Units of volume and Conversion: o Justifies Graham’s Law (rate of

Cubic meters – m3 Cubic decimeter – dm3 diffusion/effusion depends on molar mass).

Cubic centimeter – cm3 L – Litters mL-milliliters
4. Limitations of KMT:
1mL 1 cm3
o Does not fully apply to real gases, especially
1L 1 dm3
1 cm3 1000L under high pressure and low temperature.

o Assumes no intermolecular forces, which is

UNITS OF TEMPERATURE AND CONVERSION: not true for all gases.
0 degree Celsius = 32 degrees Fahrenheit GAS LAWS

0 degree Celsius = 273 Kelvin 1. Boyle’s Law (1662) – Robert Boyle

CELSIUS TO Kelvin: 📌 At constant temperature, the pressure of a gas is inversely proportional

to its volume.
EX.) 10 degrees Celsius to Kelvin 📌 Formula:
10 degrees Celsius + 273K = 283K P1V1=P2V2P_1 V_1 = P_2 V_2P1V1=P2V2
CELSIUS TO Fahrenheit: 📌 If pressure increases, volume decreases (and vice versa).
EX.) 20 degrees Celsius to Fahrenheit

Formula F= 9/5(degrees Celcius) + 32

F=9/5(20degrees Celsius) +32 2. Charles’s Law (1787) – Jacques Charles

= 68 degrees Fahrenheit 📌 At constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature (Kelvin).
Fahrenheit to CELSIUS: 📌 Formula:
Formula: C = (F-32) x 5/9
V1T1=V2T2
EX.) 68 degrees Fahrenheit to Celsius
📌 If temperature increases, volume increases.
C= (68-32) x 5/9

= 20 degrees Celsius
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law (1802) – Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac
Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)
📌 At constant volume, the pressure of a gas is directly proportional to its
1. Explains the behavior of gases based on the idea that gas absolute temperature (Kelvin).
particles are in constant motion. 📌 Formula:

2. Postulates of KMT: P1T1=P2T2

o Gases consist of tiny particles 📌 If temperature increases, pressure increases.

📌 Example from the extracted text:
(atoms/molecules) that are in continuous,
A gas at 3.00 × 10³ mmHg and 500°C was cooled to 0°C. Using Gay-Lussac’s
random motion.
Law, the final pressure was calculated.
o The volume of individual gas particles is
negligible compared to the total volume of the
gas. 4. Avogadro’s Law (1811) – Amedeo Avogadro

o Gas particles collide elastically, meaning no 📌 Equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
kinetic energy is lost during collisions. the same number of molecules.
📌 Formula:
o There are no significant intermolecular forces
V1n1=V2n2
between gas particles.
📌 More gas molecules mean more volume.
o The average kinetic energy of gas particles is
directly proportional to the temperature
(Kelvin scale).
5. Combined Gas Law
3. Implications of KMT:
📌 Combines Boyle’s, Charles’s, and Gay-Lussac’s laws when the amount of
o Explains Boyle’s Law (pressure and volume gas remains constant.
inverse relationship). 📌 Formula:

P1V1T1=P2V2T2
o Supports Charles’ Law (volume and
temperature direct relationship). 📌 Used when pressure, volume, and temperature all change.

o Helps understand Avogadro’s Law (equal

volumes of gases have equal particles at
constant T and P). 6. Ideal Gas Law – Émile Clapeyron (1834)
📌 Relates pressure, volume, temperature, and the number of moles of a  Polysaccharides (complex sugars) –
gas. Starch (plants), Glycogen (animals),
📌 Formula: Cellulose (cell walls).
PV=nRT
B. Lipids
📌 constant R = 0.0821 L·atm/(mol·K)
o Composed of C, H, O (sometimes P).
TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS
o Function: Energy storage, cell membrane
1. Synthesis (Combination) Reaction – Two or more structure, insulation.
reactants combine to form a single product.
o Types:
o Example: A + B → AB
 Fats and oils (Triglycerides) –
2. Decomposition Reaction – A single compound breaks Glycerol + Fatty Acids.
down into two or more simpler substances.
 Phospholipids – Component of cell
o Example: AB → A + B membranes.

3. Single Replacement (Displacement) Reaction – One  Steroids – Cholesterol, hormones

element replaces another in a compound. (testosterone, estrogen).

o Example: A + BC → AC + B C. Proteins

4. Double Replacement (Metathesis) Reaction – Exchange o Composed of C, H, O, N, and sometimes S.

of ions between two compounds forming new products.
o Function: Structural support, enzymes,
o Example: AB + CD → AD + CB transport, defense (antibodies).

5. Combustion Reaction – A substance (usually o Building blocks: Amino acids (20 types).
hydrocarbon) reacts with oxygen, releasing energy
(heat/light). o Protein structure:

o Example: C_xH_y + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O  Primary – Sequence of amino acids.

6. Acid-Base (Neutralization) Reaction – An acid reacts  Secondary – Alpha helices & beta
with a base to form water and salt. sheets.

o Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H₂O  Tertiary – 3D folding due to R-group

interactions.
7. Redox (Oxidation-Reduction) Reaction – Electrons are
transferred, causing oxidation and reduction.  Quaternary – Multiple polypeptide
chains.
o Example: Fe + O₂ → Fe₂O₃
D. Nucleic Acids
Biomolecules
o Composed of C, H, O, N, P.
1. Definition: Biomolecules are organic molecules essential
for life processes, including carbohydrates, lipids, o Function: Genetic information storage &
proteins, and nucleic acids. transfer.

2. Types of Biomolecules: o Types:

A. Carbohydrates  DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) –

Stores genetic blueprint.
o Composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H),
oxygen (O).  RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) – Involved in
protein synthesis.
o Function: Primary energy source (e.g.,
glucose). o Building blocks: Nucleotides (Sugar +
Phosphate + Nitrogenous base).
o Types:
 DNA bases: Adenine (A), Thymine
 Monosaccharides (simple sugars) – (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).
Glucose, Fructose, Galactose.
 RNA bases: Adenine (A), Uracil (U),
 Disaccharides (two Cytosine (C), Guanine (G).
monosaccharides) – Sucrose,
Lactose, Maltose.