Chapters 5, 6, 7

What is Chemistry?
●​ Chemistry is the study of substances - what they are made of, how the behave, and how
they are used
●​ All substances are made of matter
-​ Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space

■​ Pure substance is matter that is made of only one kind of material

■​ Element is a substance that cannot be made into simpler substances by ordinary means
■​ Compound is a substance made of two or more different elements that are chemically
combined
■​ Mixture is matter that contains two or more pure substances mixed together
-​ Heterogeneous: has two or more phase
-​ Ex. mixture of sand and gravel
■​ Solution is a mixture of one substance dissolved in another ; the different substances are
evenly mixed in a solution
-​ Also known as Homogeneous mixtures
-​ Have one phase
-​ Ex. sugar dissolved in water

5.1 - Physical and Chemical Properties:

Physical Properties:
○​ Characteristic used to describe matter
○​ The matter does not change

1.​ Colour
2.​ Texture (fine, waxy, smooth)
3.​ Odour (how does it smell)
4.​ Lustre (shiny or dull)
5.​ Clarity (ability to transmit light)
-​ Opaque: No light
-​ Translucent: Some light
-​ Transparent: All light
6.​ Taste (sweet, sour, spicy)
7.​ State (solid, liquid, gas)
8.​ Malleability (ability to be bent)
9.​ Ductility (solid can be pulled into wires)
10.​Crystal form (cube, hexagon, sphere)
11.​Hardness (resistance to be scratched or dented)
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

12.​Melting and Boiling point (temperature to change states)

-​ Water melting : 0c
-​ Water boiling : 100c
13.​Solubility (ability to dissolve)
-​ Sugar dissolves in water
-​ Oil does not dissolve in water
14.​Viscosity (ability of a liquid to flow)
-​ Thicker = more viscous
Ex. ketchup is more viscous than water

Chemical Properties:
○​ How something reacts with something else
○​ The matter DOES change

1.​ Combustibility
-​ React with oxygen, gas, make carbon dioxide, water, energy (heat / light)
2.​ Reaction with acid or water
-​ Ability of a substance to react with an acid
-​ Zinc (Zn) + acid = bubbles
-​ Copper (Cu) + acid = no bubbles
3.​ Light sensitivity
-​ Matter that is left in light can become a new substance

5.1 - Physical and Chemical Changes:

Physical Changes:
1.​ Change in state in which no new substance is formed
2.​ Usually reversible
3.​ Particles remain the same
4.​ Can be change in size
-​ Ex. ice melting, water boiling, dry ice
Chemical Changes:
○​ Formation of a new substance with new and different properties
○​ A chemical reaction when different particles result and new products form
Clues:
1.​ Colour change
2.​ Cannot reverse
3.​ Formation of gas
4.​ Formation of a precipitate (solid)
5.​ Energy change (heat is produced or absorbed) or light is created
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

5.4 - Elements & the Periodic Table

●​ The periodic table is arranged with metals on the left side and nonmetals on the right

Property Metal NonMetal

Malleability Malleable Brittle

Conductivity Conductors Mostly insulators

Reactivity with acid Mostly yes No

State at room temperature Mostly solid Solid, liquid, gas

Lustre Shiny Dull

●​ Elements are organized on the periodic table according to atomic number and properties
●​ Each column is a group or family of elements. Elements in each group have similar
properties
●​ Each row of elements are called periods

1.​ Alkali Metals

○​ Soft, shiny, silver coloured
○​ React violently with water
○​ React with halogens to form ionic compounds that are mostly white solids
○​ Highly reactive

2.​ Alkaline Earth Metals

○​ Light, shiny, silvery coloured
○​ Form compounds that are often insoluble in water
○​ Reactive

3.​ Halogens
○​ Non metals
○​ Dull
○​ Poisonous
○​ Non conductors of electricity
○​ React readily with hydrogen and metals (especially metals in group 1)
○​ Highly reactive
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

4.​ Noble Gases

○​ Very stable
○​ Rarely react with any other chemical
○​ Odourless and colourless
○​ Low boiling point
○​ Have a full valence shell

Protons & Neutrons - in nucleus

Electrons - orbit nucleus
Atomic number = number of protons and neutrons

Number of neutrons:
Atomic mass - atomic number = neutrons

5.5 - Atoms & Ions

●​ An Atom is an electrically neutral particle with an equal number of electrons and protons
●​ An Ion is an atom that has become positively or negatively charges
-​ This charge comes as the result of gaining or losing electrons
-​ Lose electrons = become positive
-​ Gain electrons = become negative
-​ Metals lose electrons
-​ Nonmetals gain electrons

Common Charges
●​ Metals
○​ Group 1 metals all have a +1 charge
○​ Group 2 metals all have a +2 charge
○​ Group 13 metals all have a +3 charge
●​ Nonmetals
○​ Group 16 nonmetals all have a -2 charge
○​ Group 17 nonmetals all gave a -1 charge

Ionic Compounds
●​ Ionic compounds are made up of a positive and negative ion
●​ This occurs because of the transfer of electrons from a metal to a nonmetal
Cations & Anions
●​ Dispensing on what ions have done with their electrons, they get a different designation
●​ Cations: those that have a positive charge (metals lose electrons)
●​ Anions: those that have a negative charge (nonmetals gain electrons)
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

5.6 - Ionic Compounds

●​ An ionic compound is formed when positive and negative ions join together
●​ Each ion is linked by an ionic compound
-​ A strong attraction between a positive and negative ion in an ionic compound
●​ The overall charge is zero

Properties of Ionic Compounds

●​ An ionic bond is a strong bong
-​ As a result, ionic compounds are;
○​ Hard
○​ Brittle solids
○​ High melting points
○​ Most ionic compounds are crystal shaped

Electrolytes
-​ Most ionic compounds are electrolytes
-​ When an ionic compound dissolves in water to create a solution that conducts electricity
-​ This is because an ionic compound will separate into its separate ions in water
-​ These ions in water increases the conductivity of water
-​ Pure water = poor conductor

Water & Ions

●​ When ionic substances dissolve in water, positive and negative ions are pulled apart
●​ The water molecules arrange themselves around ions
●​ Oxygen in water is attracted to the positive ion
●​ Hydrogen in water is attracted to the negative ion

5.7 - Naming Ionic Compounds

●​ Single charge ionic compounds
-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Metal name doesn’t change
-​ Nonmetal ending is changed to “ide”

1.​ NaCl - sodium chloride

2.​ CaF2 - calcium fluoride
3.​ Na3P - sodium phosphide
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

●​ Writing formulas of ionic compounds

-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Use the criss cross rule ro balance the charges

1.​ Rubidium sulfide

= Rb +1 S -2
= Rb2S

2.​ Magnesium nitride

= Mg +2 N - 3
= Mg3N2

●​ Naming Multivalent ionic compounds

-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Nonmetal name change ending to “ide”
-​ When the metal can have more than 1 charge, we need to use roman numerals
after the metals name to indicate its charge

1.​ Chromium (iii) nitride

= Cr +3 N - 3
= Cr3N3
= CrN

2.​ MnO2
= Manganese (iv) oxide

5.9 - Polyatomic Ions and Acids

-​ Some ionic compounds contains more than just two elements
-​ One of the ions is made up of a group of atoms with a shared charge
●​ These are known as polyatomic ions
-​ Nitrite is an example of polyatomic ions
-​ Nitrite has one nitrogen and two oxygen atom: NO2-

Writing formulas containing Polyatomic Ions

 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Naming Polyatomic Compounds

●​ Uses the same steps as the other ionic compounds
●​ Name of the positive metal is first
●​ Name of the negative nonmetal or polyatomic ion is second
●​ The only difference is the polyatomic ion does NOT have its ending changed
-​ Common polyatomic ions include: nitrate, nitrite, hydroxide, etc
Acids and Bases
●​ Acids are special compounds that begin with hydrogen
●​ Acids must be dissolves in water in order to show their properties
-​ Ie. behave like an acid

Types of acids:
■​ Binary Acid: Hydrogen + Halogen (F, C. Br, I)
■​ Oxyacids: Hydrogen + Polyatomic ion

1. Binary Acids:
○​ Place the name HYDRO at the beginning
○​ The name if the halogen is in the middle
○​ The suffix “ic” is added to the end

2. Oxyacids:
○​ Name the polyatomic ion only and change its ending
○​ Polyatomic ions that end in ate are given the ending of ic
○​ Polyatomic ions that end in ite are given the ending of ous

5.10 - Molecular Compounds

●​ Two or more nonmetals bonded together
●​ When molecular compounds are dissolved in water, they do not conduct electricity as
well as an ionic compounds
●​ Molecular compounds DO NOT transfer electrons, but share them
-​ This e- sharing is known as a covalent bond

●​ Many nonmetallic elements on the periodic table exist naturally as covalently bonded
molecules
-​ H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
-​ HOFBrINCl
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

➢​ Naming Molecular Compounds:

●​ The names of molecular compounds use prefixes
●​ These prefixes are used to count the number of each atom
●​ The ending of the name still ends in ide
1.​ Mono
2.​ Di
3.​ Tri
4.​ Tetra
5.​ Penta
6.​ Hexa
7.​ Hept
8.​ Octa
9.​ Nona
10.​Deca

Mono is never used for the first element

Ex.
CO = carbon monoxide
CO2 = carbon dioxide
N20 = dinitrogen monoxide
N205 = dinitrogen pentaoxide

➢​ Familiar Molecular Names (5 - need to know)

H20 = Water
NH3 = Ammonia
H2O2 = Hydrogen Peroxide
CH4 = Methane
C6H12O6 = Glucose

➢​ Writing Formulas of Molecular Compounds

Sulfur trioxide -> SO3

5.10 - Lewis Dot Diagrams

●​ Quick and easy way to represent an atom and only its valence electrons
●​ To draw, write the symbol of the atom and place the valence electrons around it in a
clockwise form
Ex. Hydrogen

Chlorine
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Drawing Ionic Compounds using Lewis Dot

Ex, Magnesium Sulfide

+ =

Aluminium Oxide

+ =

Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds

1.​ The element with the largest bonding capacity is placed in the middle
-​ Ex. O bonding capacity is 2 (has 6 electrons, needs 2 more)
-​ Cl bonding capacity is 1 (has 7 electrons, needs 1 more)
Therefore O has a greater capacity
2.​ Place all other atoms around the central atom, separating them with a space
3.​ Add up the total amount of valence electrons for all the atoms in the compound. Add or
subtract the corresponding number for polyatomic ions
4.​ Plase a dashed line (representing 2 e-) between the central atom and rhe ones surrounding
it
5.​ Place all remaining electrons around the peripheral atom using lone pairs until the octet
rule is satisfied
6.​ Once all peripheral atoms have 8e- , place any remaining e- on the central atom
7.​ If the octets are not complete, move pairs of electrons into bonding positions with the
central atom
8.​ If it’s an polyatomic ion, add square brackets around the drawing, with its charge in the
top right corner

Ex. H2O Polyatomic Ion : CO32-

H: 1e- x 2 = 2e- C: 4e-
O: 6 e- O: 6e- x 3 = 18e-
2 + 6 = 8e- 4+18+2 = 24e-
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Describing Chemical Reactions - Textbook (lesson / work)

●​ Results in changes that we see all around us ; fires burn, grass grows, joggers run, milk
sours,
●​ In a chemical reaction, one or more substances change into different substances
●​ Most familiar type is combustion (burning) - used to cook food, heat our homes, etc
●​ Combustion can lead to many health and environmental problems

➢​ Describing Chemical Reactions with Equations

●​ Used to describe chemical reactions
●​ Word equations - names of the chemicals are written out in full
●​ Chemical equations - chemical formulas are used to represent the chemicals

➢​ Examples of Word and Chemical Equations

●​ Reactants - the substances that are used up during the reaction
●​ Products - the substances that are produced during the reaction
●​ During a chemical reaction, reactant particles collide, allowing their atoms to
rearrange and form products
-​ Ex. iron and sulfur is heated,
- reactants are iron and sulfur
- product: iron (ii) sulfide
●​ Chemical reactions can either absorb or release energy
●​ If energy is released, “energy” is written on the right side of the equation
●​ If energy is absorbed, “energy” is written with the reactants
-​ Ex.
-​ Word equation: iron + sulfur -> iron (ii) sulfide + energy
-​ Chemical equation: Fe + S -> FeS + energy
●​ An arrow indicates the direction in which the chemical reaction is going
-​ Arrow: yields, forms, or produces
●​ Substances to the left of the arrow are called reactants
●​ Substances to the right of the arrow are called products
●​ If several reactants are involved, “+” signs are placed between the reactants
●​ If several products are formed, “+” signs are place between the products
State Symbols: tell us the state or form of each substance in a chemical equation
●​ (s) = solid
●​ (l) = liquid
●​ (g) = gaseous
●​ (aq) = aqueous (dissolved in water)
Ex.
Word: energy + copper (ii) carbonate -> carbon dioxide + copper (ii) oxide
Chemical: energy + CuCO3 (s) -> CO2 (g) + CuO (s)
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Law of Conservation of Mass

●​ The total mass of the reactants is always equal to the total mass of the products

It might appear that the reactants have changed into something new, however the atoms have
simply rearranged into different combinations with one another
●​ Atoms are never changed, but rearranged because of this we must balance our reactions
●​ A balanced chemical reaction contains the same number of atoms before and after a
reaction
●​ To do this, we will add a coefficient in front of each chemical symbol in our chemical
reaction
# of reactants = # of products

➢​ Steps to Balance
1.​ Remember your diatomic molecules (HOFBrINCl)
2.​ Balance compounds first and elements last
3.​ Balance hydrogen / oxygen at the end
4.​ If a polyatomic ion appears on both sides of the reaction, treat is as one thing

Ex. 1
Fe +O2 -> Fe3O4
3Fe + O2 -> Fe3O4
3Fe + 2O2 -> Fe3O4

Ex. 2 magnesium reacts with nitric acid

Word: magnesium + nitric acid -> magnesium nitrate +hydrogen
Balanced chemical:
Mg + HNO3 -> Mg(NO3)2 + H2 (magnesium (Mg) replaces the metal (H))
Mg + 2 HNO3 -> Mg(NO3)2 + H2
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Types of Chemical Reactions

1.​ Synthesis Reactions
●​ When two simple reactants combine to make larger or more complex products
●​ General pattern is : A + B -> AB

Ex.1 creation for zinc and sulfide

Word: Zinc + Sulfur -> Zinc sulfide
Chemical: Zn + S -> ZnS

Ex. 2 sodium reacts with chlorine

Word: Sodium + Chlorine -> Sodium chloride
Chemical: 2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl

2.​ Decomposition Reactions

●​ Another type of reaction which is the complete opposite of synthesis reactions
●​ Large compounds are broken down into smaller compounds or their elements
●​ General pattern : AB -> A + B
●​ A decomposition reaction will absorb energy (thermal/electrical) and use this
energy to convert the reactant into its products

Ex.1 decomposition reaction for water

Word: water -> Hydrogen + Oxygen
Chemical: 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2

What is an Acid?
●​ An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+) in the
solution
​ HCl -> H+ + Cl-
​
Hydrochloric acid -> hydrogen ions + chlorine ions
Properties of Acids:
-​ It is an aqueous solution, conducts electricity in a solution
-​ Hydrogen ions (H+) common to all acids
-​ Has a sour taste
-​ Red litmus paper stays red
-​ Blue litmus paper turns red
-​ Corrosive to metals, skin, clothing
-​ Reacts with magnesium to produce hydrogen
-​ Reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate to produce carbon dioxide
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Uses of Acids:
●​ Preservatives in the food industry (vinegar, lemon juice)
●​ The acidic quality of lemon juice and vinegar prevent the growth of microorganisms in
the food we eat
●​ Ex. Pickles, BBQ sauce, ketchup

1.​ Reactions with Metals

●​ HCl (acid) reacts with magnesium (metal)
●​ Produced = H2 gas (ignited with a burning splint)
●​ This typical reaction, where acids will react with a metal to produce hydrogen gas
Ex. hydrochloric acid + magnesium -> hydrogen gas + magnesium chloride
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) -> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)

2.​ Reactions with Carbonates

●​ Acids react with carbonate compounds to produce CO2
Ex. hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate -> carbon dioxide + water + calcium chloride
HCl(aq) + CaCO2 -> CO2 (g) + H2O(i) + CaCl2

3.​ Conductivity
●​ Acids are good conductors of electricity
●​ Solutions require ions to conduct electricity
●​ Acids are molecular compounds (not made from ions)
●​ When they collide with water molecules, acid molecules break apart to form
cations (hydrogen ions H+) and anions
Ex. HCl(aq) -> H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

How to prepare an acid:

●​ It is a two step process
1.​ React a nonmetal with oxygen to form a nonmetal oxide
​ ​ N2 + O2 -> NO2
2.​ React this nonmetal oxide with water to form an acid
​ ​ NO2 + H2O -> H2NO3
Common Acids:
●​ Vinegar - HC2H3O2 (aq) (salad dressing)
●​ Citric acid - HC6H7O7 (aq) (lemon)
●​ Lactic acid - HC3H5O3 (aq) (sour milk)
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

What is a Base?
●​ A base is a compound that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH) in the
solutions, also known as an antacid or alkali
Ex. NaOH -> Na+ + OH-
Sodium hydroxide -> sodium + hydroxide

How to prepare a base:

●​ React a metal oxide with water to form a base
●​ If it ends in OH, then it’s a base
Na2O + H2O -> NaOH
Metal oxide + water -> base

Properties of Bases:
●​ Conduct electricity
●​ Slippery
●​ Taste bitter
●​ Corrosive to metals, skin, clothing
●​ Blue litmus paper stays blue
●​ Red litmus paper turns blue
●​ No reaction with magnesium
●​ Hydroxide ion (OH-) common to all bases

Common Bases:
●​ Sodium hydroxide - NaOH(aq) (drain cleaner)
●​ Potassium hydroxide - KOH(aq) (soap)
●​ Aluminum hydroxide - Al(OH)3 (aq) (antacids)
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

The pH Scale
●​ This scale is used to measure the number of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
●​ pH = power of Hydrogen
●​ The number of hydrogen atoms in a solution or concentration is shown as (H+)

Acidic Solutions:
-​ Have pH values from 0 to less than 7
-​ The closer the number is to zero, the stronger the acid
-​ A strong acid has a low pH and therefore has a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+)
in a solution
Basic Solutions:
-​ Have pH values greater than 7 to 14
-​ The closer the number is to 14, the stronger the base
-​ A stronger base has a very high pH and therefore has a low concentration of hydrogen
ions (H+)
-​ A strong base has a high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution

●​ A pH of 7 is neutral

Acid: (H+) > (OH-)

Base: (H+) < (OH-)
Neutral: (H+) = (OH-)

1.​ Natural Indicators

●​ Come from an organic source that contains a pH indicator
-​ pH indicator: changes colour to show hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide
ions (OH-) concentrations in solution
●​ Litmus indicator: dye comes from lichen, dried onto paper strips
-​ Blue litmus turns red in an acidic solution
-​ Red litmus turns blue in a basic solution
-​ In a neutral solution it will not change colour
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

2.​ Synthetic Indicators

●​ Are synthetically (man) made
●​ Used to determine specific and accurate pH of solutions
Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Base

Bromothymol blue Yellow Blue

Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink

Phenol red Yellow Red / pink

Methyl orange Red Orange / yellow

3.​ Universal Indicators

●​ These change to different colours for different pH levels among the whole pH
scale
●​ Usually a mixture of several indicators
●​ Can identity a pH of 0 to 14

Neutralization Reactions
●​ Where are they observed:
1.​ Acid precipitation attacks a limestone statue
2.​ Stomach antacids
3.​ Vinegar and baking soda produce CO2
●​ All of these are acid-base reactions or neutralization reactions

What is a Neutralization Reaction?

●​ Special type of double displacement reaction
AB + CD -> AD + CB
●​ One of the products is a salt
●​ A salt is a combination of positive and negative ions formed by the reaction of an acid
and base
●​ The second product is water (H2O)

Equation - Predicting Products

The general chemical equation is:
Acid + Base -> Water + Ionic Compound (salt)
 Chapters 5, 6, 7

Predicting Products:
●​ Another neutralization reaction:
-​ Sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide
H2SO4 (aq) + 2KOH (aq)
During a neutralization reaction:
-​ The hydrogen ion from the acid reacts with the hydroxide from the base

Uses of Neutralization Reactions

●​ Fire extinguishers: sulfuric acid and sodium bicarbonate (create CO2) smothers the fire
●​ To clean up acidic spills: sodium bicarbonate is used in labs on spills to neutralize them
before cleaning them up

Neutralization Reactions:
1.​ Plumbers remove calcium carbonate from pipes by adding hydrochloric acid to dissolve
the build up in the pipes
2.​ Antacids: a mild base, used to neutralize stomach acid
3.​ Sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) used in most baking recipes. Most recipes contain an
acid such as vinegar, lemon juice, yogurt, sour cream
●​ When the sodium bicarbonate (base) and acid react - CO2 is produced
●​ This gas is trapped and causes the batter to rise

Acid Precipitation:
●​ Rain is normally acidic (pH - 5.6)
●​ Results of CO2 dissolving in air and reacting with water to make carbonic acid
​ ​ CO2 (g) + H2O (i) -> H2CO3 (aq)
Causes:
-​ Combustion engines
-​ Industry
-​ Burning / combustion of fossil fuels
-​ Production of sulfur & nitrogen which reacts with oxygen to create oxides
Effects of Acid Rain:
●​ Drastic effects on pH of rivers & lakes
-​ Spring runoff, can release large amounts of acid which have collected in the snow
over winter
-​ Can alter amount of fish and organisms present in that body of water
●​ Gradual effect of pH of rivers & lakes
-​ Slow disappearance of organisms
-​ Decrease in food sources
-​ Lower reproduction rates of fish and those that reproduce in the water
-​ Result: a decrease those that depend on the fish as a food source