two
bright fringes, the fringe width Bwill be the same. consecutive
Experiment to measure the diameter of a thin wire : An air wedge is
M
[Link] inserting the wire between two glass plates. Monochromatic light
is reflected vertically downwards on to the wedge by the inclincd glass plate SOURCE
G(Fig 2.1l). Atravelling microscope Mwith its axis vertical is placed above S
G The microscope is focused to get clear dark and br1ght frnges The fringe
width (B) is measured. The length (L) of the wedge also is measured Knowing
À, the dianmeter (d) of the wire is calculated using the formula,

d
2B
Testing a surface for planeness : Awedge shapcd air film is
formed between an optically plane glass plate (0P) and the surface Fig, 2.11.
under test (00). The fringes wall be straight if the surface under test is
perfectly plane. If the surface 00 is not perfecthy plane, the fringes will be irregular in shape.
In practice. perfectly plane surfaces are produced by pol1sh1ng the surfaces and testing them from time
to time, until the fringes are straight. In testing for planeness, an extended source of light should be used.
Example 1:Light of wavelenth600 nm fal's normaly on athin wedge shaped flim of refractive
index l 4, forming fringes that ure 2mm apart Find the angle of the wedge
Solution : Consider awedge-shaped film OPQ ofrefractive index n(Fig.2. 10).
2nt = mÀ ; 2nt (m +1)à . 2n(m-a)=À
2n (8 x.-8x)= Àor 2n 8( m-m)= À

2n B
Here, À= 600x 10 m; n= 14; B=2 x 10m;
600x 10-9
= 1.07l x 10* radian
2x14x (2 x10)
48 Optics and. Spectrosco
2.8. Newton's Rings
Aplano-convex lens of large radius of curvature isplaced Reflected Rays
with its
convex Surface in contact with aplane glass plate.
Then, an air-film is fomed between the lower surface of the
2

lens AOB and the

The upper surface ofthe plate POQ (Fig. 2.12).
and thickness of the air film is zero at the point of contact O
A

gradually increases from the point of contact outwards.(lf R

monochromat
system ic light is allowed to fall normally on this film, a Air Film
of altemate
in the air
film. bright and dark concentric rings is formed
of They are called Newton 's rings. The thickness
air-film remains
P

Hence, the fringes areconstant along a circle with its centre at 0.

in the form of concentric
Fig. 2.12.

circlesy between the light waves reflected

Newton's rings are formed as a result of interference
upper and lower surface of the air
ray SR film. Iand 2arethe interfering rays corresponding to an from the
of the Expression
lens and Afor the radi of the rings :Ris the radius of curvature incident
dark ring at is the centre of curvature (Fig. 2.13). Let there be mth
point
The radius of the C. The thickness of the air film at point Cis OB =t.
the diameter mth dark ring is r = BC. Let DC be the chord and OE
From theintersecting right angles at B.
at
geometry of the circle, (2R-)]|!
DB x
r=(2R - ) x t. In practice t << R. soBC= EB x BO D
or that 2R -t2R
The condition for a dark r=2RI ..(1) t
ring is 2nt =mà where m
m=0,1,2,3, ....
m
Fig. 2.13.

Substituting for in Eq. (1), we get 2n

. (2)
2Rma Rm
m
2n n

mRA
m
Thus the radiiof the dark . .(3)
rings are
Bright rings : The condition for a proportional to the square roots of the
bright ring is natural numbers.
2 nt= (2m - 1) /2
Or
(2m- 1) /2 (m=1,2,3.. etc.)
2n
Substituting for tin Eq. (1), we get ...(4)
2R (2m- 1) /2
m
(2m - 1) R.
2n
2n
. Radius of mh bright ring =rm (2m - 1) R.
2
... (5)
Jnterference 49

Thus the radii of the bright rings are proportional to the square roots ofodd natural umbers.
The diameters of mh dark and bright rings are

D.
Am RA ...(6)
m Dark ring
2(2m -1) RÀ
D.
m
Bright ring ...(7)

19. Determination of Wavelength of Sodium Light by Newton's Rings

Experimental arrangement : Fig. 2.14 shows an experimental arrangement for producing
Newton's rings by reflected light. Sis an extended source of monochromatic light. The light from S
is rendered parallel by aconvex lens L,. These horizontal parallel rays fallon aglass plate Gat 45°,
and are partly refected from it. This reflected beam falls normallyon the lens L placedon the glass
plate PQ. Interference occurs between the rays reflected from M
the upper and lower surfaces of the film. The interference rings
G L
are viewed with a microscope Mfocused on the air film.
Procedure: With the help ofthe travelling microscope the
diameters ofa number of dark rings are measured. The position
of the microscope is adjusted to get the centre of Newton's rings
at the point of intersection of the cross-wires. The microscope
is moved until one cross wire is tangential to the 16th dark ring.
The microscope reading is taken. Then the microscope is moved
such that the cross-wire is successively tangential to 12th, 8th
and 4th dark rings respectively. The readings are noted in each
P
case. Readings corresponding to the same rings are taken on the
other side of the centre. The readings are tabulated as follows: Fig. 2.14.

No. Reading of travelling Diameter of ring

of ring microscope D=a~b D² D-D
Left (a) Right (b)
16
12

Average (D,2-D )=
The average value of (D- D )is found.
For an air film n = 1.
The diameters of pth and mth dark rings are given by
D=4pR and D_2
Dm = 4mR .
D_-D'= 4(m-p)RI
m

A=
D, - D,
4(m- p) R
The radius of curvature Rof the lower surface of the lens is found by Boys' method. Substitut
Ing this value of Rand the average value of (D_-D') with (m -p) = 8 in the above equation, A
IS calculated.
S0 Optics and Spectroscopy
2.10. Determination of Refractive Index of a Liquid by Newton's Rings
Theexperinment is perfomed with an air film between the glass plate and the lens as described
above The diameterS of pth and mth dark rings with air are given by,
D.'= 4pR Àand D_=4mR
D-D'=
p 4(m-p)R A ..(1)
The transparent liquid of refractive index n is
introduced between the lens L and the glass plate
G(Fig. 2.15). Then a plano-concave fil1m of liquid
is formed between the lens and the glass plate.
The diameters of pthand mth dark rings are determincd.
With liquid film, the diameters of pth and mh
dark rings are given by L Liquid
4pRà 4m Rà
(DF= and (D,
Fig. 2.15.

(D }-(D'} = 2(m - p)RI

..(2)

Dividing (1)by (2), n= D- D

(D''-(D',}
Thus n of a liquid can be determined by
measuring the diameters with and without the liquid.
Examplel:In a Newton 's ring system, the radius of curvature of the lower face of the lens is
Im. Calculate the diameter of the 10th bright fringe, if
the wavelengtzh of light used is 59 x 10m.
Solution:Here, R =Im; =59 x 10 m;n= 1, m = 10;
D,,=?
|2(2m - 1) R2
D.. =

|2 x (2 x 10- 1) ×l×59x 103

D0= 1 =4.735× 10 m
Example 2: Newton rings are
aliquid between the
's formed with reflected light
plane and the
the radius of curvature of the curved surfaces. The diameter ofof wavelength
the 5th
5.895x 107 m with
curved surface is l metre. Calculate the dark ring is 0.003m and
Solution: 4m R refractive index of the liquid.
D
m
= 4 m Rà
or n=

Here, 2 =5.895 x 10
D
m, m=5, D
m
=D,0.003 m; R= lm; n =?
4 m R.
n= 4x5 x1(S.895 x 10')
D: (0.003)? =1.31.
Example 3 : Newton 's rings
ring is found to be [Link] are formed with red
10m. Find the radius of light of = 670 nm. The radius of the 20th
Solution : Let us consider dark rings and curvature of the lens and the
radius of 30th ring.
Here, =670 × 10-m; m =20; r
A air-film (n =1).
ro =1.l x 10m R=?
Vm RÀ