CROP PROTECTION

Learning Outcome
1. Carry out disease and pest surveillance

Types of crop pests and diseases

PESTS
Definition: A pest is any plant or animal that causes loss in yield or quality of crops resulting in
loss of profits by the farmer. Pests will occur in two broad ways; Natural and artificial.
Natural occurrence
These occur as part of the ecosystem but may suddenly attack crops grown in certain areas e.g.
locusts, armyworms etc. These are said to occur naturally.
Artificial occurrence will depend on activities of man thus;
 Alteration of ecosystem: As humans manipulate the ecosystem for their own
benefit, they create conditions that favour development of pests.
 Selective breeding-high yielding strains may have low resistance to pest attack
hence a potential pest multiplies to attain pest status.
 Introduction of new plants: -The new plant may become the favorite food of insect
pests which may then multiply.
 Monoculture: -Cultivation of single crop continuously provides an abundant source
of food within easy reach of insects and animals which may multiply to pest status.
 Use of toxic chemicals: -This may eliminate the natural predator or parasite of a
pest which will then multiply excessively

CATEGORIES OF PESTS
a). Based on Pest population versus pest damage
Regular pest; these are perennial pests, especially insects, which cause persistent and serious
economic damage in an ecosystem in the absence of effective control measures. Their
populations rarely fall below the economic thresh hold e.g. Marucatestulalis of cowpea,
Dysdercus spp and red boll- worm on cotton, sorghum midge, and Quelea birds in most parts of
Africa.
Occasional pests: -these are pests whose population levels are normally below the economic
threshold but occasionally rise above it. Examples of these are; locusts, armyworms and stem
borers, in certain years or in some localities,
Potential pests:-Those, whose population levels are usually way below the economic threshold,
but have potential to develop into major pest status depending on environment e.g. many species
of grasshoppers and caterpillars.
b). The type of mouth parts
i). Pests with biting and chewing mouth parts They cause physical damage and reduce the
photosynthetic area
ii). Pest with piercing and sucking mouth parts. They suck out the nutritious plant sap and
the process may introduce disease causing organisms.
Example of pests with biting and chewing mouth parts

Cotton stainer Dysdercus superstitious

Rhinocerus beetle Orycetesmonoceros
Black citrus Aphid Toxopera sordidus
Mearly bugs Planococuscitrs
Bean Weevil Archanthoscelidesdotecteus
Maize stalk borer
Grasshopper
c). Crop Attacked
Some crops pests attack specific crops e.g. stem borers prefer cereal crops
d).Stage of growth of crop attacked
- Some pests attacks young seedling e.g. cut worm
- Pest of fruit: - It attacks crop at fruiting age.
- Pest of grains: - Attack crops when grains are formed e.g. bird.
e). Based on field and storage pest.
- Some pests attack crops in the field while some attacked after crops have been harvested and
stored e.g. weevils

PLANT DISEASES
Definition; plant diseases are conditions of the plant involving abnormalities of growth and
development. It is the departure from the normal healthy condition, resulting in appearance of
disease symptoms, which enables diseases to be recognized. Diseases are caused by;
 Pathogens which are parasitic organisms which live in or on the host plant and cause the
appearance of disease symptoms, in a processes called pathogenesis
 Mechanical forces such as hail, wind, and farm implements can cause disease symptoms
  non parasitic disease or disorders which are caused by environmental conditions or by
internal physiological disturbances, usually of genetic origin e.g. frost, sun or lightening,
mineral deficiencies, or imbalancesand genetic mutations
Classification and identification of plant diseases
- Plant diseases are classified according to their causal agent. These may act singly or in
combination with others. The study of these agents is called etiology. Categories of these
agents are
 fungi
 bacteria
 viruses
 Nematodes
 Some insects (excluding those that only serve as vectors of disease agents)
 A few flowering plants like broomrape (Orobanche), dodder (Cuscuta) and witch weed
(Striga)
 Heterogeneous group which includes mineral deficiencies, and excesses
 Unfavorable environmental conditions.

Surveillance/Scouting and mapping

Pest surveillance is an official process which collects and records data onpest occurrence or
absence by survey, monitoring or other procedures. Through pestsurveillance, up-to-date data on
the pests’ diversity, their distribution and damage tocrops are maintained to provide advisories to
the growers, for contingency planningand research purpose.

Pest surveillance comprisesthree basic components:

(i) Determination of the level of incidence of the pest species.
(ii) Determination of what loss the incidence will cause, and
(iii) Determination of the economic benefits, or other benefits, the control will provide.

This information would be of immense use in determining the need for a pest control
[Link] surveillance also allows us to keep historical records which subsequently allows us
to better understand the nature and distribution of pests in the farm/county/province. Information
from surveys is also used to guide research investment decisions.

Depending on the survey, we may include;

- visual assessments of crops,
 - the use of traps to monitor insect pest populations, and
- lab analysis of samples collected from the survey.
All surveyors are trained in pest identification and follow strict biosecurity protocols when working on a
producer’s land to prevent the spread or introduction of pests.

The objectives of pest surveillance are; to

monitor the presence of existing and new pest species (early detection)
assess pest population and damage at different growth stage of crop
study the influence of weather parameters on pest
study changing pest status (minor to major and vice versa)
assess natural enemies and their influence on pests
effect of new cropping pattern and varieties on pest
effect of pest management practices

Types of surveillance system

1. General Surveillance
The term “general surveillance” consists of two categories of activities; first
collecting information about a pest and second to develop clear communication

The general surveillance study shall:

declaration of pest freedom;
aid early detection of new pests;
Compile of host and commodity pest list and distribution records.
Or can be used as one part of designing specific surveys.

2. Specific Surveys
It is the procedures to obtaininformation on pests of concern onspecific sites in an area
over adefined period of time. This survey can be of detection, delimiting or monitoring

a). Detection Surveys

Conduct a detection survey in an area to determine if pests are present”
in order to:
1. Develop pest and host lists- of pest and host (including alternative hosts)
2. Establish pest free areas (PFAs), pest free places of production (PFPPs)and pest free
production sites (PFPS). If PFA/ PFPP/ PFPS status cannot beestablished for an entire area, it
may be possible to identify the pest freestatus of smaller units, that is, Places and Sites within an
Area.
3. Early detection of established or native organisms becoming pests
4. Examine for quarantine breaches- targeting at high-risk areas/ site where a
pest has breached quarantine.
b). Monitoring Surveys
Undertake a monitoring survey in an area where a pest is known to bepresent to:
1. Assist with pest management- for application of management measuresonly when the pest
number increases to EIL or when weatherconditions pre-dispose crops to infections, etc…
2. To establish and maintain an Area of Low Pest Prevalence (ALPP)status.
ALPP is an area, whether all of a country, part of a country, orall or parts of several districts, as
identified by the competentauthorities, in which a specific pest occurs at low (accepted) levels
andwhich is subject to effective surveillance, control or eradicationmeasures. However it is not
PFAs.
c). Delimiting Surveys
Conduct a delimiting survey to establish/ determine the boundaries of anarea considered to be
infested by a pest rather than to define a [Link] will help in knowing the extent and
distribution of a pest incursion,whether the pest is eradicable/ manageable and in evaluating the
spread of a pest inlight of quarantine purpose

Kinds of Surveys
The surveys are broadly categorized in to
- qualitative surveysidentification of different species and aims at pest detection e.g. for a
newly
introduced pest; and
- quantitative surveys- defining numerically the abundance of an insect population in
time and space.

SURVEY SAMPLING METHODS

Among many sampling methods for selecting survey sites or host plants, the most relevant for
our situations is stratified random sampling.

Stratified random sampling

This is one of the most appropriate sampling methods given the agricultureproduction system in
our country with different agro-ecological zones and different cropping pattern.
This can be used in combination with random sampling. Thisinvolves dividing the sites into
logical categories and then systematically orrandomly choosing sites from within the categories.
Divide the host plant or sites into groups (strata) of sites/ hosts dependingupon the shared
attributes/ characteristics such as climate/ family/ etc…
Apply random sampling within the groups to randomly select the sites/host in each groups
(Refer the Random Sampling Survey for moredetails).
Decide the number of samples as per the calculated number of samplesfor the survey.
Documentation process
Electronic data storage
Design a spreadsheet or database structure to electronically store data from
the survey and if possible before going to field.
Thesurvey can be done either in paper forms or in the portable electronic
devices such as laptop or tabs as per the convenience.
The paper forms can be manually entered into the electronic database
system/ spreadsheets once back from the field & save the data securely with
robust backup plans

Perform survey (collect raw data and samples)

Perform survey and collect data in the field.

Analyze data
Once raw data is collected, use data analysis tools that were selected during
the stage of planning data collection (Step 13).
Calculate basic statistics, such as the average and total numbers of pest.
Estimate the confidence of the data collected.
Create a map of the pest distribution.
Examine changes in pest locations and densities if monitored over time.
Store, tabulate and analyze the survey data.
Draw species accumulation curve (Y-no. of species accumulated over time;
X- no of sites surveyed); epidemiological curve (disease progression over
time); or disease-gradient/ dispersal curve.
Find prevalence of disease (total no. of diseased plants in a particular time
in a farm/ orchard), etc…

Report the results

Report the results in standard format of summary, press releases, newsletter
articles, basic report and formal reports,

Learning Outcome
1. Identify method of pest and disease control
Damage caused by pests
1. INSECTS: Their damage is closely related to their feeding habits.
Chewing and biting habits: e.g. Locusts, grasshoppers, crickets, larval stages of butterflies and
moths, termites, cutworms, bollworms etc.
These will damage plants at various stages of growth, some even in store.
The damage:-
 Reduces leaf area hence photosynthetic process leading to low yields as in grasshopper,
sawfly, leaf beetle attack
 Leaf rolling and webbing as in all Lepidoptera attack
 Leaves mined as in leaf miner attack
 Can attack roots (some weevils) causing eventual death or drying
 Saliva of some may be toxic to plant leaves.
 The wounds resulting from the insects bites become avenues for other injurious
organisms e.g. fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Piercing habits: e.g. aphids, scale mites, certain flies, adult stages of butterflies, moths, bugs,
thrips etc.
These pierce plant tissue e.g. leaves, stems and fruits by means of their needlelike stylets.
 They suck plant sap thereby weakening the plant. In extreme cases wilting, stunting and
even death could occur.
 Leaf curling and deformation as shown in aphid attack
 Premature leaf fall as in scales attack
 Leaf and fruit scarification by rapturing epidermal cells and removing sap as in spider
mite and many thrips attack
 But the most serious damage is introduction of viruses and other disease causing
organisms.
 Their saliva may also be toxic causing death or distortion in growth of shoots.
Boring:-Most weevils, bollworms, stalk borers, storage weevil etc. Some bore into the stems
and fruits of crops and remain inside where they consume large quantities of tissue. The larvae of
most stored products pests fall into this category. They have chewing and biting feeding habits.
 Fruits bored into and destroyed as by sorghum midge, pea pod borers, maize weevil,
various fruit flies,
  Fruits bored into and caused to fall prematurely e.g. fruit fly attack
 Stems bored into with subsequent death e.g. maize stalk borer, most wood stem beetles
 Seedling stems bored producing a dead heart like in sorghum shoot fly attack
 Some woody plant are ring- barked like by Anthores spp. in coffee,
 Roots eaten, causing loss of water and nutrient absorbing tissue
 Tubers, corms bored into leading to reduction of stored food material and quality
Indirectly, insect pests can,
 Make crop harvesting difficult
 Distort the plant form
 Delay maturity e.g. bollworms in cotton
 Contaminate and reduce quality of crop
 Deform grains in cereal crops.

2. Rodents; rats, field mice, rabbits

These are adapted to cut and chew. They can also gnaw, crush and grind hard substances such as
grain. They can be serious pests during planting especially of maize and beans; either unearth
and eat the seed or eat the germinated seedlings. Rats will seriously attack stored grain.

3. Birds :- (Quelea (Quelea aethiopica), Weaver birds, mouse birds etc.

 They invade crops and cause serious damage by feeding on the leaves and the grains
 They can also cause damage to germinating seedlings.
 Their control e.g. of Quelea is a national concern and a special unit is in place to handle
the menace.

4. Nematodes; also called eelworms; these cause damage to crops like yams, cowpea, and
many vegetables, e.g. root-knot disease of cowpea (irregular nodes on the roots and
dwarfing of the mature plant)

Pests control methods

 Chemical
 Biological
 Cultural
 Physical
 IPM
 ITK

Methods of controlling pests

Insect pest control can be achieved by use of cultural, chemical, biological and integrated
methods
CULTURAL;
 Hand picking of fully grown adults or larvae e.g. grasshoppers and caterpillars
 Crop rotation since insect pest are selective in choice of plant hosts
 Tillage practices, plowing reduces the population of soil pests by exposure to sun shine
 Weed control since weeds are alternate hosts of pests
 Time of planting to avoid periods when pests reach peak populations
 Resistant varieties e.g. most new plant varieties have been bred to include pest
resistance
 Timely harvesting to protect stored produce from weevils and bean bruchids
 Observance of closed season where crops associated with some pests are not grown e.g.
pink worm and the cotton crop
 Trap cropping where some crops are specifically planted to trap pests and spare the
desired crop e.g. Napier grass , maize and the maize stalk borer
 Optimum plant density; some densely populated crops will not be attacked by some
pests e.g. bean fly in field beans, aphid infestation are lower in more densely populated
groundnuts hence lower levels or rosette virus
 Crop sanitation; cleaning crop residues after harvest. This may justify burning in some
cases.
 Cropping patterns; intercropping can check pests more than monocropping.

CHEMICAL CONTROL; this is the most effective method of control.

- Chemicals used to control pests are known as pesticides
- pesticides are administered through dusting, spraying or fumigation
Factors that affect the efficiency of pesticides conclude:
1. concentration
2. Time of application - efficiency is high if the application is done when the pest is most
susceptible.
 3. Weather condition at the time of application
4. Resistance to the pest
Advantages of chemical methods
1. faster
2. immediate results are achieved
3. low labour required
Disadvantages
1. Expensive to buy
2. cause pollution
3. require skilled labour
4. some pesticides may kill beneficial organism and predators
5. Some target pest, may build up resistance.

The choice of insecticide is based on mode of feeding of the pest

 Biting and chewing pests are best controlled by stomach poisons. These are sprayed or
dusted on to the crop. Best applied before the rains so that they are consumed as the pests
feed on the leaves
 Contact poisons would kill insects by directly applying onto their bodies. Best suited for
sucking insects
 Systemic poisons; absorbed by the plant but have no harm on the crop. These are
consumed as the pests chew, suck or bore the crop. Best suited for sucking insects like
mealy bugs and aphids
 Suffocation; some pests with protective covering like the mealy bugs can also be
suffocated by application of kerosene emulsion which are sprayed directly on to their
bodies
 Fumigation; mostly used in control of pests of stored products
HOST PLANT RESISTANCE; this uses three principles;
 Antixenosis; plants acquire qualities that render them unsuitable to the insect for
oviposition, feeding and shelter. Examples are, pubescence in potatoes and the potato
aphid (Aulacorthumsolani)
 Antibiosis; plants possessing deleterious effects on the pest feeding on them. Seeds of
some pulses contain substances that inhibit growth or reproduction of some storage pest
 Tolerance; some plants suffer little damage in spite of supporting a pest. Some crops
will even compensate for the pest damage by producing tillers e.g. sorghum and the
sorghum shoot fly
BIOLOGICAL; this entails use of living organisms for the control of pests. This also includes
use of pathogens (fungi, bacteria, protozoa and viruses). Mites and wasps have been effectively
used in the control of mealy bugs
 Predators Target pests

Parasitic wasp -White flies in citrus

-bollworm and stalk borer

Birds Crickets, locusts, caterpillar

Ladybird beetles Aphids

Track and flies Cotton strainers

Praying mantis Giant looper

Cat Moles mice rat

Brachonid wasp Mearly bugs

Majimomo ant Scales

Chicken Larvae, cotton Steiner, crickets

Advantages of biological method

1. Cheap
2. No environmental pollution
3. saves on labour
Disadvantage
1. Take too long to get the agent
2. difficult to control the pest effectively

MECHANICAL PEST CONTROL

It involves killing of pest using physical method or creating physical barriers to prevent pests
from getting into contact with the crops.

1. Flooding/irrigation e.g. moles are suffocated through flooding

2. Use extreme temperature either too cold or too hot.
3. suffocation commonly used in grain storage by being made air tight
4. Trapping and killing e.g. rat
5. Creation of physical barrier
6. proper drying
7. Scaring devices e.g. scare craws
REGULATORY; these involve legislation to enforce the quarantine of plant material, both for
import, export and internal movement. Materials are inspected at ports of entry and those found
infested rejected or treated.
INSECT GROWTH REGULATORS; these are substances that interfere with the growth and
development of the insects e.g. toxins in the Bt maize and the maize stalk borer
STERILE INSECT TECHNIQUE; either male or female insects can be sterilized and released
en mass into the ecosystem.
INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM); this is the judicious selection and use of
compatible control options to keep pest population below damaging levels. It is based on the
knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of the pest and its natural enemies. The
emphasis is on controlling pests rather than attempting to eradicate them.

Economic importance of pests

1. Some transmit disease e.g. Aphid
2. Pests such as squirrels and rodents unearth planted seeds resulting in poor germination.
3. Some pests like termites, mice nematode and moles damage crop root causing wilting and
death of the crop.
4. They lower the quality and quantity of crop produce.
5. They increase the cost of production.
6. Chemical used to control pest cause pollution to the environment.
7. They exterminate the crops by feeding on them e.g. eating the embryo.

Disease control methods

 Chemical
 Biological
 Cultural
 Physical
 IPM
 ITK
SYMPTOMS OF PLANT DISEASES
Many diseases produce characteristic symptoms through which they can be recognized.
Symptoms can be localized e.g. leaf spots or systemic e.g. wilts and general stunting.
 Death of tissue or necrosis; the death of tissue can be characteristic of the disease and it
takes various terms, stripe for narrow, dead parts, elongated lesions, scorch, scald, blotch
etc.
 Abnormal increase in tissue; this can result from both an increase in number
(hyperplasia) of cells or increase in size (hypertrophy). Examples are cankers, galls, and
scabs
  Failure to attain normal size or development (hypoplasia); an overall dwarfing or
stunting of the plant. This is common in many plants
 Change in colour; yellowing or Chlorosis is a symptom often associated with tissue
surrounding a necrotic area
 Wilting caused by an interference with the normal movement of water within the plant
 Unusual development or transformation of organs; e.g. staminate inflorescence
bearing the pistillate like in maize smut (Ustilago maydis) attack
 Disintegration of tissue; this is termed as rot. It may be accompanied with exudates (true
rot) or cells may crumble to a powdery mass (dry rot)
 Excessive gum formation; this is mainly associated with diseases of tree crops and is
known as gummosis or gumming
Classification and identification of plant diseases
- Plant diseases are classified according to their causal agent.
a) Fugal
b) Bacterial
c) Viral

AGENTS OF PLANT DISEASES; these may act singly or in combination with others. The
study of these agents is called etiology. Categories of these agents are
 fungi, bacteria and viruses which, together account for the greatest number of diseases
 Nematodes
 Some insects (excluding those that only serve as vectors of disease agents)
 A few flowering plants like broomrape (Orobanche), dodder (Cuscuta) and witch weed
(Striga)
 Heterogeneous group which includes mineral deficiencies, and excesses
 Unfavorable environmental conditions.
The term parasite and host describe a nutritional relationship between the pathogen and the host
plant
 Obligate parasites will only grow directly on the host plant and cannot survive
saprophytically on non-living organic matter. They critically depend on the host in the
absence of which they will die. They cause only mild damage to the hosting crops e.g.
growth malformation, stunting and discolouration.
 Facultative parasites; these are well adapted to survive saprophytically on dead
plant/animal tissue in the absence of the host plant. When these attack the host plant, they
cause more immediate and drastic damage, such as necrosis and wilting.
FUNGAL DISEASES
- Fungi are non-green plants. Some are parasitic others are saprophytic
Parasitic fungi are divided into
- Obligate
- Facultative
Obligate parasites are organism that depend on other living organism for food.
Facultative parasites are organism that are able to leave on both living and dead tissue.
Examples of fungal diseases
a) Late blight (Phytophthora infestans)
Attack -members of Solanaceae family e.g. potatoes and tomatoes
Symptoms
- Dry patches on the leaves and fruit (necrotic lesions)
Control measure
- Crop rotation
- Use of effective fungicide.
- Use of treated seeds
- Use of resistance variety.
b) Rust
Crops attacked - Rice, wheat barley, oats, grasses, sorghum.
Symptoms of attack
- Red and brown pustules on the leaves
- Shriveled grains
Control measure
- Use of resistant varieties
- Use recommended fungicides
c) Smuts (ustilago spp)
Crops attacked - Maize, wheat, sorghum
Symptoms
Black powder mass on the spike/ears
Control measure
1) Use field hygiene to control
2) Use of certified seeds
3) Use of resistant varieties
4) Crop rotation
d) Blast (Pricularia oryzae)
Attacked Rice
Symptoms
- Stained bluish spots on leaves with grayish center
- Attacks inflorescence to cause empty heads
Control
Seed dressing
Use resistant varieties e.g. Sindano
Destruction of attacked plants
Use of fungicides
e) Coffee berry disease (Colletotrichum kahawae)
Crops attacked: coffee
Symptoms
- Dark blue blotches on flowers
- Brown concentric rings on the leaves
- Dark sunken wounds on the berries.
Control measures
- Use of resistance varieties such as Ruiru II
- Proper pruning
- Use of effective fungicides
- Stripping
Other fungal diseases are
- Panama disease – banana
- Cigar end rot – banana
- Die back – attacks the tips of shoots and roots
- Mildew – Both powdery and downey mildew attacks several crops
- Armillaria root rot – (Armillaria mellea) attacks coffee, tea
- -Damping off disease in seedling in nurseries
- Anthracnose – (colletotricum spp) in coffee, beans, tomatoes.

BACTERIAL DISEASES
- Bacteria are microscopic single cell organism which reproduce by binary fission
Transmission - Transmitted through irrigation water, seeds, fertilizers, manure, weed, raindrop
splashes, insects, and through mechanical means.
General symptoms
1. Wilting
2. cankers (nectrotic tissues)
3. Gall formation in the infected tissue
Example
1. Halo blight (Pseudomonas phaseolicolae)
Crops attacked include beans
Symptoms
1. irregular dark lesion on leaves and pods
2. Yellow bands around the lesion referred to as halo
3. Water soaked lesions
Control
1. Use of resistant varieties (e.g. wairimu and rose coco)
2. Use of effective bactericides
3. crop rotation
2. Fusarium wilt (Fusarium oxysporum)
Attacks tomatoes
Symptoms
1. Stunted growth
2. Yellowing and shading of leaves.
3. Wilting of the plant
Control
- Use of resistance varieties
3. Black arm (Xanthomonas oxysporum)
Crop attacked include cotton
Symptoms
- Small round spots on the cotyledons of young seedlings
- The spots elongate to form black lesion on the stem.
Control measures
1. Field hygiene
2. Use of certified seeds from Kenya Seed company Simlaw seeds etc
Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas solanacearum)
Crops attacked include potatoes and tomatoes
Symptoms
1. Uniform wilting of the whole plant even with adequate supply of soil moisture
Control measures
- use certified seeds
- crop rotation

Viral diseases
- Viruses are small living organisms which can only be seen under a very powerful
electronic microscopic
- Viruses interfere with photosynthesis, respiration, transpiration and nitrogen utilization.
Symptoms of viral infections
1. leaf chlorosis – yellowing of leaves
2. leaf curling
3. mosaic – light green and yellow patches
4. malformation/distortion of plant parts
5. Rosetting (shortening of internodes)
Transmission
1. Through the use of infected vegetative materials and insect vector like Aphids mealy bugs
and leafhoppers.
Examples
1. Ratton stunting disease - crop attacked – sugar cane
Symptoms
- Red discolorations on the vascular bundles (Xylem and phloem)
Control measures
- use clean planting material
- Treat seed canes.
2. Maize streak
Crops attacked: maize
Symptoms of attack
- Yellow strips alternating with green parallel to the mid-rib
Control measure
- control leafhoppers
- use of certified seeds
- field sanitation
3. Greening diseases
Crop attacked cirrus e.g. Orange symptoms
 - Yellow mottling in the leaves.
- Die back.
- Premature leaf fall
Control
-Use of clean tools when budding.
-Control of insect vectors.
4. Leaf mosaic
Crop attacked are sugar cane, cassava, sweet potatoes
Symptoms
 Yellow mottling
 Necrosis of stem
Control measure
1. Control of aphids
2. use clean materials
3. seed treatment
4. Tristeza
Crop attacked: citrus
Symptoms of attack
- Die back
- Dwarfing of the plants
Control measure
-Striping affected fruits
-Use of clean equipment for budding

Other causes of crop diseases

(a) Flooding: - Leads to formation ammonia which is poisonous to the crops causing a
burning effect on leaves.
(b) Chemicals: -Some chemicals may be toxic e.g. Aflatoxins
(c) Poor weather: -Extremes of day and night temperature.
(d) Stress:- such as irregular watering as in tomato blossom end lot

CONTROL MEASURES
The objective of disease control is to prevent or at least restrict the development of plant disease
epidemics. Most measures are designed to prevent rather than cure. They may aim at operating
on the pathogen before it has established a parasitic relationship with the host plant
Principles;
 if pathogen is not yet present in the area, devise measures to exclude it (exclusion)
 if it does get in to the area then attempt to eradicate it (eradication)
 by applying a chemical to the plant or by modifying the condition under which the plant
is growing, it is possible to protect the plant from attack (protection)
 By breeding, it is possible to obtain varieties that can resist attack.
CONTROL MEASURES; these can be classified into, cultural, chemical and plant resistance
CULTURAL
 Crop rotation; by planting a given crop in a different plot each season, some disease
agents are excluded from their host plant e.g. cyst nematodes, and club root.
 Destruction of infected material; uprooting of weed hosts, burning and burying of
diseased plants, particularly those infected by viruses and bacteria can eradicate these
disease agents.
 Ploughing; this brings about physical improvement of soil structure as preparation for
sowing. The improved drainage and tilth may reduce damping off disease, expose soil
pest to the birds
 Soil fertility; increased fertility may cause increase in insect pests that are vectors for
viruses, adequate levels of potassium control fungal diseases like Fusariun wilt in
Carnation, and tomato mosaic virus. Club root disease of brassicas is less damaging in
neutral soils whereas suitable fertilizers stimulate plant growth to recover from damage
by disease.
 General farm sanitation; it is good practice to disinfect clothing, machinery, and
equipment used in infected fields.
 Seed treatment; this is to avoid soil/seed borne diseases carried from season to season.
Treat with fungicides.
 Avoidance; time the planting of the crop such that the vulnerable stage is passed before
disease agent reaches its peak.
CHEMICAL METHOD
 Insecticides can be used to control insect vectors that carry disease. Aphids, Leaf
hoppers and mealy bugs, all of which carry viruses are controlled by insecticide sprays
 Fungicides are the chemicals used to control fungal disease. They may be sprayed or
dusted on the seeds, young leaves, shoots or young flower buds before arrival of fungal
spores
 Seed treatment: normally effective in control of seed borne diseases e.g. smuts and
rusts. Seed material is soaked in fungicides before sowing or as a routine procedure in
seed processing. Certain soil fumigants are effective in controlling nematodes, soil borne
diseases, and disease carrying insects
 Repellants; these are chemicals that do not kill but repel disease carrying pests from
coming near the host plant.
BIOLOGICAL METHOD; this mainly involves planting of disease resistant varieties
PHYSICAL METHOD;
 Hot water treatment will kill the loose smut pathogen (Ustilago nuda), a serious disease
of sugar cane. Floating cereals in water can separate healthy grains from those infected
by ergot (Claviceps purpurea) which causes ear rot in cereal crops.
Grain smut of sorghum may be controlled by soaking the seed in water for 4 hours to initiate
fungal growth. The seed is then dried, first in the shade and later in the sun to kill the
germinated spores

Economic importance of crop diseases

2. lower crop yield
3. They reduce the quality of the produce
4. they reduce the market value of the crops
5. They increase the cost of production
6. They cause food poisoning e.g. Ergot in wheat
7. They reduce photosynthetic area of the plant.

Learning Outcome
1. Procure, transport and store farm pesticides

Stages in use of pesticides includes

1. Sale

2. Handling, transport, storage,

3. Mixing, loading, application

4. Disposal

5. Provision of fuel to transport pesticides

6. Technical assistance in pesticide management

Procurement
Pesticides are generally purchased either as ready- to-use products or in bulk
for local formulation and/or packaging. Large quantities are often procured
through national or international tender procedures.
While Purchasing:
✅ Purchase pesticides/biopesticides only from Registered pesticide dealers having valid Licence.
✅ Purchase only just required quantity of pesticides for single operation in a specified area.
✅ See approved labels on the containers/packets of pesticides.
✅ See Batch No., Registration Number, Date of Manufacture/ Expiry on the labels.
✅ Purchase pesticides well packed in containers.

Criteria for choosing a pesticide include:

1. Safety is top priority

Questions to ask include what is the toxicity level of the pesticide (measured by
LD50--the higher the LD50 number, the less toxic); how mobile is the pesticide
and in what fashion can it be distributed (through air, soil, water, etc.); what is
the residual life of the pesticide; and what are the environmental hazards listed
on the label?
2. Species specificity
This is especially important to look for before using toxic chemicals since
certain pesticides only affect the target animals or plants. Try to avoid getting
broad spectrum pesticides that have potential to kill or harm many beneficial
species along with the pest. If such a pesticide is the only option, try doing spot
treatments to reduce the likelihood of affecting non-target organisms.
3. Effectiveness
For pesticides, it is a bit difficult to measure effectiveness because it can vary
depending on where the chemicals are being applied. In a lab, for instance, a
chemical may kill a large percentage of the target pest because it is a controlled
environment, but in a real life situation, the number may be much smaller due
to other factors such as killing off natural enemies, temperature changes, etc.
Evaluating uses of a considered pesticide in similar situations as that of your
school may help in estimating the kind of effect it will have.
4. Endurance
An animal or plant's endurance to the effects of a pesticide may vary. Watch for
success in pest control: if it at first seems to work well but then later
populations grow despite continued use, there may be some built up resistance.
5. Pesticides vary in their speeds of interaction
Choosing a pesticide should be determined based on circumstances. If it is an
 emergency, a shorter lived, fast acting and more acutely toxic material (such as
organophosphate for cockroaches) may be necessary. But a longer lasting, slow
acting and less toxic material (such as boric acid) may be better for chronic pest
problems.
6. Cost
This is always a consideration when deciding what chemicals to use.
Determination of cost often is done by measuring dollars per volume-some new
materials that are effective in lower doses may be more expensive than older
pesticides that need larger amounts to do the job. A small container of more
concentrated material may seem more expensive, but may be as effective as
three times that much in another kind of pesticide.
7. Once a pesticide is selected, notify
Give notification to personnel, students, and parents about what pesticide will
be (or has been) used and where it is going to be (or has been) applied so they
are aware of any possible exposure. Ideally applications should be done when
buildings are unoccupied, but regardless, it is best to give advanced notice that
an application is scheduled so that everyone can take appropriate steps to
ensure the safety of those involved.
NOTE
Acquire and consult the Safety Data Sheets (SDS) before deciding on a specific
pesticide. These important documents give data on the potential hazards and safety
precautions of various pesticides. Pesticide suppliers have SDS available
Packaging
Pesticides are commonly available in solid and liquid forms, necessitating
appropriate packaging solutions. For liquid pesticides, bottles made of
materials such as PET, COEX, and aluminum are commonly used. On the
other hand, solid pesticides are packaged in bags, typically made of water-
soluble materials or aluminum.

Here are 10 ways in which the crop protection industry innovates for safety in packaging:

 SEAL, LOGO AND LOCK. Safety seals, a manufacturer’s logo engraved into the bottles
and/or caps of products as well as spill-resistant and child-proof caps protect against
 leakage, counterfeiting and getting into the wrong hands. Caps are thermo-formed with a
tamper evidence ring that breaks off to indicate an opened bottle.

 MEASURE UP. Built-in measuring features minimize the risk of under- or overuse of
pesticides. Like a measuring cup, there are scales on packaging so farmers don’t have to
use separate equipment to mix a product with water. A translucent strip on the side shows
how much product is used with upside down and bottom up scales for ease of use. Gels
have measured doses within their package.

 AERATE BOTTLE NECKS. Anti-splash and anti-glug bottle necks are large enough for air
to enter while pouring to prevent splashing. The mouth is wide or there’s a molded in
feature that allows air in.

 GET A GRIP AND PINCH. The handles of crop protection products are ergonomically
designed for easy handling. In addition, pinched handles prevent product getting caught
in this hard to reach area for better rinsing before disposal.

 RIGHT-SIZE. Easy-to-manage containers that are appropriate for farm size discourage
decanting products into unlabeled, inappropriate containers. For example, in South
America and the U.S., where farms are large, also containers are large. But in India and
China, farms are smaller so containers match to fit.

 SMART LABEL. By incorporating unique overt and covert features, such as a hologram
with a company logo or invisible letters that can only be read by retailers with special
equipment, crop protection manufacturers protect against counterfeiting.

 RAISE THE BAR (CODE). QR or barcodes are another way the crop protection industry
authenticates products. They are read by farmers with a smart phone app to verify
product origin. If the code has already been scanned several times (empty packaging
taken by a criminal and refilled), then the farmer will be warned not to use it.
 LIGHTEN UP AND GET STRONGER. Stronger, lighter plastics and clever designs (i.e., ribs
in bottle walls) that enhance stability are being used in pesticide packaging to lessen
waste and cost.

 LAYER AND BULK-UP. Multiple layers (three to five depending on product properties) of
different polymer resins are built into product container walls to ensure chemical
compatibility or serve as migration barriers. In the U.S. and Canada, refillable, returnable
bulk containers for liquid products are used to cut down on waste and cost as they last for
five years.

 CLOSE CONTACT. Packaging used together with a Closed Transfer System (CTS) prevents
farmers from getting into direct contact with liquid chemicals. Farmers simply put a sealed
bottle onto a device that opens it, properly measures the pesticide and transfers it to the large
sprayer tank. Only a small percentage of European and U.S. farmers are currently using CTS
– which was designed by agricultural equipment makers – but its potential is huge, especially
if authorities stipulate the use of crop protection products only in combination with a CTS
 i. Transporting Pesticides
Every pesticide applicator should understand the hazards of transporting pesticides and
the procedures for minimizing those risks. Pesticides are moved by manufacturers to
distributors, from retailers to end users, and from storage sites to job sites.
ii. Transport vehicles should be in good mechanical condition. Make sure brakes, tires,
and steering work properly. Repair all fluid leaksbefore putting a truck on the road or
leaving the job site.
iii. Regularly inspect application equipment to be transported and used. Inspect hosesunder
pressure for wear and cracks and hose clamps for rust.
iv. Always carry supplies and replacement parts to make emergency repairs if aleak should
develop while going to and from the job site.
v. Never carry liquid pesticides in the passenger area because spilled chemicals may
cause harmful fumes that can be inhaled. A pesticide spilled in the cab is difficult to
remove and may lead to long-term inhalation exposure.
Keep pesticide containers in the original shipping box.
vi. Try to carry a minimum amount of pesticide products on a vehicle at any one time.
vii. Secure and protect pesticide containers against punctures and impacts from items packed
closely together.
viii. Enclosed cargo boxes provide extra security from curious children, thieves, or vandals.
ix. Never stack pesticide containers higher than the sides of the vehicle. Make sure flat-bed
trucks have tie-down rings or racks to simplify the job of securing the load.

The Vehicle Operator

The vehicle operator (driver) is the first person who can contain a spill and prevent it from
spreading. By the time first responders arrive on the scene,the spill may already be contained.
Therefore, it is important that the driver know basic emergency response procedures to contain
the spill,company guidelines, and who will notify local, state, and federal authorities.

Always carry product labels and Safety Data Sheets (SDSs) when transporting pesticides
on highways. The SDS contains critical information for the driver and emergency responders
after a pesticide spill.

Always carry a spill kit with the items you will need to handle a spill during transport.

Using Pesticides
1. Registration-Make sure that the product is registered for use.
 2. Read the Pesticide Label
Follow its directions for use, registrations, storage, and disposal to the letter.
Signal words on labels indicate the toxicity levels:
o DANGER-a taste to a teaspoon taken by mouth could kill an average-
sized adult.
o WARNING-a teaspoonful to an ounce taken by mouth could kill an
average-sized adult.
o CAUTION-an ounce to over a pint taken by mouth could kill an
average-sized adult.
3. Secure (if required) written recommendations
Obtain these from a licensed pest control advisor for use of the pesticide.
4. Personal Protective Equipment
Make sure that all safety equipment, such as gloves, goggles, respirator, hat,
etc. are available and worn when the pesticide is used.
5. Pesticide applicators should be licensed
Commercial operators must have a license to apply pesticides on school
grounds and be able to handle all equipment needed for the application.
6. Equipment
Make sure it is correctly calibrated and appropriate for the job at hand.
7. Spot treat
This will keep material confined to the area requiring treatment.
8. MSDS Sheets should be available
9. Keep records
What pesticide was used and for what? How much was used? Be sure to list all
pertinent information about the treatment for future reference about what was
done.
[Link] for pests after the application
Post-treatment monitoring can help determine the method's success.
[Link] Emergency Contact list
[Link]
Do not put pesticides down toilets, sinks, or other drains or gutters. Follow the
manufacturer's directions for proper disposal.

Handling
Before applying a pesticide (indoors or outdoors), remove children, toys and pets from the area and keep
them away until the pesticide has dried or as recommended by the label. Remove or cover food during
indoor [Link] clothes and wash your hands immediately after applying pesticides.

 The most effective way to reduce risks posed by pesticides is to use non-chemical
control methods to reduce or eliminate pest problems. Around the home, such
measures include:
o removing sources of food and water (such as leaky pipes); and
o destroying pest shelters and breeding sites (such as litter and plant debris).
 If you decide you must use pesticides, always read the label first and follow the
directions to the letter, including all precautions and restrictions.
 Don't use products for pests that are not indicated on the label and don't use more
pesticide than directed by the label. Don't think that twice the amount will do twice
the job.
 Use protective measures when handling pesticides as directed by the label, such as
wearing impermeable gloves, long pants, and long-sleeve shirts. Change clothes and
wash your hands immediately after applying pesticides.
 Before applying a pesticide (indoors or outdoors), remove children, toys and pets
from the area and keep them away until the pesticide has dried or as recommended by
the label.
 Remove or cover food during indoor applications.
 Don't spray outdoors on windy or rainy days. Take precautions to keep the pesticide
from drifting or running off into the vegetable garden, pool or neighbor's yard.
 If using a commercial applicator or lawn care service, ask for information about
potential risks and safety precautions to take.
 Don't buy more pesticides than you will need. If you have leftover pesticides, check
with your local government to determine whether your community has a household
hazardous waste collection program or other program for disposing of pesticides. If
no community program exists, follow label directions and any state or local
regulations regarding disposal.

While handling:
✅ Keep pesticides separate during transportation.
✅ Bulk pesticides should be carried tactfully to the site of application
Storage of Pesticides in Buildings

It is best to have a separate storage facility for pesticides, fertilizers andother similar
products. Storing pesticides separately gives emergency response crews more options in dealing
with fires and spills.

Keeping equipment, employees, and records away from pesticides is always recommended
where possible.

A well-designed pesticide storage site:

Limits access.
Permits better inventory control.
Protects people from exposure.
Reduces the chance of environmental contamination.
Prevents damage to pesticides from temperature extremes and excess moisture.
Safeguards pesticides from theft, vandalism, and unauthorized use.
Allows fire departments to know the location of products.

Other factors affecting storage facilities

1. Secure the Site
keep it locked when not in use. Post warning signson doors and windows to alert others that
pesticides are stored inside.

2. Prevent Water Damage

Pesticide storage facilities should not be located in a flood zone. Carefully consider soil and
land surface characteristics when selecting astorage site to prevent contamination of
surface water or groundwater. Consider storing pesticides on a raised pallet or on shelves
to prevent high water from damaging pesticide containers

3. Control the Temperature

Choose a well-ventilated room where temperatures are controlled. Exhaust fans directed to
the outside of the building reduce the buildupof noxious vapors from many of the solvents used
in pesticide formulations.

4. Provide Adequate Lighting

Be sure the pesticide storage facility is well-lighted. Pesticide handlers entering the building
must be able to read the product labels anddetermine whether containers are leaking.

5. Use Nonporous Materials

Use cement or other impervious materials for flooring to retain the spilled material on the
surface. Such surfaces are easy to clean anddecontaminate in the event of a release. A floor that
slopes into a sump helps collect and contain the spill. Consider using shelving andpallets made of
nonabsorbent materials, such as plastic or metal, for the same reasons as impervious floors.
6. Keep Labels Legible

Store pesticide containers with the labels in plain sight. Costly errors may result if the wrong
pesticide is chosen. Be sure labels are alwayslegible. If the label is destroyed or damaged,
immediately mark the container with some basic labeling information,
7. Store Pesticide Containers Safely

Store pesticides in their original containers or, if allowed by state law, in a properly labeled
service container. Never use a pesticide product from anunmarked or unlabeled container unless
you are certain what it is
Keep pesticide containers securely closed when not in use.
8. Look for Damage

Regularly inspect pesticide containers to detect problems early. If you find a damaged
container, put on appropriate PPE and place it into alarger container, such as a 5-gallon
bucket. Clean up spilled pesticide and place any contaminated materials in the bucket. If
possible, usethe pesticide immediately on a site and at a rate allowed by the label or dispose of it
according to label directions.
9. Use the Oldest Product First

Keep an inventory of all pesticides in storage, marking each container or box with the year
it was purchased. In this way, you can use theoldest product first.
10. Isolate Unwanted or Waste Products

Do not accumulate outdated or unwanted pesticide products.

11. Stacking
Pesticides should be exhibited on racks or on pallets, but they should not be
stacked to aheight exceeding 2meters.
The distance between racks must be at least 1 metre wide