SPRINGBOARD ACADEMY 1

Science & Technology Notes

 NANO TECHNOLOGY
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 SPACE TECHNOLOGY
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 DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY
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 TELE-COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
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 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
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 BIO TECHNOLOGY
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 ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY

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NANO TECHNOLOGY

EXA (1018) DECI (10-1) -

PETA (1015) CENTI (10-2) -

TERA (1012) MILI (10-3)

GIGA (109) MICRO (10-6) - Bacteria, RBC

MEGA (106) Virus (10-7)

KILO (103) NANO (10-9) - DNA, CNT

HECTO (102) Size of atom (10-10)

DECA (101) PICO (10-12)

FEMTO/FERMI (10-15) - Size of

nucleus

 Nano is a Greek term which means Dwarf

 Technically Nano refers to 10-9
 Nano scale : 1-100 nm (10-9 m – 10-7 m).
 That stream of technology in which
 matter is studied at Nano scale &
 various applications are developed by changing its structure at
atomic/molecular level.
 Nano technology term was given by Japanese scientist Norio Taniguchi in
1974.
 Father of nanotechnology – Richard Feynman

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Types of approaches in Nano Technology

 Why nano technology is called future technology ?

1. Nano technology enables to breach the limits of macro scale and enters into
nano scale. At this scale whole new characteristics
(Electrical/mechanical/optical properties) of matter are encountered.
(Due to drastic increment in surface to volume ratio).
2. At nano scale laws of conventional physics become insignificant and
quantum laws come into effect. This allows to overcome the limitations of
conventional physics.
3. At nano scale structure defines the properties of matter. Thus by changing
the structure, specific characteristics can be developed in the material.
Important facts
 1959 – American scientist Richard Feynman gave a lecture -
―There is a plenty of room at the bottom‖
In this Feynman described that how science can be given a new dimension
by the process of manipulating individual atoms/molecules.
 2006 – James Tour at Rice University developed Nano car which consists of
4 bucky balls/ Buckminster fullerene molecules and has ability to move in
blood.

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Nano urea –
 Developed by IFFCO
 World‘s first Nano urea liquid
 High efficiency (80%) and minimal environmental effect

 NanoSniffer - Developed by NanoSniff Technologies. It can detect even

nano gram quantities of all type of explosives in less than 10 seconds. (Based
on Micro-Electromechanical System)
 Intelligent medicine (smart drugs) : These will act only on malfunctioning
tissues/cells. Therefore side effects of drugs will be minimized &
Effectiveness will increase. (Targeted drug delivery)
 Bio – NEMS (Nano electro mechanical Systems) :- These are special type
Nano bots & robots which can be inserted in body without operation & they
will treat the desired tissue/cell.
 Cancer Therapy : Quantum dots will identify the cancer cells & then Nano
robots will destroy them precisely.

 Graphene, CNT are being used in development of Flexible, bendable,

foldable electronics.
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 Nano Bulb :- Developed by CSIR scientists which is more efficient than

LEDs
 Paper/Nano towel – nano fabric made up of nano wires of potassium
manganese oxide, can absorb 20 times its weight in oil, used in oil spillage.

Cordy gold nanoparticles –

 Developed by Indian scientists
 These nanoparticles, are obtained from Cordyceps militaris (fungus) and
gold salts
 It could make drug delivery in the human body faster and surer.
 Got international patent from Germany.
 Gray goo : Self-replicating ability of nano bots can be dangerous. (Xenobots -
world‘s first living robots that can replicate itself)
 Nano Litterbugs : Those nano particles which are non-degradable. These
will cause environment pollution.

Nano mission of India

 Nano science & technology initiative was started by Department of science
and technology in year 2001. It continued till 2006.
 In 2007 Nano science & technology mission (NSTM) was started by Dept. of
science and technology.
 Dept. of science and tech works as nodal agency for NSTM whereas Nano
mission council is created for execution of this mission.
 Two advisory groups are created to assist the council :-
1. Nano Science advisory group
2. Nano application & technology advisory group
 Chairperson of Nano Mission Council : Bharat Ratna Professor C.N.R. Rao
(Father of nanotechnology in India)
 NSTM was started in two phases –
i. 2007-12
ii. 2012 afterwards
 A Budget of 1000 cr. & 650 cr. was allotted for NSTM.

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Objectives of NSTM
1. Development of infrastructure (Excellence centers, Labs, equipment‘s)
2. Provide financial assistance to the institutions working in field of NST and
promote private sector & PPP in NST field.
3. Promote R&D in NST field.
4. Skill development and training of human resource in NST field.
5. Promote Academy Industry partnership for the development of applications
in NST field.
6. Establish international cooperation in NST field.
 Under NSTM 19 center of excellence are established in 14 institutes across
India. In which 11 are for nano science & 7 for Nano tech & 1 for material
science. Some of them are – IIT Bombay, Madras, Delhi, Kanpur, BHU, IISc,
and TIFR

Other Institutions –
 CSIR (council of scientific & Industrial research)
 Institute of Nano science & technology, Mohali (Punjab)

 64 mission mode projects were started under NSTM.

 More than 23000 research papers were published in field of NST & at
present India is 3rd in publishing research papers on NST in the world.
(U.S.A., China, India)
 Under NSTM International cooperation & research in NST field is promoted
with countries like Germany, Japan, Russia and Italy.
 The international conference on Nano science & Nano technology
(ICONSAT 2020) was held in India (Kolkata) in march 2020.

Some important Nano materials –

Graphene
 Crystalline allotrope of carbon
 Structure : Hexagonal ring (2D)
 High strength & flexible

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 Colour : almost transparent

 Conductivity : conductor of both
electricity & temperature (free e-)
 Use :- In solar cells, In micro
electronics, in foldable displays, In
Kevlar

Carbon nano tube

 It is a single walled cylindrical structure made of carbon‘s crystalline
allotrope graphene with a diameter of nanometer scale.
 It has property of high strength with high resilience.
 It has very high length to diameter ratio 132000000 : 1
 Uses – Polymers, Tennis rackets, Flat screen display, Nano electronics, Anti-
seismic Buildings.

Buckminster fullerene
 Most common form of carbon‘s Crystalline
allotrope fullerene (C60-70)
 Structure : Pentagonal or hexagon hollow
spherical (football alike-bucky balls)
 Hard substance
 Use :- In superconductivity, In purification
of natural gases, In manufacturing light
weight batteries
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Quantum dots
 When size of semiconductor material particles is reduced to nano scale then
special optical & electronics properties appear.
 These nano sized particles are called quantum dots.
 The first artificial synthesis of quantum dots was done by scientists at MIT
in 1993.
 Use – Solar cell, cancer therapy

Carbon Quantum Dots

 Carbon-based nanomaterials
 Remarkable optical properties, inexpensive, highly biocompatible,
environment-friendly.
 Use – Drug delivery, detecting cancer cells, Aquatic pollutant detection

Generations of Nano technology

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SPACE TECHNOLOGY

Brief History
There are three main ways to study space:-
1. Study space while staying on earth
2. Study space by studying radiations & objects coming from space
3. Study space by sending human or any machines into space
 October 1957 Sputnik 1 satellite was launched by USSR. It was the first
manmade satellite launched in space.
 November 1957 Sputnik 2 satellite was launched by USSR. A dog named
Lyka was sent to space in it.
 April 1961 Yuri Gagarin of USSR was the first human to go into space. (By
Vostok-1).
 1963 Valentina Tereshkova of USSR was the first woman to go into space. (By
Vostok-6).
 October 1958 NASA (National Aeronautics & Space Administration) was
founded by USA.
 1961 Apollo program was started by NASA. Under this in 1969 Apollo-11,
Buzz Aldrin and Neil Armstrong were sent to moon. Neil Armstrong became
the first ever human to step on moon.
 1962 INCOSPAR (Indian National Committee for Space
Research) was constituted. It was headed by Dr.
Vikram Sarabhai who is also known as the father of
space research in India.

 1962 Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station

(TERLS) was established.
 November 1963 India‘s first sounding rocket (testing
rocket) named Nike-Apache was launched from TERLS.
 15 August 1969 Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) established.
 1972 Space Commission was constituted & Department of Space was
established.
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 1975 India successfully launched its 1st experimental satellite Aryabhata with
the help of USSR.
 1979 India Launched the first experimental remote sensing satellite Bhaskar-
1 with the help of USSR.
 1980 Indigenously built satellite Rohini series-1 (RS-1) was successfully
launched from Satish Dhawan Space Center Sriharikota by indigenously
developed launch vehicle SLV-3.
 1982 communication satellite named INSAT-1A was launched with the help
of NASA. This launch was unsuccessful.
 1983 INSAT-1B was successfully launched with the help of NASA.
 1984 Rakesh Sharma became the first Indian to go into space. (with the help
of USSR)
 1987 ASLV was successful launched.
 1988 India launched its first remote sensing satellite IRS-1A with the help of
USSR.
 1994 PSLV was successfully launched.
 2001 GSLV was successfully launched.
 2008 ISRO successfully conducted it's first interplanetary mission
Chandrayaan-1.
 2013 Successful launch of IRNSS-1A, the first satellite of the indigenous
navigational system NAVIC.
 2013 Successful launch of Mangalyaan (Mars Orbiter Mission)
 2014 India successfully tested indigenously developed cryogenic engine.
 2016 RLV-TD was successfully tested
 2017 ISRO set a world record by successfully placing 104 satellites in a single
launch.
 2019 Chandrayaan-2 was launched. (partially successful)
 2023 SSLV was successfully launched

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Science & Technology Notes

Organisational structure

Institutions functioning under Department of space

 Physical research laboratory, Ahmedabad
1. Solar observatory, Lake Fateh sagar, Udaipur
2. Infrared observatory, Mount Abu
 National atmospheric research laboratory, Gadanki (Tirupati) Andhra
Pradesh
 North Eastern space applications Centre, Umiam (Shillong) Meghalaya
 Semiconductor laboratory, Chandigarh
 Indian Institute Of Space Science & Technology, Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala
 Indian Space Research Organization, Bengaluru Karnataka

Antrix, Bengaluru –
 Marketing & commercial arm of ISRO, deals with foreign customers.

New Space India Limited, Bengaluru –

 Commercial engagement and capacity building of domestic industries.
 Newly created ISRO‘s commercial arm ‖New Space India Limited‖
(NSIL) will mass-produce and manufacture the SSLV & PSLV in partnership
with the private sector in India through technology transfers.

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IN–SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) -

 Autonomous agency under Department of Space (DOS) created in June 2020,
 Function : To facilitate private sector participation; to promote, authorize and
supervise various space activities of the NGEs (Non-Governmental Entities).
 Space activities : building of launch vehicles & satellites; sharing of space
infrastructure and premises under the control of DOS/ISRO; establishment of
new space infrastructure and facilities.

Indian Space Research Organisation

 INCOSPAR was established as ISRO on 15 August 1969.
 Headquarter - Bengaluru
 Objective :- To use space technology and its applications for National interest
and development of nation.

Chairperson :-
1. 1969-1972 - Vikram Sarabhai
2. 1972 - M. G. K. Menon
3. 1972-1984 - Satish Dhawan
4. 1984-1994 - U R Rao
5. 1994-2003 - K. Kasturirangan
6. 2003-2009 - G. Madhavan Nair
7. 2009-2014 - K. Radhakrishnan
8. 2014-2018 - A.S. Kiran Kumar
9. 2018-2022 - K. Sivan
10.2022 - S. Somanath

Institutions functioning under ISRO

1. Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Thiruvananthapuram
Formerly known as ―TERLS".
Satellite launch vehicles PSLV GSLV are developed here.

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2. U R Rao satellite Centre, Bengaluru

Satellites & spacecrafts are developed here.

3. Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota Andhra Pradesh

Sriharikota high altitude range (SHAR)
It is launching site for Indian satellites. (near equator at eastern coast of
subcontinent)
2nd : Kulasekarapattinam, Tuticorin (TN)

4. Liquid propulsion systems Centre, Thiruvananthapuram - Bengaluru

It deals with design and development of solid and liquid propulsion
systems.

5. ISRO propulsion Complex, mahendragiri Hills, Tamil Nadu

Formerly known as liquid propulsion systems Centre.
It deals with development of upper stage liquid propellant and cryogenic
stage.

6. Master control facility, (Hassan Karnataka) (Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh) :- All

geostationary/geosynchronous satellites of ISRO are monitored &
controlled from this facility.

7. National Remote Sensing centre, Hyderabad

 data obtained from Remote Sensing satellites is stored & processed in this
facility along with various techniques and applications.
 NRSC has 6 Regional Centre – Dehradun, Jodhpur, Nagpur, Bengaluru,
kharagpur, Shillong.

8. Human space flight Centre, Bengaluru

Recently established under "Indian human spaceflight programme" for
implementation of Gaganyaan project.

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9. Indian deep space network, Byalalu Karnataka

It supports and establishes connection with interplanetary missions with the
help of "ISTRAC".

[Link] telemetry tracking & command network (ISTRAC)

 Global network of ground stations to provide telemetry tracking &
command support to satellite & launch vehicle missions.
 Centers in India - Port Blair, Thiruvananthapuram/Trivandrum,
Bengaluru, Sriharikota, Lucknow.
 Global stations – Mauritius, Indonesia, Brunei, Vietnam, Russia,
Norway, Panama.

[Link] applications centre, Ahmedabad - Delhi

[Link] Institute of Remote sensing, Dehradun Uttarakhand

Orbits of satellite
Orbit
 Imaginary path of any Celestial body or satellite, revolving around another
Celestial body is called orbit.

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Low Earth Orbit

 It is found between 160-2000 km altitude. Mainly 900-1000 km altitude is
used.
 Revolution period of satellite in this orbit is 90-128 minutes.
 It is mainly used for remote sensing satellites, but it can also be used for
communication as well as navigation satellites.
 It is also used for sounding rockets and testing satellites. i.e. Sputnik,
Aryabhatta, Bhaskar.
 International Space Station is also situated here (400 km, 15 revolution/day).
Polar orbit
 It is a special type of low Earth orbit.
 This orbit is parallel to the polar axis of Earth.

Sun synchronous orbit

 It is a special type of Low Earth orbit.
 The inclination of satellite's orbit remains constant wrt the Sun.
 Special use :- Earth Imaging (cartography)

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Mid earth orbit

 It is found between low Earth orbit (2000km) and geosynchronous orbit
(35786km).
 Mainly 20200 km altitude is used.
 Revolution period of satellite in this orbit is 2-24 hours.
 It is mainly used for navigation satellites. (GPS, GLONASS, GALILEO)

Geosynchronous orbit
 It is situated at altitude of 35786 km.
 In this orbit rotation period of Earth and Revolution period of satellite are
equal.
 Thus the revolution period of satellite is 1 day (23 hours 56 minutes 4 sec).
 It is mainly used for communication satellites, but navigation satellites might
also be launched here. (NAVIC/IRNSS)

Geostationary orbit
 It is a special type of Geosynchronous orbit.
 This orbit is parallel to the equatorial plane of Earth.
 In this orbit the satellite always seems to be stationary wrt the Earth.
 It is mainly used for communication satellites, but it can also be used for
navigation or remote sensing.

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Geosynchronous/Geostationary transfer orbit

 It is situated approximately 200 km below geosynchronous or geostationary
orbit.
 Initially communication satellite is launched in this orbit, and then it is
transferred to geostationary orbit.

Hohmann transfer orbit

 It is an elliptical orbit used to transfer a satellite from one circular orbit to
another.

Graveyard orbit
 It is situated at altitude of 36050 km. (Approximately 300 km above GEO).
 It is also known as junk/disposal orbit.
 It is used to resolve the problem of space waste or Space debris.
 Inactive/ retired/ out of order satellites are transferred in this orbit.

Karman Line
 The Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (FAI) defines the Kármán line
[100 km (62 mi)] as the boundary between Earth's atmosphere and space.
 The Karman line is the line by which the boundary between air travel and
space travel is also determined.
 The Karman Line was named after the Hungarian-American scientist
Theodore Von Karman.

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Propellant & cryogenic stage

Propellant
 Fuel and oxidizer are combinedly known as propellant
 Fuel + oxidizer = propellant
 The launch vehicle (rocket) works on the principle of
momentum conservation & Newton's third law: the
law of action and reaction.
 When fuel is burnt in presence of oxidizer, then a
large amount of pressurized hot gases are emitted in
downward direction thus launch vehicle gets thrust
in upward direction.

Types of propellant
1. Solid propellant
2. Liquid propellant
3. Cryogenic stage
Solid propellant
 Fuel : Hydroxyl Terminated Poly Butadine (HTPB)
 Oxidizer : Ammonium Perchlorate
Liquid propellant
 Lower Stage
 Fuel : Unsymmetric Dimethyl Hydrazine (UDMH)
 Oxidizer : Nitrogen Peroxide
 Upper Stage
 Fuel : Mono Methyl Hydrazine (MMH)
 Oxidizer : Oxides of Nitrogen
Cryogenic stage
 Fuel : liquid hydrogen (-253℃)
 Oxidizer : liquid oxygen(-183℃)

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Brief history of cryogenic engine

 1990 : An agreement was signed between ISRO & Glavkosmos regarding
transfer of cryogenic technology.
 1991 : USSR was disintegrated. India was not a signatory of MTCR, yet Russia
was, so the above agreement was canceled.
 1993 : New agreement was signed between India and Russia according to
which Russia will provide 7 cryogenic engines to India.
 1994 ISRO started "cryogenic upper stage project" in Mahendragiri
Tamilnadu
 2014 : India successfully tested indigenously developed cryogenic engine (
C.E.-7.5 ; C.E.-20 )
 India is 6th country in the world to have indigenously developed cryogenic
technology.
 ISRO's C.E. 20 is the most powerful cryogenic engine in the world so far.
(C.E. 25 under testing)

Benefits of cryogenic engine

1. It generates much higher amount of thrust (1.5-2 times) (deep space
mission, heavy satellites)
2. Hydrogen and oxygen, abundantly and readily available.
3. As byproduct water is obtained (hot pressurized steam). Therefore it is
more eco-friendly.
4. Dual use technology
Launch vehicles

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Satellite launch vehicle

 First generation launch vehicle.
 It was developed under leadership of Dr A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
 Its 1st test was conducted in 1979, which failed. Its 2nd test was conducted in
1980, which was successful.
 4 stage solid propellant was used in it.
 It was capable of carrying 40-50 kg satellite upto low Earth orbit.
 Rohini series satellites were launched through it.

Augmented satellite launch vehicle

 2nd generation launch vehicle.
 It was used between 1987-1994.
 5 stage solid propellant was used in it.
 It was capable of carrying 140-150 kg satellite up to low Earth orbit.
 Stretched Rohini series satellites (SRoSS) were launched through it.

Polar satellite launch vehicle

 Third generation launch vehicle.
 Main launch vehicle of a ISRO.
 It has been in use since 1994.
 4 stage propellant is used in it (solid, liquid, solid, liquid).
 S-139 engine (solid stage) & Vikas engine (liquid stage) are
used in it.
 6 strap on boosters are used in it, In which solid propellant is
used.

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Geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle

 4th generation launch vehicle
 Most powerful launch vehicle of ISRO.
 It has been in use since 2001.
 3 stage propellant is used in it (solid, liquid,
cryogenic)
 S-200 engine (solid stage), Vikas engine (liquid
stage) & C.E. 7.5 / C.E. 20 (cryogenic stage) are
used in it.
 4 strap-on boosters can be used in it, in which
liquid propellant is used.

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RLV (Reusable launch vehicle)

 Traditional launch Vehicles such as PSLV & GSLV can only be used once.
thus cost of launch increases and manned missions & frequent launch are not
possible.
 RLV is such launch vehicle, which re-enters the Earth's atmosphere after
launching the payload (satellite, spacecraft) into space and then lands at the
target location while withstanding excessive Heat & pressure.
 Thus RLV can be used for multiple launchings.
 In 2016 RLV-TD (Technology demonstrator) was successfully tested by ISRO.
 Scramjet engine is used in it.

SSLV (Small satellite launch vehicle)

 ―Baby rocket" of ISRO.
 3 stage solid propellant will be used in it.
Characterstics :-
1. Can be assembled in 15 days.
2. Capable of carrying small satellites (Micro, Nano) (500 kg upto LEO; 300 kg
upto SSO)
3. Capable of multiple orbital drop-offs
 successfully launched in 2023

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 Significance :-
1. Cost of launch will decrease
2. Frequent launch possible
3. Increament in Revenue.

NGLV (Next generation launch vehicle)

 Under development cutting edge launch vehicle of ISRO to replace PSLV.
 Expected development : 2030
 NGLV will use ‗semi-cryogenic‘ technology which is both efficient and cost-
effective.
 Capacity :-
 10 tonne – GTO ; 20 tonne – LEO

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Science & Technology Notes

 A semi-cryogenic engine uses refined kerosene instead of liquid hydrogen as

fuel.
 The liquid oxygen is used as an oxidiser.
 Advantage - Refined kerosene, which is lighter than liquid fuel and can be
stored at a normal temperature. It can enhance rocket‘s payload capacity
from 4-6 tonnes.
Satellite
Types of satellite
1. Remote sensing satellite
2. Communication satellite
3. Navigation Satellite
4. Space exploration satellite
Remote sensing satellite
 Gathering information about an object without coming into physical contact,
is called remote sensing.
 The satellites used for remote sensing are called remote sensing satellites.
 These are generally launched in low earth orbit where its revolution period is
90-128 min.
 Various types of cameras scanners & sensors are placed on remote sensing
satellite.
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Science & Technology Notes

Such as :-
1. line Imaging self screening camera
2. Wide field survey
3. Pan chromatic camera
4. Ocean color camera
5. very high resolution spectrometer/radiometer

Uses of remote sensing satellite -

1. Resource assessment (forest, desert, agriculture, water, ocean, minerals)
2. Weather research and forecasting
3. Disaster management (warning, assessment, search, rescue)
4. Urban planning
5. Rural development.
6. Surveillance & reconnaissance
 India launched its first remote sensing satellite, IRS-1A in 1988 with the help
of USSR. (Indian remote sensing satellite)
 Currently there are 17 operational/active remote sensing satellites of India.
Some of which are as below
1. ResourceSAT – for resource & minerals assessment
2. OceanSAT - for marine resource assessment
3. CartoSAT - for cartography and Earth Imaging
4. RISAT – For Earth observation
5. SARAL - joint venture of ISRO and CNES France, Satellite with Argos and
Altika, for oceanographic study.
6. EOS – Earth observation satellite
7. Metsat/kalpana 1 – Remote sensing satellite launched in geostationary
orbit (meteorological satellite), Weather forecasting, study of atmosphere

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Science & Technology Notes

Communication satellite
 Satellites used in communication process are
called communication satellites.
 These are generally launched in geostationary
orbit where its revolution period is 24 hours.
 There are transponders on communication
satellite which ensure communication via
Uplink & downlink.

Uses of communication satellite :-

1. Telecommunication
2. Television broadcasting
3. DTH Services
4. Tele education
5. Telemedicine

 India launched its first communication satellite INSAT-1B in 1983 with the
help of NASA. Launch of INSAT-1A in 1982 was a failure.
 INSAT and GSAT series satellites were launched under communication
satellites. (Indian National Satellite ; geostationary satellite )
 Currently India have 21 operational/active communication satellites.
 Some of which are as below :-
1. Angry Bird - for Air Force
2. Rukmani - for Navy
3. Gramsat - for Rural Development, telecommunication & tele education.
4. Edusat - for tele education

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Science & Technology Notes

Navigation satellite
 Satellite navigation is a system that uses satellites to determine the Geo-
spatial location of a subject.
 Latitude, longitude and altitude of subject can be detected through it.
 Minimum 4 satellites are required to detect 3-dimensional position of the
subject.
 Navigation system consists of three main
components –
1. Space segment (navigation satellite)
2. Control segment
3. User segment

 Navigation system provides 2 types of services :-

1. standard position service - for general public
2. Restricted service - for armed forces & important government offices.
 24 satellites are required for navigation all across the Earth.
 Navigation systems in the world
1. GPS - USA
2. GLONASS - Russia
3. Galileo - European Union
4. Beidou - China
5. NAVIC/IRNSS – India
6. QZSS – Japan

GPS (Global positioning system)

 Navigation system of USA.
 It is also known as ―NAVSTAR" (navigation satellite and ranging)
 It is controlled by US Air Force.

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Science & Technology Notes

 First satellite of GPS system was launched in 1978 & it became fully
operational in 1995.
 There are total 32 satellites in this system.
 These satellites are launched in mid Earth orbit (20000km)

NAVIC (IRNSS)
 Navigation with Indian constellation
 It is also known as IRNSS (Indian Regional navigation satellite system).
 India's Regional navigation system.
 It provides navigation services within 1500 km range from Indian borders.
 8 satellites are operational in this system
 3 in geostationary orbit
 4 in geosynchronous orbit
 Accuracy –
Civilian (5-20 m), military (0.5 m)
 Applications :-
1. Terrestrial, aerial and Marine navigation
2. Integration with mobile phones
3. Mapping

GAGAN
 GPS aided Geo augmented navigation system
 joint project of is ISRO and Airport Authority of India.
 GAGAN is a system consisting of satellites & ground stations, which
augment GPS signals and thus enhancing their quality & precision.
 Thus better Air traffic navigation services can be provided over Indian flight
information region.

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Science & Technology Notes

Space science satellite

Mainly 4 type of missions are launched to study space
1. Flyby mission :-
 In this Mission satellite passes near by a Celestial body and gathers
information.
 Example:- messenger mission of NASA for mercury
2. Orbiter :-
 In this Mission satellite revolves around a Celestial body and gathers
information
 Example- Chandrayaan, Mangalyaan of is ISRO.

3. Lander :-
 This Mission lands on the surface of a
Celestial body and gathers information
while being stationary at one place
 Example- Insight mission of NASA for
Mars.

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Science & Technology Notes

4. Rover :-
 This Mission moves on the surface of a
Celestial body and gathers information
 Example- Perseverance Rover of NASA for
Mars

Important Missions of India

Chandrayaan-1
 It was India's 1st interplanetary mission.
 It was launched on 22nd October 2008.
 On 29 August 2009 ISRO lost connection with it.
 It discovered water on Moon.
 It found the presence of lunar caves formed by lava flow.
 It studied effects of Apollo mission on surface of moon.

Chandrayaan -2
 It was launched by GSLV MK 3 on 22nd, July 2019 from Satish Dhawan space
centre Sriharikota.
 Objectives :-
1. Terrain mapping of surface of moon
2. Minerals assessment
3. Gather more information about presence of water on moon
This Mission consists of three parts
1. Orbiter :-
 It will revolve around Moon
 Contains 8 payloads

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2. Vikram lander :-
 It will land on Southern pole of moon in controlled manner
 contains 3 payloads
3. Pragyan Rover :-
 It will conduct experiments on surface of moon.
 Contains 2 payloads
 In the last moments of the mission ISRO lost connection with Vikram lander.
Although Orbiter will keep on functioning for 7.5 years.

Some important payloads on Orbiter-

1. Orbiter high resolution camera
2. Terrain mapping camera
3. Chandrayaan-2 large area soft x-ray spectrometer (CLASS)
4. Chandrayaan-2 atmospheric compositional Explorer (CACE)
5. Imaging IR spectrometer

Chandrayaan-3
 3rd lunar mission of India
 Follow up mission of chandrayaan-2
 It was launched by LVM-3 M4 on 14th July 2023 from Satish Dhawan space
centre Sriharikota.
 It contains Lander module (LM), Rover & Propulsion module (PM)
 budget - ₹ 615 (640) crore
 India will be 4th country in the world to achieve soft landing on surface of
moon (USA, Russia, & China).
 Objectives :-
1. Safe & Soft Landing on Lunar Surface
2. Rover roving on the moon surface
3. Conduct in-situ scientific experiments.
 Journey 42 days
 Expected landing – 23 Aug 2023

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 lander :-
 It will land on Southern pole of moon in controlled manner
 contains 3+1 payloads
 Rover :-
 It will conduct experiments on surface of moon.
 Contains 2 payloads

Mangalyaan
 Mars orbiter mission (MOM)
 It was launched on 5th November 2013 by PSLV-XL C25 from Satish Dhawan
space Centre sriharikota.
 It entered into Mars orbit on 24 Sept 2014.
 It is revolving around Mars in elliptical orbit with the revolution period of
around 77 hrs.
 India is 4th country in the world to achieve this success (USA, Russia, ESA)
 India got this success in 1st attempt and at very low cost.

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Science & Technology Notes

Astrosat
 It is an astronomical Observatory launched by ISRO in Low earth orbit (650
km) in September 2015.
 It is a Multi-wavelength Space Telescope which can study more than one type
of radiations at a time (cosmic rays, X-rays, ultraviolet rays)
 It is the world's first astronomical Observatory of such type. (multi-
wavelength)
 India is 5th country in the world to launch astronomical Observatory (USA,
ESA, Russia, Japan).

Gaganyaan
 It is ―Indian crewed orbital
spacecraft‖ developed under
―Indian human space flight
program‖.
 It is a manned mission of ISRO in
which 3-4 persons will be sent in
space (LEO 300-400 km) for 5-7
days.
 GSLV MK 3 will be used for it's
launching.
 A budget of 10000 crore Rupees is allocated for this Mission
 Expected launch year 2023
 Astronauts of India will be called Vyomnaut
Important Technologies used in Gaganyaan :-
1. Environmental control & life support system (ECLSS)
2. Crew module atmospheric re-entry experiment (care) spacecraft
3. Crew escape system

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Science & Technology Notes

Aditya L-1 mission

 A mission of ISRO for the study of the Sun.
 It will be launched by PSLV-XL in Halo orbit at Lagrangian point 1.
 Expected launch year 2023
Objectives:-
1. Study of Sun's Corona, chromosphere, Photosphere
2. Study of particles emitted from sun
3. Study of variation in magnetic field

NISAR
 Joint project of NASA and ISRO
 NASA ISRO synthetic aperture RADAR.
 World's most expensive earth imaging satellite till date.
 It uses microwaves for scanning (L-band, S-band)
 It will be launched in sun-synchronous orbit.
 Expected launch year – 2023
 Objectives :-
1. To study Earth & its evolution
2. To study climate change
3. Hazard management (Earthquake, Tsunami, Volcano, Landslides)

LASER Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory

 Built by : Department of Atomic Energy, Department of Science and
Technology with the U.S. National Science Foundation.
 Aim : to detect gravitational waves from the universe.
 Structure : 2 perpendicularly placed, 4-km long vacuum chambers with
mirrors at the end.
 Expected to begin scientific runs from 2030.
 Location: Hingoli district, Maharashtra
 Also at USA, Italy and Japan.
 The LIGO in the US first detected gravitational waves in 2015, which led to
a Nobel Prize in Physics in 2017.
Indian space station
 It will be launched in low earth orbit, 400 km
 Weight - 20 tonnes
 Use - space exploration & research
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 Expected launch – 2035

International space missions
MISSIMISSIONMIFFFN AGENCY OBJECTIVE
Luna ROSCOSMOSS Moon
Apollo NASA Moon
Viking NASA Mars
Voyager NASA Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune
Magellan NASA Venus
Cassini huygens NASA Saturn Titan
Hayabusa NASA, JAXA Asteroid
MessengerMessenger NASA NASA Mercury
Deep Impact NASA Comet
New horizon NASA Pluto
Juno NASA Jupiter
Curiosity rover NASA Mars
Maven NASA Mars
Insight lander NASA Mars
Parker soler probeParker SunSun
solar probe
NASA NASA
Chang‘e CHINA Moon
Al Amal / Hope (Orbiter) UAE Mars
Artemis program NASA Manned mission for moon
Asteroid Impact NASA Asteroid
Deflection Assessment
Atmospheric waves NASA Atmospheric layers
experiment
Perseverance (Rover) NASA Mars
TianwenTianwen China Mars
DART NASA Double Asteroid Redirection Test
OSIRIS – REx NASA Astroid (Dust sample)
Kepler space telescope NASA Find Exoplanets
(2009-2018)
Falcon SpaceX Reusable satellite launch vehicle
Shukrayan (2024) ISROSR Venus

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International Space Station

 It is an international project in which 5
space agencies have collaborated :-
1. NASA (USA)
2. ROSCOSMOS (Russia)
3. Jaxa (Japan)
4. European Space Agency
5. Canadian space agency.

 It provides residential facility for humans in space for the purpose of

laboratory Observatory & support station.
 It was launched in 1998.
 It is placed in Earth's orbit at an altitude of 400 km (Revolution period 92
minutes, 15-16 revolutions/day)
 Human is residing there since year 2000.
 It can be seen from Earth.
 It consists of two segments :-
1. United States orbital segment
2. Russian orbital segment

Tianguang 1,2
 Chinese space station
 Tianguang means ―Heavenly Palace‖.
 It was launched on Sept 2016

Mission Artemis
 NASA
 Series of manned missions to the moon
 Expected launch : 2024
 Female astronaut & person of colour will be sent to the moon
 Orion spacecraft will be used
 11 member countries – USA, UK, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan,
South Korea, Ukraine, Luxembourg, Italy, UAE

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Science & Technology Notes

Starlink project
 Starlink is SpaceX's ambitious project to provide low-cost and reliable space-
based internet.
 Under this project a total number of 42,000 satellites will be launched in low
earth orbit (550 km).
1. First phase - 12,000
2. second phase - 30,000

Concerns :-
1. Spacee Debris
2. Risk of collision with other satellites and space missions
3. Difficulty in space study

James Webb Telescope

 Successor of ―Hubble Space Telescope‖
 Launched in Dec 2021 at L-2 point.
 Largest space telescope in space.

Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite

 Launched by NASA in 2018
 Objective :- discovering exoplanets.

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Science & Technology Notes

Event Horizon telescope

 Event horizon :- Surrounding portion of black hole, which is so powerful that
nothing can escape through its gravitational pull.
 EHT - It is the Space Telescope Established by NASA in 2006 to study and
observe black holes and Event Horizon
 Recently EHT has captured an image of blackhole for the first time in history.

Space debris
 Potentially dangerous and useless objects in earth's orbit are called space
debris.
 These objects are either man-made or natural.
 It is also known as space junk or space waste.
 Those space debris which are larger than 3 inches in size; can be detected and
tracked by radar & Optical detectors.

Why space debris are dangerous

 Space debris are dangerous because they possess Excessive momentum due
to their extremely high speed (thousands of km/hr); which can cause serious
damage to spaceships, active satellites or International space station.
Kessler syndrome/effect
 According to NASA scientist Kessler - "once past a certain critical mass in
space (low Earth orbit), The total amount of space debris will keep on
increasing, as collisions will give rise to more debris and lead to more
collisions in a chain reaction".
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 Although many scientists believe in "Big Sky Theory" which states that "space
is huge and chances of collision are very less. Most of objects will drop back
down burning up in Earth‘s atmosphere and harmlessly falling in the ocean".
International laws
 There is no international law regarding regulation of space debris.
 "Outer space treaty 1967" prohibits placing weapons of mass destruction in
earth orbit.
Efforts
 [Link] :- space debris removal mission by European space agency
 Clean space initiative (ESA)
 Inter agency space debris coordination committee

Indian space policy 2023

 To promote Indian private players in space sector

 To boost India‘s participation in space economy –
 World space eco - $ 360 B
 Indian space eco – $ 1.6 B
 Targeted Indian space eco by 2030 - $60 B, 2 lakh jobs

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Science & Technology Notes

DEFENCE TECHNOLOGY

Missile & it’s types

 Types of missile on the basis of path
1. Cruise missile
2. Ballistic missile
Cruise missile Ballistic missile
Missile whose entire flight is self Such missile which is initially propelled
propelled and guided is called cruise & guided then it follows projectile path
missile. under gravity and hits its target.

It can be controlled during the flight. It can't be controlled after launch.

These are very difficult to detect. These are easy to detect.
Jet engines are used. Rocket engines are used.
These are generally Classified on the These are generally Classified on the
basis of speed. basis of range.
Example – BrahMos Example – Agni

Types of missile on the basis of Launch mode

1. Surface to Surface
2. Surface to Air
3. Air to Air
4. Air to Surface
5. Water to Water
6. Water to Surface/Air
Types of missile on the basis of range
1. short range
2. medium range
3. intermediate range
4. Intercontinental (5000 km)
Types of missile on the basis of Speed
1. Subsonic (speed less than 1 mach)
2. Supersonic ( 1-5 mach)
3. Hypersonic (speed more than 5 mach)

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Science & Technology Notes

Integrated guided missile development program (IGMDP)

IGMDP
 IGMDP was started in 1983 under leadership of Dr APJ Abdul Kalam. (2008)
 The responsibility of this program was given to DRDO.
 5 missiles were built under this – Prithvi, Agni, Trishul, Akash, Nag

Prithvi
 DRDO (IGMDP)
 Surface to Surface,
 Short range, Ballistic missile
 GPS based high-tech guidance system is used in it.
Prithvi 1 Prithvi 2 Prithvi 3
Army version Airforce version Navy version
Range : 150-250 km Range : 250-350 km Range : 350-600 km
Advanced version – Transferred to army in Also known as – Dhanush
Prahar, Pranash 2004
Now it is capable of
carrying nuclear warhead

Agni

 DRDO (IGMDP)
 Surface to surface,
 medium/intermediate range/Intercontinental, ballistic missile
 it is capable of carrying nuclear weapons/warheads.
 GPS based high-tech guidance system is used in it.

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Science & Technology Notes

Trishul
 DRDO (IGMDP)
 Surface to Air,
 Supersonic, Cruise missile
Range : 9 km
 Guidance system – Radio Altemeter

Akash
 DRDO (IGMDP)
 Surface to air
 Supersonic, Cruise missile
 Range : 30 km
 It is equipped with Command guidance system and Rajendra radar.

Nag
 DRDO (IGMDP)
 Anti tank guided missile
 Range : 4-9 km.
 Equipped with Infrared imaging guidance system, which is capable of
functioning at night.
 It is based on fire and forget technique.
 NaMiCa (Nag missile carrier ) is used for its ground transportation &
launching.
 Its Air version is called –
1. HeliNa (Helicopter Nag) (Indian Army) (Advanced version – SANT stand
off anti tank missile).
2. Dhruvastra (Indian Airforce).

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Other Important Missiles

BrahMos
 Joint Venture of India & Russia
 BrahMos name is derived from Brahmaputra & Moskva rivers.
 Supersonic cruise Missile
 Speed : 2.8-3 Mach
 Range : 290 Km
 Can be launched from anywhere surface, air, water
 Capable of carring Nuclear warhead
 World‘s fastest Anti-ship Cruise missile in operation.
 Exported to : Philippines

BrahMos-II
 Advanced version of BrahMos
 Long range Hypersonic Cruise Missile
 Range : 600-800 km
 Speed : 7-8 Mach
 Scramjet engine is used in it
 It is based on Fire & Forget technique

K-15 / Sagarika
 Developed by DRDO
 Submarine launched Ballistic missile
 It is deployed on Arihant Submarine
 Range : 750 - 1500 KM
 Conventional + Nuclear warhead
 India is 5th Country in the world to develop under water missile technology
 It’s advanced versions are under development -
1. K-4  Range : 2000 - 3500 KM (In production, deployed on Arihant)
2. K-5  Range : 5000 KM
3. K-6  Range : 8000 KM

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Science & Technology Notes

K series missiles –
 SLBM
 K – Kalam
 Faster, lighter, stealthier than Agni missile counterparts

Astra
 Developed by DRDO.
 Air to Air
 Supersonic cruise Missile
 Tactical Missile
 Range :
 Short Range – 20 KM
 Long Range – 80 KM
 Deployed on Sukhoi, Mig-29, Tejas & Rudra

Nirbhay
 Developed by DRDO.
 Long range Subsonic Cruise missile.
 Range – 1000 KM
 Speed 0.7-0.8 Mach
 Conventional + Nuclear warhead.

Shaurya
 Developed by DRDO.
 Long range Hypersonic Cruise missile
 Range : 1200 KM
 Speed : 7-8 Mach
 Capable of carring Nuclear Warhead
 Land version of K-15

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Surya
 ICBM under development by
DRDO.
 Range
 Surya 1 : 5000-8000 KM
 Surya 2 : 12000 KM
 Indigenous cryogenic engine is
used
 Capable of cNuclear Warhead)

Pinaka
 Multi barrel rocket launcher developed by
DRDO.
 It can Launch 12 rockets in 44 Sec
 Range
 Mark 1 : 40 KM
 Mark 2 : 60-75 KM
 Recently exported to Armenia

RudraM-I
 Developed by DRDO.
 first indigenous Anti-radiation missile.
 It can detect, track & target any radiation emitting sources like enemy radars,
communication sites & other Radio Frequency (RF) emitting equipment.
 Destroy jamming platforms, radar stations of the enemy, thereby clearing
path for own fighter jets & prevent own systems from being jammed.
 Range : upto 200 km
 speeds : 0.6-2 mach

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Science & Technology Notes

ASAT / Mission Shakti

 Joint program of DRDO & ISRO.
 Anti satellite system (ASAT) is missile based system to attack moving
satellites.
 India's ASAT missile successfully destroyed moving satellite in low earth
orbit (300km).
 India is 4th country in the world to acquire such capability (USA, Russia,
China 2007)

Barak 8
 Indo-Israeli, Long range, surface to air, cruise missile
 Capable of destroying aircrafts, helicopter, UAVs, ballistic missile, cruise
missile
 Range : 100 km
 Advanced version - Barak-8ER, range : 150 km

QRSAM
 Quick reaction surface to air missile
 Developed by DRDO
 Air defence system for Indian Army (replaced Akash air defence system)
 Range : 25-30 km
 360 degree coverage
 Capable of hitting several targets at once

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Science & Technology Notes

Varunastra
 Ship/submarine launched, Electrically propelled, Heavy weight torpedo
 Developed by DRDO
 Range : 40 km
 It can hit stealth submarines

Man Portable Anti Tank Guided Missile

 Developed by DRDO
 Light weight
 Portable
 Fire & forget technology based
 Equipped with infrared imaging technology

Agni prime
 Developed by DRDO
 Next generation advanced variant of Agni missile
 MRBM (Range : 1000-2000 km)
 Developed to replace Agni-1 & Agni-2
 Equipped with advanced guidance system & propulsion system
 Can be fired from mobile launchers

Pralay
 Developed by DRDO
 Surface to surface, Short range, Ballistic missile
 Range : 150-500 km
 India‘s 1st Quasi-ballistic missile
 State of the art guidance system is used
 It can be launched from a mobile launcher.

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Science & Technology Notes

Hypersonic Glide vehicle

Missile defence system

 Under the missile defense system, enemy missiles are detected & destroyed
before reaching their target.
 India‘s missile defense system has been developed only to thwart ballistic
missile attack.
Missile defence systems in the world
 USA - THAAD - Terminal High Altitude Area Defense
 RUSSIA - S400, S500
 ISRAEL - Iron Dome
 INDIA - Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Program ( PAD, AAD )

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Science & Technology Notes

S-400 / Triumf
 Imported from Russia.
 Russia‘s most advanced, long-range surface-to-air missile defence system.
 It can simultaneously track numerous incoming objects — all kinds of
aircraft, missiles and UAVs, in a radius of 400 km and launch appropriate
missiles to neutralise them.

Indian Army

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Science & Technology Notes

Kali 5000
 KALI (Kilo Ampere Linear Injector)
 Developed by BARC & DRDO.
 It is a Directed energy weapon Which will emit powerful pulses of electron
beam or LASER & destroy electronic system of enemy missiles & fighter
jets.

Indian Airforce

IMPORTED AIRCRAFTS & FIGHTER JETS

 MiG 21 – Russia, fighter jet
 MiG 27 - Russia, fighter jet
 MiG 29 - Russia, fighter jet
 Sukhoi 30 – Russia, supersonic fighter jet
 Mirage 2000 – France (Dassault), Supersonic fighter jet
 Rafale – France (Dassault), Supersonic fighter jet, 36 jets
 Jaguar – France & United Kingdom, attack aircraft
 Hawk – United Kingdom, trainer plane
 C 130 J Hercules – USA (Lockheed Martin), military transport
 C 17 Globemaster – USA (Boeing), military transport
 Apache – USA (Boeing), multi-mission attack helicopter, 22 helicopters
 Chinook – USA (Boeing), multi-mission airlift helicopter, 15 helicopters
 Mh-60r (Romeo) Helicopter - USA (Lockheed Martin), Multirole All Weather
Helicopter, 24 Helicopter

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Science & Technology Notes

INDIGENOUS AIRCRAFTS
 LCA Tejas :-
 Light combat aircraft
 Development started in 1983
 Developed by Hal (Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited)
 Single engine, multirole, supersonic
fighter jet
 Introduced in IAF in 2016
 It replaced MiG 21
 World's lightest one engine one seat fighter jet
 Production of Tejas mk2 is expected by 2025–26 (GEN 4.5)

INDIGENOUS HELICOPTERS
Dhruv :-
 Advanced light helicopter
 Developed by HAL
 Use - transportation & utility
Rudra :-
 Advanced light helicopter
 developed by HAL
 combat version of Dhruv
 Nag (Dhruvastra) and Astra are deployed on it
LCH Prachand
 Light combat helicopter
 Developed by HAL
 Multirole, long range
 High altitude warfare (5000m)
 Shakti engine (HAL) is used
 A2A, A2S missiles are deployed

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IMPORTED UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE

Searcher :-
 Imported from Israel
 Use – Reconnaissance & surveillance, Intelligence gathering
Heron :-
 Imported from Israel
 Use - Reconnaissance & surveillance, Intelligence gathering
MQ-9B
 Also known as Predator drone .
 It is a variant of MQ-9 Reaper drone.
 Can carry 5 tonne warhead
 Fly over 40000 ft
 Endurance – 40 hrs
 Use – land & marine surveillance, Anti surface & anti submarine warfare,
electronic warfare
 2 types
1. SeaGuardian – Indian navy is already using it
2. SkyGuardian – purchase in process

INDIGENOUS UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE

Lakshya, Abhyas :-
 Developed by DRDO
 Use – training & target practicing

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Nishant :-
 Developed by DRDO
 Use - reconnaissance and
surveillance, intelligence gathering
Rustom :-
 Developed by DRDO (ADE)
 Use - reconnaissance and
surveillance, intelligence gathering
DRDO Archer

DRDO TAPAS

Netra :-
 Developed by DRDO & Idea Forge
 Use - reconnaissance and surveillance, intelligence gathering
 Equipped with night vision camera

DRDO GHATAK :-
 Project Aura
 UCAV (Unmanned Combat Aerial
vehicle)
 Stealth Combat Drone
 Being developed by DRDO (2025)
 Kaveri Engine may be used
 Deep penetration strike (missiles,
bombs), strategic reconnaissance,
Electronic warfare

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Indian navy

Nuclear powered Submarin

Arihant class [4] :-
1. INS Arihant -
 Indigenously developed (BARC,
DRDO)
 Commissioned in August 2016
 83 MW pressurized water reactor
engine
 k-15 (Sagarika), k-4 missiles are
deployed on it.
2. INS Arighat

Chakra class :-
1. INS Chakra -
 Leased from Russia for 10 years in 2012
 Also known as Nerpa/Akula class
 Returned to Russia in 2021

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Diesel powered Submarine

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Aircraft Carrier
INS Vikramaditya :-
 Aircraft carrier imported from Russia
 It's Russian name was Admiral Gorshkov
 commissioned in Indian Navy in 2013
 It can carry 34 aircraft
 It can accommodate 1750 soldiers.

INS Vikrant :-
 Indigenous aircraft carrier
 Build by Cochin shipyard ltd
 30 aircrafts & helicopters
 1600 navy personnel

INS Vishal :-
 Under construction
 Indigenous aircraft carriers

INS Virat :-
 Imported from Britain
 Commissioned in Indian Navy in 1987
 Decommissioned in 2017

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TELE-COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY

Input Signal –
 That information which is to be transmitted.
 Ex – Text, audio, picture, video, other file.
Transducer –
 That equipment through which input signal is converted into electrical signal
or electrical signal is converted into output signal.
Modulator –
 It superimposes electric signal on high frequency carrier waves. The process
of superimposition is called Modulation.
Transmitter –
 It has an antenna which transmits signal in medium/channel.
Receiver –
 It has an antenna which catches signals from medium/channel.
Demodulator –
 It separates electric signal from carrier waves. This process is called
Demodulation.
 A device named ―Modem‖ is used for modulation and demodulation.

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Types of Electric Signal

Analog Digital
 It is a continuous signal in which  It is a discrete signal in form of 0 &1,
sudden changes does not occur. in which sudden changes do occur.
 Simple in nature.  Complex in nature.
 Low quality.  High quality
 Noise is higher.  Less Noise
 Energy loss high.  Energy loss low.
 Representation – Sine Wave.  Square wave

Optical fiber
 It is made of silica (Si) or glass or plastic.
 Digital signals are transmitted in it in form of light.
 It functions on principle of total internal reflection of light.
 Quality of transmission is good in optical fiber.
 It can be used for long distance communication because energy loss is
negligible.

Structure of optical fiber

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 Core :- Core is the most inward part of optical fiber in which signal is
propagated.
It is madeup of glass/plastic.
The refractive index of core is higher than cladding, therefore total internal
reflection of light signal could happen.
 Cladding :- Cladding is outer layer of core whose refractive index is less than
core (Less density).
 Buffer :- Buffer separates case and cladding from parts.
 Jacket :- Jacket is the outer most layer of optical fiber which protects it from
outer dangers.

Wireless communication
 Wireless communication is done by Electro-Magnetic Waves.

Electomagnetic Spectrum
 The range of frequency of Electro magnetic waves is called spectrum.

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Sky Wave Communication

 Ionosphere is used in sky wave transmission.
 Transmitted Radio waves are repeatedly reflected between Ionosphere &
Earth and reach to receiver.
 3-30 MHz frequency waves are used in it.
 Example – Radio

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Space wave communication

 In this communication, waves travel
from transmitting antenna to receiver
antenna, directly in atmosphere or by
reflecting from Earth‘s surface and
troposphere.
 It is a line of sight communication.
 30 – 300 MHz frequency is used.
 Example – F.M

Satellite Communication

 In this communication waves are transmitted towards Geo-Stationary

satellite.
 Transmitted waves are received by satellite through Up-Link.

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Transponders on satellite amplify these waves.

These amplified waves are then transmitted towards receiver station on earth
through down link.
 Microwave frequency is used in it-
 S band = 2-4 GHz
 C band = 4-8 GHz
 X band = 8-12 GHz
 Ku Band = 12-18 GHz - DTH
 Ka Band = 27-40 GHz

Wi-Max, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, NFC, Li-Fi

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Li-fi (Light fidelity)

 Visible Light Communication (VLC) system
 Frequency : 380 - 780 nm
 Speed : About 1 Gbps
 Range : 10 m
 Required equipment : LED bulb, photo detector, lamp/LED driver
 Better privacy, more secure, High speed

Types of communication system on the basis of Range

 PAN (Personal Area Network) :-
Network which connects ICT devices present in a room
 LAN (Local Area Network) :-
Network which connects ICT devices present in an Institution/Building
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) :-
Network which connects ICT devices present in a city

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WAN (Wide Area Network) :-

 Network which connects ICT devices present
in a very large area (state, country,
Intercontinental)

Mobile Communication
 Each mobile subscriber is connected to a tower.
Tower is also called BTS (base Trans-receiver
station).
 The area covered by the tower is called cell. The
shape of cell is hexagonal.
 These tower are connected to Main switching
center (MSC).

Techniques of using spectrum

1. FDMA
2. TDMA
3. CDMA
4. OFDM

FDMA
 Frequency division multiple access
 In this frequency band is divided into various channels & then each
subscriber is allotted a particular channel.
 This is the simplest technique but
 Its capacity is limited.

TDMA
 Time division multiple access
 In this frequency band is allocated to each subscriber for a specific time.
 Its capacity is comparatively better.
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CDMA
 Code division multiple access
 In this subscriber is not allocated any specific frequency channel or specific
time. But available entire spectrum us used.
 The information from each subscriber/user is transmitted in form of codes.

OFDM
 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
 It is advanced technique of communication in which information signals from
various subscribers are overlapped and modulated in orthogonal pattern so
that interference does not occur
 Thus a lot of information can be transmitted simultaneously.
 Use – 4G, 5G, Wi-Max

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Generations of mobile communication

1. 1G
2. 2G
3. 3G
4. 4G
5. 5G

1G
 Mobile communication was started by Japanese Company ‗NTT‖. In decade
of 80‘s its commercial use was begun in USA.
 In this generation FDMA technique was used.
 In this generation analog signals were used.
2G
 It started in 1991 with launch of GSM services.
 In this generation TDMA technique was used.
 In this generation digital signals were used.
 Text & voice call services were provided in it.
2.5G
 In this generation GPRS (General radio packet service) technique was used
which made use of internet possible.
 It had speed of 56-115 kbps.

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 It enabled the use of Normal value added services. Such as – downloading

wallpapers, ringtones.
2.75 G
 In this generation EDGE (Enhanced data rates for GSM evolution) technology
was used &
 speed was increased upto 384 Kbps.
3G
 In this generation for data services, packet switching was used instead of
circuit switching. Still voice call services were kept on circuit switching
 In this generation HSPA (High speed packet access) technique was used.
 which increased speed upto 100 Mbps
4G
 In this generation packet switching is used for both data services as well as
voice call services.
 It is called long term evolution (LTE).
 In this generation OFDM technique was used
 which increased speed upto 1Gbps

5G
 Fifth generation of wireless mobile communication.
 It is based on IEEE Std 802.11ac
 Its final parameters will be determined by ITU.
 Speed : 1-10 Gbps
 Use : HD Video, HD games, Artificial intelligence, Internet of things.
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National digital communication policy

1. Investment of $ 100 B will be attracted in telecom sector
2. 40 lakh employment opportunities will be generated.
3. Providing 50 Mbps data speed broadband connectivity to each person.
4. Provide 1Gbps connectivity to all Gram panchayats till 2020 and upto 10
Gbps connectivity till 2022.
5. Constitute National fibre authority & construct National digital grid
6. Increase the contribution of digital communication in GDP from 6% (2017) to
8%
7. To include India among top 50 countries in ICT Development Index
(International Communication Technology development index)

Telecom regulatory Authority of India

 Established in 1997 under TRAI act
 Structure : 1 chairperson + 4 members
 Appointment : by Govt of India
 Tenure : 3 years, Reappointment possible, after retirement can't hold office of
profit
 Chairman : P.D. Vaghela
 Regulation and development of telecom sector

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INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Basics of Computers
Computer
 Computer is an electronic machine which
generates required information/output by
processing of input data according to series of
given commands/instructions (program).

Main components of Computer

1. Hardware
2. Software

Hardware
 The components of computer which are
visible & which can be touched.
 It can be divided in following categories -
1. Input devices
2. Processing Unit
3. Memory
4. Output Devices

Software
 Software is a series of instructions which
activates hardware to perform a specific task
in a particular order.
 Mainly it is of 3 types -
1. Operating System / System software
2. Application Software
3. Programming Software

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Input Devices
 Those devices by which instructions are provided to computer that how and
what task to do.
 Example – key board, mouse, joystick, touch screen, scanner, webcam,
microphone.

Processing Unit
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) consist of Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and
Control Unit (CU).
 It processes the instructions given by user and generate the output result.
 It is also called brain or heart of computer.

Memory
 It is information storage area of computer. Some instructions are also stored
in it which are helpful in processing of CPU.

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Primary / Main memory

 It is electronic memory placed in computer system unit.
 Data, instructions & instantaneous results are stores in it.
 It has low memory capacity but high processing speed.
Random access Memory (RAM)
 When computer is started (switched on) some operating system files, basic
programs and data are loaded in RAM.
 The instructions/commands & data given by user to the computer are
stored in RAM and are sent accordingly to other parts.
 Data stored in RAM is temporary, which is lost after turning off computer.
Therefore for future use that data has to be saved.
 High Capacity RAM can smoothly run various programs simultaneously.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

 Permanent data, information & instructions are stored in ROM. It means it is
a permanent memory.
 This data is not lost after turning off computer.
 The data stored in it can be read only, it can‘t be destroyed or altered.

Secondary / Ancillary Memory

 It is an external source of memory in which a lot of information can be
stored.

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 It is permanent memory in which information do not deteriorate when

power is unavailable.
 It increases the capacity of main memory.
 It can be separated from computer.
 Example - CD, DVD, Pen drive, hard disc

Output Devices
 Those devices which deliver the output result to the user after processing of
given data as instructed
 Example – Monitor, Touchscreen, Printer, Plotter, Speaker

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Operating System
 A set of programs which is indispensable
for functioning of computer.
 It activates the computer and it manages &
controls all resources of computer.
 It provides interface for interaction of
various programs and hardware.
 Various applications of computer function
according to its capacity.
 Example : Android, iOS, windows

e-Governance
 e-Governance is the public sector‘s use of ICT in order to enhance
information & service delivery ; Motivating citizen‘s involvement in the
decision making process & making government more accountable,
transparent & effective.

National e-Governance plan

 The national e-governance plan was formulated by the Department of
Electronics & info-technology and Department of Administrative reform &
public grievances
 To reduce government cost and allow citizen access to government services
through common service centers.
 It began with 27 mission made projects & 10 components in May 2006.
 Currently there are 44 mission mode projects operating under it.

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Models of e-commerce
1. Business to Business
2. Business to Consumer
3. Consumer to Business
4. Consumer to consumer
5. Business to Government
6. Consumer to Government
Malware
 Malware and virus are two different terms. Malware is the general term,
which means malicious software, that is, anything that harms your
computer.
 Malware includes viruses, Trojan horses, spyware, scareware, etc.
 CovidLock (ransomware) 2020, LockerGoga (ransomware) 2019, Emotet
(Trojan) 2018, WannaCry (ransomware) 2017

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VIRUS
 Vital Information Resources Under Siege
 Viruses are small programs in the computer which are auto execute
programs which enter the computer and affect the working system of the
computer. Viruses can fail or hack a computer system or steal personal
information.
 A computer virus is a computer program that accesses applications and files
without the user's consent.

Spyware
 Spyware is software that is installed on a computer and collects information
and sends it to the software maker. It steals personal information.
 Example : Pegasus

Trojan horse
 A Trojan horse is a malware that can be used to remotely control a phone or
computer. A Trojan horse is a harmful computer program that takes control
of our system and executes malicious action.
 Trojans cannot create their own copy like viruses, but they can install
viruses in the system.

Spam
 When the sender on your email address sends a large number of mail in the
form of advertisement or promotion of any product without your
permission. which is of no use to you. This is called spam mail.
 It is also called electronic junk mail. And these mails are mostly received in
your Spam Box. Spam email proves harmful if this email is sent for virus
and credit card fraud.

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Phishing
 Phishing is a cybercrime in which criminals send fake emails or messages
through phishing, which are similar to a reputable company, bank, credit
card company, online shopping.
 The purpose of these fake emails or messages is to steal personal
information. Phishing is the fraud done by hackers with the Internet users
through fake websites or emails on the Internet.

Antivirus
 Antivirus is a software that prevents any malware from entering the
computer. If malware has come in the computer, then it is also the job of
antivirus to detect it and remove it from there.

Open source software

 Open source software remains copyright free and the user can get its source
code and improve it according to his need.
New features can be added to it. One can develop a new product using the
source code and also sell it for paid. All open source software is available for
free to users and developers, which are distributed with a special license.
which prohibits the user or developer that, "Any changes, improvements to
the source code must be made available to the public." Example – Android

Dual core processor

 A normal processor has a single core, that is, it is a single CPU. Whereas
dual core processors have two processor circuits with two identical
frequencies. It can work at double speed as compared to single core
processor, that too very easily.
 The more cores the processor has, the more successfully it can complete
multitasking.

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Supercomputer
 A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance as
compared to a general-purpose computer. The performance of a
supercomputer is commonly measured in floating- point operations per
second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS).
 Seymour Cray is known as the father of the supercomputer
 Fujitsu Fugaku (Japan), IBM Summit (USA)
 The name of India's first super computer is Param 8000. Center for
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC),1991.
 PARAM Siddhi-AI, Pratyush, Mihir
Quantum computer
 Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum
physics to store data and perform computations. This can be extremely
advantageous for certain tasks where they could vastly outperform even our
best supercomputers.
 Classical computers, encode information in binary ―bits‖ that can either be 0s
or 1s. In a quantum computer, the basic unit of memory is a quantum bit or
qubit.
 Qubits are made using physical systems, such as the spin of an electron or the
orientation of a photon.
 These systems can be in many different arrangements all at once, a property
known as quantum superposition.
 Qubits can also be inextricably linked together using a phenomenon called
quantum entanglement.

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BIO TECHNOLOGY
 That branch of Technology in which organisms and biological methods are
used to develop such products & techniques which are useful for humans &
other creatures.
DNA
 Deoxyribo nucleic acid
 It is a fibre structured molecule found on chromosome in cells.
 It contains genetic codes which transfer genetic information from one
generation to another generation.
 DNA is a polymer of nucleotides; nucleotide is made up of nucleoside and
phosphate; nucleoside is made up of deoxyribose sugar and nitrogen base.
 Nitrogen base :- adenine, guanine (purine); thymine cytosine (pyrimidine)
 Structure of DNA :- Double helix

GENE
 Gene is a sequence of nucleotides in DNA which contains genetic
information and transfers it from one generation to another, it is also
responsible for protein synthesis in body.

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Genetic Engineering
 The process of alteration/ modification in genetic material of a living cell
using artificial techniques is called genetic engineering.
 It is also known as genetic modification or genetic manipulation.
 Example :- DNA Recombinant technique, gene therapy, gene editing

DNA Recombinant technique

 Such technology, which is used to alter
the DNA structure & the gene with
undesired properties is replaced by gene
with desired properties.

STEP 1 –
 Identification and separation of gene with desired properties :- Nuclease
enzyme is used for it, which is also known as molecular scissor.
It cleaves DNA at a specific sequence.
Exo-nuclease enzyme cleaves DNA from the ends whereas Endo-nuclease
enzyme cleaves DNA in the middle.

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 STEP 2 – Amplification of isolated DNA fragment by using polymerase

Chain Reaction (PCR) :- Polymerase enzyme amplifies DNA fragment and
creates multiple copies which are called C-DNA (copy DNA,
complementary DNA)
 STEP 3 – Ligation of desired DNA fragment with vector (open plasmid)
with the help of ligase enzyme.
 Thus recombinant DNA is obtained.
 STEP 4 – Transfer the Recombinant DNA into the host cell then cell division
takes place and multiple cells with desired DNA are obtained.
 Step 5 – Obtain genetically modified organism or desired product from
cells containing genes with desired quality.

EXAMPLES
 Flavr savr tomato – Fouling resistant
 Golden rice – Vit-A beta carotene
 Super potato – protein rich
 Super Banana – protein rich
 BT cotton – Insect resistant (Bacillus Thuringiensis)
 BT brinjal – Insect resistant (Bacillus Thuringiensis)
 GM Mustard – Weed Resistant – University of Delhi
 Genetically modified animals

Genetically modified organisms (GMO)

 Those organisms whose genetic material has been artificially altered
through genetic engineering are known as GMO.
 Example :-BT Cotton, Golden rice, Super potato,Genetically modified
animals
DNA fingerprinting/profiling
 The technique of determining individual‘s identity by uniqueness of its
DNA (found on chromosome) is called DNA fingerprinting or DNA
profiling.
 It was invented by British scientist Alec Jeffreys in 1984.
 Dr Lal ji Singh is known as father of DNA fingerprinting in India.

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Process
1. Separation/isolation of DNA from sample.
2. Use of Restriction Endo-nuclease enzyme to cleave DNA at specific
locations.
3. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is used for amplification of DNA.
4. Gel electrophoresis of DNA fragments :- fragmented DNA is kept in Agarose
gel, when current is passed through it, then these fragments are settled
according to their length. This process is called Electrophoresis.

5. This arrangement of DNA fragments is transferred to nitrocellulose plate.

6. This nitrocellulose plate is then connected with radioactive probe.
Radioactive Probe identifies the restricted fragments.
7. DNA fingerprint is obtained from x-ray.

Uses of DNA fingerprinting

 In forensic science – identification of criminals
 In matters related to paternity
 Resolving cases of child exchange in hospital
 In identification of dead person

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Gene therapy
 Treatment of diseases by inserting a gene or repairing faulty gene in the cells
or tissues of body is called the Gene Therapy.
 Nowadays gene therapy is mainly used for plants. This technique is used for
treatment of Alzheimer, Parkinson's & Sickel cell anemia in humans.

Gene/genome editing
 It is a type of genetic engineering in which a gene is inserted, deleted or
replaced in DNA of a cell.
 Gene editing is a technique which is used to alter DNA at precise
location/sequence.
 The process of Gene editing is done by special enzymes which are called
Engineered nuclease enzyme. These enzymes cleave DNA at a specific
sequence. These are also known as molecular scissors.

CRISPR-cas Technique
 It is an advanced technique of Gene editing.
 Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
 CRISPR :- These are special fragments in DNA
 cas9 :- It is an enzyme
 Guide RNA :- special RNA fragment

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Stem cell therapy

 Stem cells are those undivided primitive cells which have ability to convert
into cell of any specific organ.
 It is also called Master cell.
 Treatment of diseases with the help of stem cells is called the stem cell
Therapy.

Types of stem cells on the basis of capacity

(1) Unipotent :-
 Those stem cells which have ability to convert in only one type of cell.
 Source - liver, blood vessels, skeleton, spine.
(2) Multipotent stem cell :-
 Those stem cells which have ability to convert in more than one type of cells.
 Source - brain, bone marrow.
(3) Pluripotent stem cell :-
 Those stem cells which have ability to convert in any type of cell excluding
Placenta.
 Source - blastula phase of embryo.
(4) Totipotent stem cells :-
 Those stem cells which have ability to convert in any type of cell.
 Source :- 3-4 days of zygote.

Source Capacity
Embryonic stem cell Embryo Pluripotent
Cord stem cell Umbilical cord Pluripotent
Adult stem cell Adult person (blood, Multipotent
bone marrow)
Induced pluripotent stem Developed from somatic Pluripotent
cell cells with the help of
DNA Recombinant
technique

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IVF (In vitro fertilization / test tube baby)

 IVF is a process of fertilization in which an ovum is combined with sperm
outside the body in test tube (In- Vitro) (In lab).

Mitochondrial replacement therapy / Three parent baby

 It is a type of IVF.
 In this technique during IVF, faulty mitochondrial DNA of biological mother
is replaced by healthy mitochondrial DNA of Donor woman.
 Thus the baby born contains nucleus DNA of its biological parents as well as
mitochondrial DNA of Donor women. Therefore such baby is known as three
parent baby.

Surrogacy
 Surrogacy means – Rental womb.
 Surrogacy is an agreement between a woman (surrogate mother) and a
couple or a person regarding conception, pregnancy & giving birth to a
child.

Surrogacy (regulation) bill 2019

 It bans commercial surrogacy & allows ethical altruistic surrogacy.
 Eligible beneficiary :- Only Indian couple, between the age of 23-50 yrs for
females & 26-55 yrs for males, married for minimum 5 yrs, having certificate
of essentiality & also a certificate of eligibility.
 The surrogate must be a close relative of the intending couple and be a
married woman having a child of her own.
She should between the age of 25-35 years, not have been surrogate earlier &
must be certifiably mentally & physically fit.
Surrogate must be provided insurance coverage during pregnancy & post
pregnancy.
 Intending couples should not abandon the child born out of surrogacy under
any condition. The newborn child shall be entitled to all rights and privileges
that are available to a natural child. No sex selection can be done when it
comes to surrogacy.
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 All surrogacy clinics in the country need to be registered by the appropriate

authority in order to undertake surrogacy or its related procedures.
 Constitution of Surrogacy Boards at national as well as state levels to ensure
effective regulation.

Cloning
 A clone is a biological structure which is produced by asexual method from
sole parent.
 The clone produced is physically and genetically identical to its parent.
 The process of creating replica of an organism is called cloning.

Bio-Informatics
 That branch of Biology in which computer science and information
technology are used for compilation, storage & analysis of biological data; is
known as Bioinformatics.
Uses :-
 DNA mapping & analysis (HGP, GIP)
 Protein sequence analysis
 Finding the gene responsible for deadly diseases
 Drug designing

Bio-sensor
 Bio-sensors :- These are used to detect various biochemical changes
occurring in the body and to identify diseases.
 Examples: detection of glucose level in blood, pregnancy detection.

Bio-signature
 Any material or molecule or phenomenon that provides scientific evidence
of any past or present life; is called Biosignature.
Example –
 Biosignature of early life on earth – microfossils
 Biosignature of early life on exoplanets – water molecule, methane,
phosphine

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Bio-remediation
 Using microorganisms to reduce the effects of pollutants present in the
environment (soil, water, air); is called bio- remediation.
 Bio-remediation is mainly used at leakage/spillage of Petroleum.
 Bacterias like pseudomonas putida breaks down complex petroleum
compounds into simple compounds which are easily degradable.
 Example :-
 Oil zapper
 Oilivorous-S (developed by TERI)

Bio-fuel
Bioethanol
 These are produced by fermentation process of biological/organic matter.
 sources - sugarcane, beet, sorghum, potato
Biodiesel
 These are produced by a esterification of plant & animal fat/lipid.
 Sources - soyabean, Ratanjot, Jatrofa, animal fat

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Advanced Technologies

Robot
 Robot is a programmable, automatically operated machine that replaces
human effort or capable of carrying out a complex series of actions.
 Term Robot is derived from the Czech word Robota which means forced
labour or serf.
Robotics
 Robotics is a branch of engineering that deals with the conception, design,
construction & operation of robots.
 The term robotics was firstly used by Science-fiction author Isaac Asimov in
1942.
ASIMO
 Advanced step in Innovative Mobility
 1st humanoid robot.
 Manufactured by Japanese company Honda in 2000.
 It could walk at a speed of 6km/hr.

Vyommitra
 Creator: ISRO
 Female humanoid robot
 Capable of doing multiple tasks, It can speak two
languages & can also mimic human crew.

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Artificial Intelligence
 It is a branch of computer science which deals with development of
computers or machines as intelligent as human beings.
 A.I. term was coined by John McCarthy in 1956 at MIT.
Real life examples of “A.I.”
 Virtual assistants – Siri, Alexa
 Facial recognition
 Spam detectors
 Chatbot
 Autopilot mode in airplanes
 Self driving cars
 Accurate translating softwares
 Gaming
Machine learning
 Machine learning is an application of artificial intelligence (AI) that provides
systems the ability to automatically learn and improve from experience
without being explicitly programmed.
 Machine learning focuses on developing such computer programs that can
use data to learn for themselves.

ChatGPT
 AI (machine learning) based chatbot
 Developed by : OpenAI (Microsoft)
 GPT stands for Generative Pre-trained Transformer.
 Applications :- digital marketing, online content creation, answering
customer service queries, to write code or help debug code, writing the basic
emails, CVs, college essays and homework.
 Similarly google has launched Bard.
Internet of things (IoT)
 It is a network of interlinked machines, digital devices, home appliances,
vehicles or other objects through internet where they are provided unique
identity and can transfer data (interact) over the network.

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 Big data refers to ‗the data which is so large or complex that traditional data
processing softwares & database are inadequate to manage & process it in
real time‘.
 Examples of big data sources –
1. Internet search
2. Social media
3. Online transactions
4. Satellite imaging / GPS in mobiles

Big data analytics

 Big data analytics is a process in which large data sets are organized and
analysed so that the company/organization can understand hidden patterns,
market trends, customer preferences and obtain other useful information.

Types of Big Data Analytics

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Blockchain technology
 Blockchain technology was introduced in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott
Stronteta.
 The technology was first used in crypto currency bitcoin transactions in 2009.
 Blockchain is a technique with which an open and decentralized ledger of
information or transactions can be created.
 It is in the form of a series of separate blocks of ledger or record information.
 Miners construct blocks and nodes verify it.

CRYPTO CURRENCY
 Cryptocurrencies run on a distributed public ledger called blockchain.
 Cryptocurrency is generated through a process called mining.
 The first cryptocurrency was Bitcoin, which was introduced in 2009 by
Satoshi Nakamoto.
 Example :- Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin, Dogecoin
 In India, cryptocurrency is an asset, not a currency. The government of India
will levy a 30% tax on the profit earned by crypto-assets.
 At the moment cryptocurrencies are legal financial assets, which means, these
assets hold value but cannot be used for the sale or purchase of commodities
yet.
 The Digital rupee, also known as Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC), was
introduced on 01/12/2022.

Industrial Revolution 4.0

 Industrial Revolution 4.0 refers to the 4th industrial revolution related to
manufacturing and chain production.
 Industry 4.0 is complex cyber physical systems which is a fusion of
technologies like artificial intelligence (AI) robotics the internet to things
(IoT), 3D printing, genetic engineering, quantum computing, blockchain and
other technologies.

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Super Computer
 A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance as
compared to a general purpose computer. The performance of a
supercomputer is commonly measured in floating-point operations per
second (FLOPS) instead of million instructions per second (MIPS.)
 Seymour Cray is known as the father of the supercomputer
 Fujitsu Fugaku (Japan), IBM Summit (USA)
 The name of India's first super computer is Param 8000. Center for
Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC), 1991.
 PARAM Siddhi-AL, Pratyush, Mihir

Web 3.0
 Web 3.0 refers to the next generation of the internet, in which apps and
websites will be able to handle data in a clever human like manner using
technologies such as machine learning (Artificial intelligence), Big Data, and
decentralised ledger technology (Blockchain technology).

 Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, dubbed Web 3.0 the
Semantic Web, with the goal of creating a more autonomous, intelligent &
open internet.
 Gavin Wood, founder of Ethereum, a block chain technology company,
coined the term Web 3.0 in 2014.
 It is a semantic web that can generate or share content by understanding the
meaning of words searched. In web 2.0 content is generated by using any
keywords or numbers.
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International thermonuclear experimental reactor

 Aim : To build the world's largest tokamak to prove the feasibility of nuclear
fusion
 ITER agreement was signed in 2006.
 It is located in France.
 Members : The project is funded and run by 7 members :- the European
Union (45.6%), India, china, Japan, South Korea, Russia and the United States
(9.1% each). [Total 35 nations]
India will share 9.1% of the cost of project construction, operation and
decommissioning. India will also share the experimental results and any
intellectual property generated by the project.
 ITER cryostat is manufactured by India (Larsen and Tourbo).
 Cryostat is a chamber that can maintain very low temperatures.
Tokamak :- It is a machine designed to harness the energy of fusion.
 The energy produced through the fusion of atoms is absorbed as heat in the
walls of the tokamak.

Artificial sun
 China‘s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) fusion
energy reactor produced an artificial sun that was five times hotter than
the sun for 1,056 seconds while operating at temperatures of 70 million
degrees Celsius.
 (sun's core reaches temperatures of about 15 million degrees)

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