PDHPE notes core 2

C.Q. How does training affect performance?

 Energy systems

Alactic acid system (ATP-PC) Lactic acid system Aerobic system

(anaerobic) (anaerobic)
What is it  The alactacid system is used  The lactic acid system is  The aerobic system ha
used for? by the body to an anaerobic energy the ability to break dow
produce ATP when there is system in which the high- more than one type of
insufficient time to break energy compound source. The fuels being
down glycogen in the adenosintriphosphate fats, glucose,
presence of oxygen for the (ATP) is manufactured carbohydrates (CHO),
replenishment of ATP. from the breakdown of protein, this system als
glucose to relies on the
pyruvic acid in the circulatory system to
muscle cells. transport oxygen to
muscles before it creat
ATP.
Fuel  Creatine phosphate  Carbohydrate: glucose  Carbohydrate, fat an
in blood, storage from protein
glycogen  In the early stages of
 Glycogen breaks down endurance work-
products, producing ATP carbohydrates is the
preferred fuel source
 If exercise continues
beyond an hour or so, f
becomes increasingly
important, as fuel is th
dominant source if
glycogen becomes
exhausted
Efficiency  Not really efficient, limited  Somewhat efficient  Extremely efficient in
to short time  Provides ATP quickly but metabolism of fuel and
 Functions to make ATP needs large quantities of provision of energy
rapidly available. It occurs glucose- somewhat  Enables us to continue
whether or not oxygen is efficient sustained work for lon
available periods of time= use of
 Supply of ATP is limited if glycogen
demand is high but can
recover quickly
 Short, explosive
movements
® Weightlifting, discus
throw, 100m sprint
Duration  10-30 seconds  30 seconds to 3 minutes  Hours depending on
 ATP exhausted after further  Depends on intensity of intensity
10-15 seconds activity  Total amount of glycog
 Rest CP stores almost fully  Near max effort= in body= 350g= suffici
restored within 2 minutes exhausted in 30 seconds for 12 hours of rest or
 Effort of 70-80%= hours of hard work
exhausted in 3-4 minutes  In intermittent exercise
 Provides energy for high e.g. football, glycogen
 intensity activities lasting supplies last for
10 seconds-1 minute approximately 4-6 hou
® 200m, 400m,  In case of a marathon,
gymnastics routine supplies can exhaust
within 2 hours
 Body has virtually
unlimited supplies of f
and this is used as fuel
glycogen stored deplet
 Well trained athletes m
carbs and fats in
endurance events=
glycogen spaning
 Endurance events
® Marathon, triathlo
soccer
 Low demand activities
® Walking, sitting,
reading
Cause of  Caused by inability of  Lactic acid build up  Lack of fuel
fatigue system to resynthesise  Lactic acid builds up in  Glycogen is the prem
because CP supplies are quantities faster than it fuel for body, so when
quickly exhausted can be removed runs out, the body tir
 This is why we cannot run at  Lactate threshold: point at  Exhaustion of carbs an
near max effort for longer which lactic acid reliance on secondary
than 100m accumulates rapidly in fuel- fat
blood  Using fat as a sole fuel
source= problem, as fa
needs more oxygen for
metabolism than carbs
 This in turn increases t
runners body temperat
and rate of respiration
By  Heat and water is produced  no by-products but  Carbon dioxide and wa
products produces lactic acid
Rate of  2 minutes= ATP and CP  Lactic acid defuses from  Depends on duration o
recovery are almost fully restored muscle into blood stream. use
 50% replenishment and In the liver, lactic acid is  Short time used= recov
occurs within 30 seconds reconverted to glycogen quickly as glycogen sto
 Hence weightlifters can and can be used as a fuel have not been depleted
‘backup’ almost immediately source  Recovery for the aero
after first and second attempt  Process takes about 30 system is about restor
 The alactacid energy minutes-1 hour fuel stores to their pr
system (ATP/PC) recovers  The process of recovery exercise levels. This
as the creatine in the cell once fatigue has requires the ingestion
connects to the free occurred requires digestion and
phosphates again, storing oxygen. Pyruvic acid in transportation of the
them as PC to be used the presence of oxygen and can take between
when they are needed will be converted to and 48 hours dependi
again. This process takes acetyl coenzyme A, on the intensity and
up to 2 minutes for which is then broken duration of the aerob
complete recovery, but can down through the performance.
be half restored at around Krebs cycle to produce  Hours used= glycogen
the 30 second mark. more ATP. Without stores most likely
 oxygen it is converted to depleted, thus takes da
lactate and removed to restore
from the muscle and
taken to the liver to be
converted into glucose.
This process can take
anywhere between 30
and 60 min.

 Types of training methods

- Aerobic training (CFAC) Clark fought all chaldos
o Uses aerobic system

® Continuous training
 Sustained effort=effort without rest/intervals
 Not less than 20 minutes
 Heart rate must rise above aerobic threshold and remain within the target
zone
à E.g. jogging, cycling and aerobics
 2 types
= long slow distance- 60-80% max heart rate focus on distance not speed
= high intensity work of moderate duration- 80-90% max HR high intensity
(well-trained athlete)

® Fartlek training
 Varying of speed and terrain
 Engage both anaerobic and aerobic energy systems
 Beneficial for game players who frequently sprint, stop, jog, change
direction and accelerate
 Pre-season training= rugby, basketball, soccer

® Aerobic interval
 Alternating sessions of work and recovery
à E.g. 400m in a particular time followed by a recovery period before
task is repeated a number of times in the same manner
à E.g. running 1500m at 80% and then jogging 400m at 40%. This would
then be repeated a set number of times, which for this example could be
5 times.
à E.g. athlete ride an exercise bike for 9 min at 75%, then switch to 50%
for 1 min repeated 6 times.
 Aerobic interval training is best suited for sports where there are extended
periods of work, followed by a form of rest before further exertion is
required e.g. basketball, netball, and biathlon
 involves a single activity with specified changes in intensity at specific
times or lengths within the session. These changes will alternate
between two set intensities and generally have a longer duration or
length at the higher intensity than at the lower intensity
  Develops aerobic endurance as rest period is short and does not allow for
full recovery and places stress on the system

® Circuit training
 Develops aerobic capacity and muscular endurance, strength and flexibility
 Circuit moving from one activity to another after completing required reps
for that activity
 Usually aim to complete circuit in shortest amount of time to increase
fitness levels
 (increase reps, decrease time, increase stations)

- Anerobic training (Ai)

o Uses high intensity work coupled with limited recovery
o Develops systems of energy supply that function in the absence of oxygen shorter in
duration, less than two minutes
o Develops a greater tolerance to lactic acid
o Anaerobic training affects performance by increasing the rate at which the muscle
deals with pyruvic acid and removes lactate from the muscle= increases the lactate
inflection point.
o improves the recovery rates of the anaerobic energy systems and has the potential to
increase PC stores=speed up anaerobic glycolysis allowing for ATP to be produced
at a faster rate than an untrained athlete= affects performance by allowing the higher
intensity activities to be performed for longer, improving recovery allowing for a
repeat in this intensity to be performed quicker and for an extended duration, and
improvements in strength, power or speed

® Anaerobic interval
 Sprint training over short distances using max effort
 Mostly directed towards developing speed, e.g. loom sprint or for short
bursts in games such as football
 To develop speed whilst focusing on techniques, rest periods need to be
slightly extended to allow lactate to dispense as lactate inhibits performance
 Short interval anaerobic training will usually be used to develop the lactic
acid energy system, but if the higher interval is shortened and the rest
period prolonged the focus will shift to the alactacid system.

- Flexibility (SBPD) some boys paid double

o Range of motion at a joint
o It is affected by a number of factors:
- Age: including age=muscles tighten
- Sex: females are generally more flexible than men
- Exercise: those who frequently exercise are generally more flexible
- Temperature: increase in temp= increase in flexibility
- Specificity: flexibility is joint specific e.g. just because you have flexible
shoulders does not mean you will have flexible hamstrings
 ® Static
 Safe form of stretching held for a period of 10-30 seconds
 Movement is smooth and performed slowly
 Used extensively in rehab of injuries and warm up/ cool down phases
à E.g. sitting down with leg extended and gently reaching forward for 30
seconds
à gymnastics, acrobatics and bodybuilding.

® Ballistic
 Involves repeated movements such as bouncing to gain extra stretch
 Activates stretch-reflex which can be potentially harmful (muscles contract
and lengthen)
 Harmful: contracted muscles is stretched way beyond preferred length
 Should only be used by advanced athletes
à E.g. touching toes using a bouncing method
à dance, gymnastics, and skipping.

® Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

 Lengthening a muscle against a resistance usually provided by a partner
 Incorporates static training and isometric contractions, followed by a period
of rest
 Usually is rehab and warm-up and cool-down as it provides added stretch
under safe conditions
 Suited to sports where the athlete’s joint may be forcefully taken
beyond the active ROM e.g. rugby, , Ice-Hockey, and American
Football.
à E.g. put your leg up on a chair, stretch your hamstring for 30 sec,
perform an isometric contraction by pushing your heel down against
the chair until the uncomfortable nature of the stretch is diminished,
then further lengthen your hamstring and hold the stretch for another
10 sec.

® Dynamic
 Popular for warm up
 movements that take their joints through their ROM to produce
temporal stretches of selected muscles. These movements are
continuous and the stretch is not held.
 replicates movements used in performance.
 Uses movement speed and momentum with movements experienced in
a game to increase flexibility
 Safer than ballistic but not PNF and static
 Preferred form of stretching to use before a game
à E.g. arm circling, walking lunges
à soccer

- Strength training (FEH) fadi ended her

o Involves the use of resistance against muscular contraction to improve a person’s
muscular strength and muscle size (hypertrophy)
o Must be specifically designed to meet the individual needs of an athlete
o Absolute strength: max force generated in one contraction
o Relative strength: force generated by a muscle taking into account body weight
o Strength endurance: ability to repeat muscle contraction against resistance
o Repetition maximum: max number of times you can lift something before fatiguing
- Eccentric: lengthening
- Concentric: shortening
- Isometric: no muscle length change
- Isokinetic: load is constant

® Free/fixed weights
 Revolves around the use of the RM (repetition max)
 RM can be altered with the number of reps and speed of the lift to develop
different types of strength
 The program for each athlete would differ in the weight, sets, reps and
speed
à E.g. free: barbells, dumbbells=bicep curl
à E.g. fixed: leg press machines= leg presses (quad strength)

Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy and can be affordable  Can produce muscle soreness
 Develops strength around  Relies on gravity so develops
full range of motion movements largely on a
 Imitate movements specific vertical plain
to a sport

® Elastic strength training

 Involves the use of elastic bands/tubes to provide a resistance
 Can be attached to a fixed object with the opposite end attached to the
person who is training
 A sporting movement may require horizontal strength achieved through
elastic resistance
 Can be used by elite athletes to enhance strength and power, useful to
rehab
à E.g. push ups with elastic around back and shoulders and held with
hands

Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to use and portable  Difficult to measure the exact
 Cheap as one band can train force of resistance
entire body
 Develop strength around the
full range of motion
 Can imitate movements
specific to sport
 ® Hydraulic strength training
 Hydraulic strength training uses machines to provide an artificial resistance
through fluid dynamics and the use of hydraulic oil
 As the athlete moves through the ROM, hydraulic oil is pushed through the
parts of the machine under high pressure
 Faster and stronger movements increase the resistance
à E.g. squat machine, leg press

Advantages Disadvantages
 Safe  Expensive
 Doesn’t need a spotter  Space consuming
 Develops strength through  Not sport specific
full ROM  Not develop ligament and
 Resistance can be easily tendon strength
altered by how hard and fast
you work
 Suitable for all ages and
fitness levels

 Principles of training
- Progressive overload
o Fitness adaptations occur only when training load is greater than normal and is
progressively increased as improvements in fitness occurs
o Load= adaptations, increased load= adaptations, increased load
o Training allows for physiological changes in the body, this then allows the body to
work at higher intensity
o The higher level is because of adaptations that have occurred in result to training stress
at a lower level
o Body becomes familiar= adapts to it= need

- Specificity
o Training program is specifically related to the sport/activity (energy systems,
muscle groups, movement skills)
o What is being performed at training is similar to what is done in the
game/competition
 o This improves performance because the body adapts to stresses in a specific
way
à E.g. training for a marathon=
® Target training systems: aerobic
® Perform activities that utilise slow twitch fibres: slow twitch are more
efficient in using oxygen
® Perform movement skills required for the sport

- Reversibility
o Effects of training program are reversible
o When training ceases, there is a detraining effect (gains from training are
gradually lost if training ceases)
o An increase gain=increased loss

- Variety
o Repetition without creativity leads to boredom
o Use different techniques/activities to keep athlete motivated
à E.g. strength training
® Variety of methods=build strength using different equipment e.g. free
weights, elastic bands

- Training threshold (point you reach)

o The specific point when passed takes individual to a new level
o Changes are called adaptations or fitness gains
o How big improvement is relevant to threshold level worked

® Aerobic threshold
 The level of exercise intensity that is sufficient to cause a training
effect (approx.. 70% of max heart rate)
 The aerobic training zone refers to the level of intensity that causes
the heart rate to be high enough to develop adaptations)

® Anaerobic threshold:
 Level of intensity in physical activity where the accumulation of
lactic acid in the blood increases very quickly (near max heart rate)
 Lactic inflection point: characterised by lactic acid accumulation and
decreased time for fatigue
 - Warm up and cool down
® Warm up
 Prepares the athlete physically and psychologically
 Increases cardiac output, in turn increasing blood flow to the muscles used in
the activity
 An increase in the body and muscle temperatures allows for increased
metabolism, improved contraction, elasticity (ROM) and reflex times in
muscles
 Therefore reduces chance of injury
1. General gross motor activity e.g. jogging
2. Dynamic stretching exercises e.g. arm circles
3. Event specific drills e.g. passing the ball

® Cool down
 Allows for active recovery, giving the body time to return blood to the heart
(rather than letting the blood pool in the muscles)
 Removes waste products from the blood (lactic acid)
 Decreases muscle soreness and prevents DOMS (delayed onset muscle
soreness)
 Gradually returns the body temperature and heart rate to normal
 Includes:
à Static stretching: to reduce muscle soreness and aid recovery
à Light general exercise: e.g. light jogging

 Physiological adaptations in response to training

- Resting heart rate
o The number of times your heart beats per minute
o Adaptation: is a reduced resting heart rate
o A trained athlete will have a lower resting heart rate and faster recovery rate as opposed
to an untrained athlete

- Stroke volume
o Amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle per beat
o Adaptation: increases as there is an increase in elasticity resulting in a more powerful
contraction

- Cardiac output
o Volume of blood ejected by heart per minute
o Adaptation: increases during max exercise effort due to the increase in stroke volume
o Results in greater oxygen supply, waste removal (lactic acid) and improved endurance
performance
o Cardiac output reflects the ability of the heart to deliver oxygen-rich blood to working
muscles for a trained athlete between 20-40ml/min
o The oxygen therefore enables the aerobic energy system to produce ATP and thus
maintain movement
- Oxygen uptake
o Refers to the VO2 max, and is the amount of oxygen that is consumed
o It is measured in litres/min
o It is affected by heredity, gender, age and training status
o Adaptation: increase in V02 Max is a result of increased cardiac output and body's
ability to extract more oxygen from the muscles during exercise
o This increases due to greater lung capacity and higher haemoglobin levels (the more
oxygen available the quicker ATP can be resynthesised)

- Lung capacity
o Refers to the volume of air capable of being drawn into the lungs as an athlete inhales
o The number of calories in the lungs will increase with training about more oxygen to be
absorbed with each breath taken in
o Adaptation: overall total lung capacity remains unchanged
o Tidal volume: volume of air inspired and expired with each breath
o Inspiratory reserve volume: extra amount of air that can be inspired over the tidal
volume
o Expiratory reserve volume: extra amount of air that can be forcefully expired over the
tidal volume
o Residual volume: volume of air still in the lungs after forceful expiration

- Haemoglobin levels
o An iron containing protein in red blood cells that binds with oxygen to carry it around
the body to the working muscles
o It improved aerobic inspiration
o Adaptation: aerobic training increases haemoglobin levels linked to an increase in red
blood cell numbers and volume
o Athletes try to boost haemoglobin through altitude training as there is less oxygen in the
air

- Muscle hypertrophy
o Increase in size and growth of muscle cells, leading turn increase in overall muscle
fibres
o Adaptation: muscles adapt to new loads being placed on them, increasing in the size and
amount of contractile proteins within each muscle fibre
o It can take up to 2 months for hypertrophy to occur
o Result of anaerobic training=resistance training

- Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle fibres

o Slow twitch muscle fibres are used for movements that have a long duration
aerobic
o Slow twitch muscle fibres are better suited to endurance activities that require a low
force production over a longer duration
o Contract slowly=take longer to fatigue
o Contain a large number of calories and produce a large amount of ATP slowly
o Fast twitch muscle fibres are the fibres used for strength, power, and
movements of high intensity and short duration anaerobic
 o Fast which is better suited to short bursts of explosive activities that require maximal
force production
o Greater strength and power
o Type Ia fibres rely on both aerobic and anaerobic energy for contraction- Type
IIb=anaerobic energy

Adaptations:
Resting HR Decrease
Stroke volume Increase
Cardiac output increase
Oxygen uptake Increase
Lung capacity Unchanged
Haemoglobin levels Increase
Muscle hypertrophy Increase
Fast and slow twitch muscle fibres Increase

C.Q. How can psychology affect performance?

 Motivation
o Motivation Provide direction and intensity of purpose
o Level of motivation will vary with each athlete, having various goals
o Motivation is a form of reinforcement
o Factors that reduced motivation include a lack of fun during training injury, poor time
management and failure to achieve goals
o Useful motivation strategies include building positive relationships and positive self-talk

- Positive motivation
o Dwells from rewarding experiences. it includes recognition, praise and reward for
performance is continually reinforced.
 E.g. Financial rewards, contract, team selection, adoration of fans

- Negative motivation
o Results from fear of failure or fear of unpleasant reactions or comments
o Involves avoidance of undesirable consequences
 E.g. being drop from a team, suffering humiliation, threats by coach to do extra
training

- Intrinsic motivation
o Dwells internally
o an athlete is self-propelled towards success and hard work with personal goals,
expectations and fears that drive their efforts and commitments
o this is often driven by an athlete high level of competitiveness and desire to succeed and
win
 E.g. positive self-talk
 - Extrinsic motivation
o Is derived from an external source
o Can be either positive or negative
 E.g. money, trophies and recognition

 Anxiety and arousal

o Anxiety is a negative emotion that includes fear, apprehension and worry
o It is a psychological statemind
o It affects coordination, find motor control and is combined with arousal levels

- Trait anxiety
o Refers to a general level of stress that is a characteristic of each individual
o It varies depending on how individuals have conditioned themselves to respond and
manage stress
o Try anxiety needs to be controlled by the athlete. it can be controlled by general
techniques

- State anxiety
o Refers to a heightened level of stress in response to a particular situation
o Can be controlled by using and practicing mental rehearsal and relaxation
o When the risk of failure is high, it can contribute to physical and mental paralysis
preventing performance that is routine and has been repeated many times in practice
situations
 E.g shooting a free throw in basketball

- Sources of stress
o Stress is the response the body makes to the demand placed on it
o Social stressors: events or people that place demands upon the athlete
 E.g. deadlines, finally ensure problems
o Environmental: constantly change
 E.g. weather conditions, noise
o Psychological: thought that can significantly impact stress
 E.g negative self-talk
o Physiological: placed on to the body
 E.g injury, overload
o Stress causes body reaction=adrenaline builds up
 Increase blood supply
 Increase CO2
 Increase sweat production
 Increased island muscles
o Can be real or imagined
o Stress is a personal attribute

- Optimum arousal
o Optimum arousal levels depends on the individual’s personality and factors including
  Self-expectation
 Expectation by others
 Experience

o Inverted U hypothesisoptimum arousal

- Arousal:
o it is physiological
o puts the body in a state of readiness.
o Higher levels of arousal are necessary for optimum performance in easy tasks (gross
motor skills)  running, jumping, catching
o difficult tasks (fine motor skills) e.g. archery means lower levels of arousal as they
need to remain steady and calm
o easy task: e.g. boxing needs higher levels of arousal as they need to be pumped up for
the activity
o inverted U hypothesis- different levels of arousal are required for different sports to
achieve optimal arousal- this depends on the type of activity

 Psychological strategies to enhance motivation and manage anxiety (Clark Made Realistic
Goals)
- Concentration/attention skills (focusing)
o Key to success=concentration
o Doing and thinking about doing
 o When an individual thinks about doing= often separate their tasks for themselves as the
performer (feelings, sensations, reactions, became focus) can contribute to over arousal
o When an individual focuses on a task or activity, thoughts relate more to execution. effective
conclusion involves not focusing on one or the other but maintaining an uninterrupted
connection between the two

® Internal voice:
 Self-1: Instruction, listens to directions
 Self-2: action, execution, task complexion=increase concentration =less
interference from self-1 and more reliance on self-2
 To improve concentration = training that focuses on a particular time and to
be able to adapt to changing situations

® Types of concentration:
 Intense concentration= gymnastics, diving
 Intervals of high concentration with periods of less intense concentration =
Team games, netball
 Extreme sustained concentration = marathon, triathlons

- Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery
o Athletes include mental rehearsal in their training and competition routines in order to
maximise performance
o Athletes think through the skills they are about to perform
o Commonly used in sports such as: weight-lifting and high jump
o Realistic as possible-use senses
o Should be positive

- Relaxation techniques
o Progressive muscular technique= relaxing muscle groups using special exercise
o Mental relaxation= relaxing the body through controlled breathing, relaxation of the
mind and gaining a ‘floating feeling’
o Self-hypnosis= power of suggestion to have the mind to accept a particular level of
anxiety in a specific situation
o Mental rehearsal =involves concentrating on rehearsing the performance of task rather
than how you feel about it
o Meditation =narrowing ones thoughts using simple, repetitive images and sounds
o Centred breathing = controlling breathing to release tension before a performance
o Find a technique that suits you best

- Goal setting
o Establishment of goals is important to improve both individual and team preparation
o need to set own goals (give direction)
o essential formula for success
o intensity and aims of training relate to specific performance aspirations
 ® Short term goals:
 serve as checkmarks
 achieve in a limited amount of time (steppingstones to long term
goals -lasts days to weeks)

® Long term goals

 longer period of time e.g. months, years

® Behavioural goals:
 Goals are related to improved behavioural expectations.
 They are observable, measurable behaviours, rather than aspirations.

® Performance goals:
 Goals relate to an athlete’s desired level of success. E.g. state or
national competitions (write them down and put them on a board to
remain focused).

[Link] CAN NUTRITION AND RECOVERY STRATEGIES AFFECT

PERFORMANCE?
 Nutritional considerations:
o For optimal physical performance, the specific roles of carbs and hydration.

– Pre-performance:
o Food pre-perf is only useful if digested = thus allows energy to be used.
o Acute depletion of levels = due to exercise bouts/bursts of explosive activity lasting 1 hr
(fully depleted in 2 hrs).
o Fluid levels need to be repeatedly replaced.
o Important considerations pre-perf:
 What type of food to eat and in what amount?
 When to eat and drink?
 How to carbohydrate load if required?

Type of food:
o Avoid foods high in fat, protein and fibre = longer to digest.
o May lead to discomfort.
o If solid food is difficult to digest = ‘liquid meals’.
o Advised to eat mostly complex carbs = slow energy release (good).
o Don’t experiment with unfamiliar food on the day.

Amount of food:
o Discomfort may be inc. due to anxiety.
o Appropriate quantity of food relates to the type of competition.
o Endurance sport = more kj.
o Inc. amounts of food likely to cause discomfort in high intensity/sustained like running as
opposed to cycling or swimming.

When we should eat:

o 3 – 4 hrs: sandwich.
o 1 – 2 hrs: fruit, yoghurt.
o Less than one hr before: energy bar.
 Carbohydrate loading:
o Useful for endurance events as glycogen stores often decrease to critically low levels.
Which will decrease the athlete’s performance.
o Starting competition with elevated muscle glycogen stores can help postpone fatigue.
o How to do it: increase carbohydrate intake approx. 3-4 days before the event.
o It takes 36-75 hrs to fully carbohydrate load.
o Taper exercise: decrease the amount of exercise one to two days prior to event to ensure
glycogen stores are not depleted.

– During performance:
o Endurance events, particularly when it is hot/humid can have significant impact on the
body’s fuel and fluid supplies.
o Carb and electrolyte replacement depends on:
 Intensity
 Duration
 Humidity
 Clothing type
 Individual sweat rates
o Electrolytes are salts/minerals/sodium.

Nutritional considerations:
o Aim to conserve muscle glycogen and maintain blood glucose levels.
o Carb supplementation needed to avoid glycogen depletion.
o Glycogen supplementation is not needed for low-intensity, short-duration exercise.
o Adequate hydration by regular fluid intake must be maintained. Must match body’s
requirements and exercise duration and intensity.
o Thirst is not a good indicator.
o Should not wait until thirst develops before replenishing liquid (by the time dehydration
has kicked in).
o Dehydration: an excessive loss of water.
o Athletes need to develop fluid intake and retention strategies that will prevent
dehydration.

Important:
o Hydrate before, during and after physical activity.
o Drink every 15-20 mins while running.
o Drink water or low-carb concentration sports drink.
o Ensure that you have trained properly ad acclimatised to race conditions.
o Wear clothing that ‘breathes’.
o Avoid activity in times of high temp or high humidity.
o Avoid excess fat and any salt and alcohol.
o Do not run if suffering from fever.
o Learn to recognise the symptoms to heat stress.

– Post-performance:
o Proactive recovery: emphasises immediate refuelling and rehydration that continues until
a pre-event state is obtained.
o Post-perf nutrition looks at returning the body to its pre-event state as quickly as possible.
o Best achieved through proactive recovery.
o Refuelling and rehydration immediately.
o Continue for 8-12 hrs.
  E.g. in endurance activities = carb intake after should be 50-100 grams in the first
2 hrs.
o Followed by 50-75 grams every 2 hrs until a total of 500-600 grams of carbs consumed.
o Best way to recover = eat foods high in carb content.
o Foods high in GI (glycemic index).
o Glycemic index: ranking system for carbs based on how they affect blood sugar levels.
o Rehydration should occur to replace fluid and electrolytes lost.
o Water and carbs solutions in larger than normal quantities.
o Research suggests 150% of fluid losses to enable recovery.
o Athlete also needs active rest that enhances manufacture of red blood cells, new proteins
and specific cellular components damaged by stress-related movements.

 Supplementation:
o Get from dietary first, then turn to supplements

– Vitamins:
o organic compounds to maintain bodily functions.
Advantages:
o Required in only very small quantities in the body.
o Function as catalysts to help the body use energy nutrients.
o Help with energy release metabolic regulation and tissue building.
o Body is unable to make vitamins thus we must get them from our diet.
Disadvantages:
o Sometimes athletes may be inclined to take supplements.
o Intake of excessive quantities can be potentially dangerous.
o May lead to joint pain/headaches.

– Minerals:
o Inorganic substance found in body needed for it to function adequately.
o Iron and calcium are 2 minerals.
o Condition common to athletes: ‘sports anaemia’ = general fatigue.
o Can be cause by low iron in diet thus athlete needs balanced diet with sufficient amount of
minerals = iron (lean meat, leafy green veggies).
o Athletes most at risk of iron deficiency:
 Endurance athletes activity takes up stores
 Females  menstruation
 Vegetarians
 Adolescent males  puberty

– Protein:
o Protein is made up of amino acids and is the key building block of body tissue and
body tissue repair
o Protein supplements have had string links with weight-lifters and strength athletes.
o Supplements may be natural or synthetic = available in power, fluid or solid form.
o Protein primary role = growth, repair and maintenance of body tissue. (muscles)
o Also involved in production of hormones and nervous systems transmissions.
o Positively affecting muscle size (muscle building qualities).
o Too much protein can contribute to osteoporosis (excess protein must be eliminated as it
is toxic to the body).

Advantages Disadvantages
- Repairs muscles fibres= back up training= - Unnecessary weight gain
inc training without being sore - May contain harmful ingredients
- Increase in muscle size  muscle - Osteoporosis= too much protein
hypertrophy= inc strength= inc training
e.g. weightlifter
- Production of hormone

– Caffeine:
o Caffeine is a stimulant and some believe it has positive effects on athletes who rely on
quick reflexes due to its ability to enhance reaction speeds and increase mental focus.
o Inc. in some cognitive functions, anaerobic and aerobic performance.
o Caffeine also has diuretic properties.
o Also is an ergogenic aid – whereby it improves performance by assisting specific
metabolic processes.
o It is believed that it promotes glycogen sparing = fat is metabolised sparing reserves of
glycogen assist with aerobic

Advantages Disadvantages
- More energy - Dehydrate
- Increase muscle strength - Inc. BP and [Link]
- More endurance - Tired after
- Energy doesn’t last long

– Creatine products:
o Creatine is an organic acid and is not an essential nutrient for humans.
o 2 sources: Production of cells and food intake, particularly from meat.
o In the muscle creatine is converted to creatine phosphate and then used to assist in
resynthesis of ATP.
o Important to sustain short duration explosive activity e.g. weight lifting.
o Particularly used anaerobic programs.
o The body is unable to store excess amounts of creatine so supplementation has little effect
on athletes who already consume high amounts of protein.
o Excess amounts may cause weight gain.
o Although research states it allows muscle hypertrophy to be more easily achieved.

Advantages Disadvantages
- Fuels the phosphate creatine stores= more - Weight gain
energy= more explosive - Toxic to body if you have too much
- Decreases muscle soreness = train harder
and more
e.g. weightlifting= lift heavier

 Recovery strategies:
o Aim to ensure athlete is able to resume normal training/competition within the time span of
the training program.
o Active rest is regarded as the most beneficial form of recovery.
o Allows physiological and psychological revitalisation to occur.

– Physiological strategies:
 o Removal of metabolic by-products (lactic acid) and a nutritional plan to replace lost fluids
and energy-rich nutrients.
o To remove metabolic by-products = effective cool-down.

 Cool-down:
o Purpose gradually dec. HR and metabolism to pre-exercise state.
o Vigorous/sustained exercise that is not concluded with a cool-down.
o Results in blood pooling = cause dizziness.
o Cool-down assists with removal of waste products include lactic acid, prevents muscle
spasms, cramps and onset muscle soreness.
o Cool-down should be gradual.
o 5-10 min walking/jogging/slow swim.
o Important static stretching (lengthens and relaxes muscles).

 Nutritional plan (hydration):

o Fluid and solid intakes.
o Fluid recovery = addressed dehydration. Body loses increase amounts of fluid in
endurance events (threat of dehydration).
o Dehydration is characterised by:
 Increased pulse rate and body temp.
 Decreased blood pressure.
o Amount of fluid loss depends on the individual. These are influenced by:
 Altitude
 Temperature
 Exercise intensity
 Exercise duration
 Amount of sweat
o Thirst not a good indicator.
o Urine dark in colour = dehydration.
o Elite athlete weigh themselves before and after exercise (weight difference = fluid loss).

Fuel recovery:
o Many athletes find it difficult to consume large amounts of food following exercise.
o However, they must replenish depleted glycogen stores in the first 30 mins – 2 hrs.
o If postponed after 2 hrs, less glycogen is absorbed by fatigued muscles.
o Research = 50-100g of carbs and some protein (amino acids = building blocks of
protein).
o E.g. pasta, bread, rice.

– Neural strategies:
 Hydrotherapy: (heat)
o Involves the use of water to relax, sooth pain and assist metabolic recovery.
o Spas, steam rooms, heated swimming pools.
o May be used in conjunction with cryotherapy.

 Massage:
o Sports massage can be performed prior or following an event.
o Can prevent injury/injury treatment.
o E.g. compression massage, cross-fibre and tender point massage.

– Tissue damage strategies:

 Cryotherapy: (cold)
 o Involves the use of cooling and has become popular in the recovery strategies.
o Ice is the most used form of cryotherapy (slows down inflammation, swelling and
disperses lactic acid).
o ICER with rest.
o Ice baths (immerse affected body parts).
 E.g. cyrotherapy chambers

– Psychological strategy:
 Relaxation techniques:
o Target the body and mind.  adv
o Choice of technique is individual.
o It also includes progressive muscular relaxation, meditation, visualisation, centred
breathing and positive self-talk.

C.Q. HOW DOES THE ACQUISITION OF SKILL AFFECT PERFORMANCE?

 Stages of skill acquisition:
o Acquisition of skill is the gradual development (cognitive and physical) ability to learn a
skill.
o The pace of skill acquisition varies for each individual.

– Cognitive:
o First stage.
o Extrinisic feedback is essential
o Gains understanding of task.
o Many errors
o What to do and how to do it.
o Conceptualisation = generation of clear mental pictures of the task.
o To help guide the learner = demonstration, videos and information on important points.
o Learner will experience problems.
o Be careful to not overload the learner as this causes confusion.
o If experiencing difficulty break down the skill.
o Positive learning should be reinforced and encouraged.
o How long it takes to learn the skill depends on the individual skill difficulty.
o Some difficult skills may never be mastered e.g. somersaults.

– Associative stage:
o Associative = connecting/linking ideas.
o Second stage.
o Emphasis on PRACTICE.
o Feedback is essential (use extrinsic and a little intrinsic motivation).
o Errors still occur but are SMALLER and LESS frequent.
o Repeat movement to enhance synchronisation of mind and muscles.
o Kinesthesis (sense to movement) improves.
o Gradually learner feels more at ease as their confidence increases due to increase success.
o Learners can remain at this stage for a long period, even years.

– Autonomous:
o Autonomous = being in full control of actions so they become AUTOMATIC.
o Third stage
o Automatically execute skill.
o Mostly use intrinsic feedback.
o Movement is more EFFICIENT and CONSISTENT.
 o They can attempt to other cues while giving little thought to how to perform the
skill (IMPORTANT).
 E.g. netball = not how to pass but who to pass to, what type of pass
considering the position on the court at the time.
o Execution is now properly sequenced and performed instinctively.
o Movements is fluent.
o Link sub-routines = temporal patterning.
o Movement looks good.
o Practice is still important.
o Should incorporate pressure drills/competition scenarios in training.

 Characteristics of the learner:

– Personality:
o Individuals attitude and motivation
o Way of behaving.
o Observable traits:
 Consistency
 Reliability
 Level of motivation
 Determination
 Willingness to listen
 Willingness to learn
 Enthusiasm
 Cooperativeness
 Dedication
o Elite players usually linked with positive learning attributes.
o Positive = more receptive to instruction and advice.
o Prior experience= gymnast going to diving

– Heredity:
o Genetic characteristics inherited from parents.
o Unchangeable.
o Limit how fast we can run.
o Environmental determines if we can reach the limits set by heredity (improve heredity
aspects).
o Includes:
 Relative percentage of fast twitch muscle fibres – if higher %, usually suited to
sprint/explosive movements, those with slow = endurance.
 Somatotype (body type or shape) – tendency
towards ectomorphy (linearity), mesomorphy (muscularity)
or endomorphy (roundness). 
 Ecto = favours high jumpers.
 Meso = lightweight boxers.
 Endo = sumo-wrestler.
 Gender: increased levels of testosterone in males allow increased strength than
females, thus separate competition.
 Height: may pose biomechanical and physical advantages (e.g. pole-vaulter).
 Conceptual ability: visualise a movement and make it materialistic.

– Confidence:
o Self-confidence = firm belief in one’s own ability.
o Builds from experience.
o Confident people are able to help others as well as themselves.
 o Feelings of being able to rise to challenge.
o Positive achievement increases confidence.

– Prior experience:
o Transfer of skills
o Often easier to learn a skill if similar movements have already been acquired.
o Transfer of learning:
 Lateral transfer: transfer of one task to a similar task. E.g., backhand in
squash  backhand in tennis.
 Vertical transfer (may be more difficult): mastering a lower order task as a
foundation for something with greater difficulty within the same activity. E.g., learn
dolphin kick using kick-board  learning butterfly.
 Example: good basketballer  netball/gymnastic  diving.

– Ability:
o Ease in which an individual is able to perform a movement routine.
o Learn, process and implement new skills.
o Incorporates: sense, acuity (sharpness), perception, reaction time and intelligence.

 The Learning Environment:

– Nature of skill:
 Open and Closed Skills:
o Open skills occur in an environment that is unpredictable and frequently changing.
o Uncertainty about how to perform the skill will be due to:
 Changing weather.
 Player affected service.
o Outcome is the players need to modify their techniques to adapt to the instability.
o Open skills can be difficult for learners; causes distractions, indecision and even
annoyance.
o Closed skills occur in an environment that is suitable and predictable.
o Much more conducive to skill learning because environment can be planned well in
advance. E.g. ball in the ten-pin bowling.
o Few skills can fit perfectly into open or closed categories. Most can be placed on a
continuum that illustrates a progression from closed to open.

 Gross Motor and Fine Motor Skills:

o Gross motor skills require the use of large muscle groups for execution.
o Commonly found in team games and many competitive and recreational activities. E.g.
bush walking.
 E.g. GMS = running, leaping, diving, tackling.
o Fine motor skills require the use of only small muscle groups to perform the movement.
o Found in activities requiring finesse and limited movement.
 E.g. FMS = typing, tying shoe laces, writing.
 In sport = catching in cricket, playing darts, serving in table tennis.

 Discrete, Serial and Continuous Skills:

o Discrete skills have a distinctive beginning and end.
 E.g. forward roll = begins with placement of hands on mat  ends with rolling to
feet.
o Serial skills involve a sequence on seperate smaller movements that are assembled to
make a larger complex/total skill.
 E.g. kick in football (breakdown in moves) = 1. Place, 2. Swing back, 3. Kick.
  lay up in basketball, which combines dribbling, catching, jumping and shooting.
o Continuous skills have no distinct beginning or end. A continuous skill repeats a specific
movement over and over again, such as running.
® E.g. swimming, jogging, rowing.

 Self-paced and externally paced skills:

o Self-paced are movements where the performer determines time and speed.
 E.g. serving tennis ball, player kicking penalty goal.
o Externally-paced are movement for which an external source controls the
timing/judged.
 E.g. dancing because music, goalkeeper catching penalty kick.
– The performance elements:
o Develop proficiency through:
 Game centred approach
 Focuses on the whole game.

 Decision-making:
o DM is best improved by having to make decisions in performance like situations.
o Productive decision-making is best achieved through:
1. Observation: coaching boards and demonstrations to reveal panned strategies.
 Observations of the other players and the movement on the field.
2. Questioning: highlighting options and have players work through game-like situations.
 E.g. when moving objects around a coaching board, players can ask questions like
‘what to do if opponent moved here?’.
3. Whole, part, whole approach:
 (whole) strategies are taught as a whole for athletes to see overall plan.
 (part) following that, individuals learn their roles.
 (part) learner walks through moves initially to acquire where to be.
 (part) build up to a game situation will be gradual.
 (whole) the strategy should be assembled and practiced against an opponent.
4. Variation:
 During training, it is important to explore variations.
 Allows for more innovative and imaginative options.
5. Creativity:
 More productive in developing decision making skills.
 Able to identify problems and solve them.

 Strategic and tactical development:

o Strategic: refers to the way we play, where we should be, what to do.
o Tactical awareness: utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent. E.g. using a
cut pass in rugby.
o Drills and mini games enhances tactical awareness.
o Built on the following principle:
1. Technical efficiency: utilise correct technique in execution of skills. This enhances
consistency.
2. Understanding: need to fully understand what is required, options and variations
possible.
3. Skilful execution: strategies work properly only if practised in training drills that
replicate game like situations. This is best enhanced by invasive/part-invasive game
play.

– Practice method:
o Learning environment is affected by routines training to teach particular skills (practice
methods).
 Massed and distributed practice:
o Help to teach skills more effectively.
o Massed: continuous practice session, with rest intervals being shorter than the practice
intervals.
 E.g. gymnast learning handstand until fatigue.
o Massed works best when:
 Highly motivated.
 Fresh.
o Distributed: spaced practice  broken practice session, intervals of rest or alternative
activities being longer than practice intervals.
o Distributed practice has short periods of practice with longer breaks from the
skill rehearsal, which can be rehearsal of another skill or a break for feedback. It is
often used for less skilled and less motivated athletes and is helpful in teaching
boring skills, such as passing a basketball. This practice method can also be used
for the more difficult skills that need to be broken up, or when lots of feedback is
necessary.
 E.g. gymnast practices a handstand over a number of sessions or on different occasions
during the one session.
o Distributed:
 When performer lacks interest.
 Task is difficult.
 Motivation is low.
 Task causes fatigue.

 Whole and part practice:

o Whole practice: is applied when a skill is practiced in its entirety. often used for discrete
and continuous skills. This practice method is good for teaching swimming or running.
o Part practice: applied when a skill is broken into smaller components and each discrete
subskill is practiced separately before joining together . It is often used for teaching serial
skills that have smaller skills that make up the larger skill, such as a basketball layup.
 E.g. basketball lay-up.
 E.g. softball hit (whole), hitting ball entirety (part) taught in components: 1.
Stance, 2. Grip, 3. Swing, 4. Follow through.

– Feedback:
o Info provided to learner about nature or result of their performance.
o Feedback is important in the learning process  provides guidance.
o Types include:
 Internal
 External
 Concurrent
 Delayed
 Knowledge of result
 Knowledge of performance
o Relationship between feedback and performance is IMPORTANT:
 If action is highly unsuccessful, then feedback should suggest that the learner
substitute or replace the action.
 If action is unsuccessful, feedback should suggest modifying the action.
 If action is successful, then feedback should suggest repeating action.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

FEEDBACK
 Internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic):
o Internal: normal consequence of performing a skill.
o Feelings and sensory info e.g. seeing the ball and hearing the sound of ball hitting
bat.
o Some feedback during execution of the skill.
o Internal – develop kinaesthetic sense: eventually can differentiate between skilful
and error.
o External: feedback other than which occurs as a normal consequence of
performing a skill.
o Includes:
 Suggestions from the coach.
 Video replays.
 Judge scores.
 Race results.

 Concurrent (continuous) and delayed:

o Concurrent: received during the performance of a skill.
o Occur simultaneously with skill execution.
o Delayed: received after the skill has been executed.
o Period of time between skill execution and feedback.
 E.g. basketball throw  successful/unsuccessful  received ball enters or misses.

 Knowledge of results and knowledge of performance:

o Knowledge of results: info about the outcome of a movement.
o How successfully the skill was performed.
o It is always external.
 E.g. how many goals were scored after attempts.
o Knowledge of performance: info about the pattern of the movement during execution. 
More specific to the way in which the skill is performed.
o May come from internal and external sources.
o Works best if it is immediate and reinforces correct skill execution.
 E.g. angle of elbow during pull phase of butterfly swim.
o Practical:
 Progressive score
 Provide coaching to assist technique.

 Assessment of skill and performance:

– Characteristics of skilled performers (TACK):
o Marked difference between a skilled and unskilled performer.

 Kinaesthetic sense:
o Skilled performer = well developed kinesthesis.
o Kinaesthetic sense – allows them to feel the movement as they perform it.
 o Inexperienced performers make mistakes.
o Improved kinesthesis is a direct result of practice.
 E.g. remarkable kinesthesis = Michael Jordan.

 Anticipation:
o Skilled performers can better predict what may happen in specific situations e.g.
direction of a pass, direction opponent may move.
o Particularly important in externally paced activities  fast movement and
decision making are necessary e.g. rugby, soccer (gk catching penalties), tennis.

 Consistency:
o Skilled = much more consistent than unskilled.
o Easy to observe in games such as tennis – more consistent rallies more regularly.

 Technique:
o Procedure or practical method applied to a particular task.
o Better technique = inc. success, inc. aesthetics, only using energy when required, inc.
levels.
 E.g. enables tennis players to serve at high speeds.

– Objective and subjective performance measure:

o Subjective observation: judgement of performance quality based on feelings, impressions or
opinions rather than measurement (less accurate).
o Objective observation: measurement/test is independent of observer e.g. stopwatch, tape
measures.
 Easily measured = sprint, high jump.
 Judo, fencing = require expert interpretation.
 Football = still objective but not to same extent  judgement made by
qualified professional.
o 2 judges rating diving, may disagree = subjective.
o To make more objective:
 Checklists.
 Measurement systems e.g. measuring tapes.
 Established criteria e.g. rules/guidelines.
 Rating scales e.g. degree of difficulty sheet.

– Validity and reliability of sources:

o Validity tests what it needs to test-is the honesty of a test – that is, the degree to which it
measures what it is supposed to measure (test = valid  it tests what it needs to test).
 E.g. testing leg strength = standing long jump NOT bicep curl.
o Establishing validity is about:
 Determining the strength of a relationship between a performance
component (e.g. strength) and a test designed to assess the component (e.g.
the handgrip dynamometer).
o The techniques commonly used to inc. validity of a test include:
 Judgements about the test items.
 Using already validated but similar tests as an indicator.
 Accuracy in prediction = reliable indicator of future performances.
 Ensuring test items contain the component being validated.
 o Reliability: tests must also be reliable. This refers to the degree of consistency of a
test  It is the ability of the test and the tester to produce the same results on
successive occasions (if someone repeats the same test they will achieve same/similar
results).
 E.g. 50m sprint is a reliable test if done under same conditions e.g. grass 
done more than once will see similar results.
o To make a test reliable – ensure the test is taken under the same conditions and
in the same environment.

– Personal v. prescribed judging criteria:

o Personal criteria: preconceived ideas or expectations that an individual brings to judge a
performance.
o Frequently used by coaches to select a team for the following week based on this week’s
performance.
o Spectators use personal criteria when evaluating danced performances.
o Prescribed criteria: are established by a sports organisation or body and form the basis of
assessment for competitions in that sport/activity.
o Appraisal is a judgement about the quality of something or somebody.