CFI-I Ground Briefs Note

Flight Instruments

Pitot Static System

How it works?

1) Pitot tube: Measure impact/ram/total pressure through a tube pointed into the relative wind

-. Ram air: Measures Ram pressure = Dynamic P + Static P = Total P

-. Pressure chamber: Inside the pressure chamber is Total P

-. Drain hole: Allows moisture to drain from the system

2) Static port: Measure static/still air pressure where air is not disturbed through perpendicular
installed

-. Static port: Measures static pressure = Ambient pressure = Barometric pressure

3) Alternate static source: Normally found inside the flight deck. Due to ‘Venturi effect’ of the air
flowing around the fuselage, the air pressure inside the flight deck is lower than the exterior
pressure.

-. Alternate static source errors (due to alternate static pressure being lower than the actual P)

① Altimeter indicate a slightly higher than actual.

② ASI greater than actual

③ VSI show momentary climb and then stabilizes

* If no alternate static source, break the VSI window. This is an alternate method of introducing
static pressure into the system, and because VSI is the least important instrument.
1. ASI

P Pitot connection to diaphragm = Dynamic P + Static P = Total pressure

Inside the case = Static Pressure
The difference between total pressure and static pressure which indicate the dynamic
pressure is left inside the diaphragm and it is used to calculate the ASI.
Diaphragm contracts/expands due to pressure difference and the mechanical linkage will
move the needle to indicate airspeed.
I IAS
M White: Vso-Vfe (Flap extended operating range)
Green: Vs1-Vno (Normal operating range)
Yellow: Vno-Vne (Caution range, fly within this range only in smooth air)
Red line: Vne (Never exceed speed, structural failure)
P Ram pressure and Static pressure
L Shows only IAS
E ① Position error (During climb, pitot tube is not directly into the wind)
② Density ALT error (for a given IAS, Alt↑→ TAS↑): A/C has to be flown faster at higher
altitude to cause the same pressure difference between pitot impact pressure and static
pressure.
③ Compressibility (caused by the packing of air into the pitot tube at high speeds
usually above 180KIAS) & Mechanical error (error of measuring equipment, friction, wear
of gears)
* How could you find the pitot tube blocked? By changing altitude or power setting, I would
make sure the ASI is working.
* In the event of an airspeed indicator malfunction? Fly known power settings
*Blockage of the pitot-static system
(Pitot tube blockage)
① Ram blocked but drain ok = ASI zero indication (pressure difference 0 = Static P – Static P)
-. Only static pressure goes into the diaphragm, inside the case is also static pressure.
 ② Ram ok but drain blocked= Normal operation ASI
③ Pitot ram & drain blocked, static port open = Ram pressure blocked inside (same pressure),
static pressure inside the case changes as altitude changes. ASI works as an Altimeter.
* Danger of stall or dive if not recognized or fixated
(Static port blockage) → This also affects Altimeter and VSI
④ Pitot open & Static blocked = When descending → AS faster & When climbing → AS slower
⑤ Pitot & Static blocked = Frozen at previous AS
[Types of Airspeed]

Indicated airspeed. The direct instrument reading obtained from the ASI, uncorrected for
IAS variations in atmospheric density, installation error, or instrument error. Manufacturers use
this airspeed as the basis for determining aircraft performance
CAS Calibrated airspeed. IAS corrected for installation error and instrument error
EAS Equivalent airspeed: CAS corrected for adiabatic compressible airflow
True airspeed. CAS corrected for altitude and nonstandard temperature. For a given CAS,
TAS
TAS increases as altitude increases; or for a given TAS, CAS decreases as altitude decrease
GS Groundspeed. The actual speed of the airplane over the ground. It is TAS adjusted for wind

2. Altimeter

P Internal pressure of sealed aneroid wafer is set at 29.92”hg. Pressure difference between
29.92”hg and ambient pressure (static pressure) is used to calculate the altitude. The
aneroid wafer contracts/expands due to the pressure difference and moves the needle by
mechanical linkages.
Kollsman window is to adjust a knob to set to the current ALT setting * Climb: aneroid
wafer expands <-> Descent: aneroid wafer compressed
I Feet above selected pressure level (MSL)
M 10,000’, 1,000’, 100’, 20’
P Static pressure
 L Kollsman window (28.00”-31.00”) below or above it is unreliable.
* When abnormally low barometric pressure below 28.00”, flight operation by aircraft
unable to set the actual altimeter setting is not recommended
E ① Pressure, Temperature change (From High/Hot to Low/Cold, Look out below!)
-. Pressure and temperature can change during the flight. → Need of change in
barometric pressure setting during the flight operation.
② Mechanical error: Due to friction and wear of gears
* Static blockage = frozen at previous/ current ALT
* How can we inspect altimeter: Take it out and pressurize the case to check the altitude change
* Altimeter setting broadcasted by ground station is defined as station pressure corrected to sea
level. Altimeter is accurate only in the vicinity of the reporting station.

[Types of Altitude]

Indicated Altitude directly obtained from the altimeter when it is set to the current altimeter
altitude setting
True the vertical distance of the aircraft above sea level – the actual altitude. It is often
altitude expressed as feet above MSL
Absolute
the vertical distance of an aircraft above the terrain, or above ground level (AGL)
altitude
the altitude indicated when the altimeter setting window is adjusted to 29.92 “Hg.
Pressure
This is the altitude above the standard datum plane, which is a theoretical plane
altitude
where air pressure (corrected to 15 °C) equals 29.92 “Hg
Density pressure altitude corrected for variations from standard temperature. This is an
altitude important altitude because it is directly related to the aircraft’s performance.

3. VSI
 P VSI measures increase & decrease in static pressure
Case: Through calibrated leak, inside the case has a delay to show the ambient pressure
(Static pressure of a few seconds ago)
Diaphragm: Direct static pressure inside the diaphragm
The pressure difference between diaphragm and case due to delay, it measures the rate-
of- static pressure change
I Indicates immediate trend & Rate of climb or Rate of descent over time (FPM)
M 50’, 100’
P Direct static pressure into diaphragm and calibrated leak into case
L 6-9 sec lag
E Calibration (gap between indicator and measurement) & mechanical error
* Some A/C are equipped with an instantaneous VSI (IVSI), which incorporates accelerometer to
compensate for the lag in the typical VSI.
* Static blockage = pressures will equalize & read zero

Vacuum System

① Vacuum system flow

Air filter → Attitude/HDI/VAC gauge → Vacuum relief valve → Manifold check valve → Low VAC
switches (connected to annunciator panel) → Engine driven vacuum pump (Air is drawn into the
system by the pump) → Overboard vent lines

-. Vacuum air filter: Air is drawn into the vacuum system by engine driven vacuum pump

-. Vacuum relief valve: Prevents the vacuum pressure from exceeding prescribed limits
② Gyro system

-. Vacuum system spins the Gyro system. Vacuum pump malfunction → Attitude indicator, HDI stops
and red flag show up.

-. Rigidity in space: Rigidity in space refers to the principle that a Gyroscope remains in a fixed
position in the plane in which it is spinning (regardless of aircraft movement).

-. Precession: Precession is the turning or tilting of a gyro in response to a deflective force. When
a force is applied to a spinning gyro, the reaction occurs as if the force is applied at 90 degrees
later in the direction of rotation.

* Attitude and Heading indicator function on the principle of “Rigidity in space”, and Rate instrument
(Turn coordinator) operates on “Precession”.

4. Attitude Indicator (by Rigidity in space)

* Gyroscope is a device containing a rapidly spinning wheel that is used to detect the deviation of
an object from its desired orientation.

* Gimbal is a pivoted support that permits rotation of an object about an axis.

P The gyro in the attitude indicator is mounted in a horizontal plane and depends upon
“Rigidity in space” for its operation.
A/C moves around the gyro as its gimbals allow it to maintain its position
I Direct indication of Pitch and bank attitude
M Bank 10, 20, 30, 45, 60°
Pitch: 5, 10°
P Engine-driven vacuum system
L Limits in Pitch: 60~70°
Limits in Bank: 100~110°
* If either limit is exceeded, the instrument will tumble or spill and give incorrect
indications until realigned.
The erection can take as long as 5 minutes, but is normally done within 2~3 minutes.
E ① Tumbles when limitation exceeds
② 180° steep turn and rollout: possibility of a small bank angle and pitch error
③ AccelerationPitch up indication (indicates slight climb), Decelerationpitch down
(slight descent)
*Pendulous vanes
When an aircraft engine is first started, the gyro is not erect. A self-erecting mechanism
(pendulous vanes) actuated by the force of gravity applies a processing force, causing the gyro
to rise to its vertical position. This process can take as long as 5 minutes, but is normally done
within 2-3.

(Pilot effect video) [Link]

5. Heading Indicator / Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)

P The operation of the heading indicator depends upon the principle of “Rigidity in space”.
The rotor turns in a vertical plane and fixed to the rotor is a compass card.
Rigidity in space (vertical) A/C moves around the gyro as its gimbals allow it to maintain
its position
I Magnetic heading (Indirect indication of bank)
M Compass heading. Cardinal direction, 30, 10, 5°, and HDG bug
P Engine-driven vacuum
L Greater than 60° bank could tumble
Free gyros must be Aligned with the Magnetic Compass
E ① Because of Precession caused by friction, the heading indicator creeps or drifts from
its set position. If the bearing are worn, dirty, or improperly lubricated, the drift may be
excessive.
② Another error is caused by the fact that the gyro is oriented in space, and the Earth
rotates in space at a rate of 15°/hr. Thus, discounting precession caused by friction, the
heading indicator may indicate as much as 15° error per every hour of operation.
→ Use adjustment knob to realign once every 10-15min during the flight operation.
* No more than 3° in 15 min when on the ground acceptable.
* HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicators) receives a magnetic north reference from a
“Magnetometer” and generally need no adjustment.
HIS does not have Reverse sensing.
6. Radio magnetic indicator (RMI)

Remote indicating compasses were developed to compensate for the errors and limitations of the
older type of heading indicators. The compass card is driven by signals from the flux valve, and the
two pointers are driven by an automatic direction finder (ADF) and a very high frequency
omnidirectional range (VOR). The VOR needle points to a VOR station and the tail of the needle
indicates the current radial.

7. Turn and Slip Indicator / Turn Coordinator

P Controlled precession causes the gimbal to rotate about the gimbal axis
I Turn coordinator: Rate of rollRate of roll, rate of turn, quality of turn(coordination),
indirect indication of bank
Turn and slip indicator: A pointer shows the direction and the rate of turn (°/sec), quality
of turn (coordination)
M Standard rate turn & Coordination
P Electric gyro
L Only shows standard Rate (does not indicate specific bank), No pitch Information
E Calibration (gap between measurement and indicator) & Mechanical errors, wobble in
turbulence
 1) Turn and slip indicator (old version): it only shows the rate of turn in degrees per second.
The gyro in the turn-slip indicator rotates in the vertical plane corresponding to the A/C’s
longitudinal axis. Because of precession, a yawing force causes the gyro to tilt left or right.
2) Turn coordinator: the gyro is mounted at an angle (tilted 30 degrees from the horizon), so it
shows the rate of roll as well as rate of turn + quality of turn.
 It shows rate of roll initially, but once the bank is established, it shows rate of turn too
* Standard rate turn (360°/2min): A standard rate turn is accomplished at 3°/sec resulting in a
360degree turn in two minutes. (Angle of bank for STD rate turn: TAS/10 + 7)
* Both instruments indicate turn direction, quality (coordination), and also serve as back up source
of bank information in the event an attitude indicator fails. Coordination is achieved by referring
to the Inclinometer.
* Inclinometer – Liquid filled curved tube with ball inside that shows quality of turn
(coordination). It measures the balance between centrifugal force (outside) & horizontal
component of lift (inside) in a turn.
1) Slip – The rate of turn is too slow for the angle of bank.
ex) not enough rudder / too much bank
2) Skid – The rate of turn is too great for the angle of bank.
ex) too much rudder / not enough bank

8. Magnetic Compass

P Magnets in a compass make it align with the magnetic North Pole.

I Magnetic headings
M Cardinal direction, 30, 10, 5°
P Magnetic fields
 L Greater than 18° Degrees of Bank cause unreliability. More than this results in erratic &
unpredictable reading.
E (VDMONA)
① Variation – Angular difference between true north and magnetic north (Isogonic lines)
② Deviation - Errors associated with electrical fields from eletrical equipment in the
airplane
③ Magnetic Dip – Magnetic dip creates the most substantial errors in a compass. As you
get closer to the North or South Pole, magnetic flux lines point downwards towards the
poles, and your compass magnets dip towards the low side of a turn. When magnetic dip
is pronounced, it's difficult to get actual readings.
④ Oscillation – floating in liquid kerosene (water can freeze) – subject to the vibrations
and motion of the A/C
⑤ Northerly Turning Error - UNOS (Undershoot North, Overshoot South)
Northerly/Southerly turn should be stopped prior to/after the desired heading.
Rule of thumb: Stop the turn 15° plus half of the latitude.
Ex) FL 30° latitude → The turn should be stopped 15°+15°=30° prior to/after the desired
heading
⑥ Acceleration/Deceleration Errors - ANDS (Accelerate North, Decelerate South)
Magnetic compass errors when accelerating and decelerating on Easterly and westerly
headings.
Ex) When accelerating on either an easterly or westerly heading, the error appears as a
turn indication toward north.
Q: What is benefit of kerosene rather than water?
It prevents magnetic compass from oscillation and less susceptible to icing

9. Electronic Engine Instrument Display

10. Air data/Attitude and heading reference system (ADAHRS)

(SR20 POH 7-21)

Air Data uses Pitot-static system to provide airspeed, altitude, and VSI on PFD

AHRS system uses 3-axis solid state gyro, Accelerometer combined with a magnetometer to provide
attitude and heading information.

Standby ASI and Altimeter uses pitot-static system.

Standby Attitude indicator uses a vacuum system.

11. Instrument Cockpit Check

Magnetic compass: Full fluid, no leakage, swings freely, deviation card

Annunciator light
ASI: 0 KIAS
Attitude indicator: Erected within 5 mins, no more than 5° bank during taxi
Altimeter: +/- 75ft of airport elevation
VSI: 0°
Alt static source: Check quick movement of VSI and ALT (rise and drop back to 0°)
HI: Aligned with magnetic compass
MFD: all engine gauges in the green
Clock on the map page: matches correct time
Communication light: Test the lights
Both COMM 1&2
Localizer: Tune, identify and verify (confirm with approach plate)
RAIM: check for RAIM availability
Autopilot
Timer
Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying (IFH ch6, section2)

Understanding how each flight instrument operates and what role it plays in controlling the attitude
of the aircraft is fundamental in learning attitude instrument flying.
→ the pilot is better prepared to control the aircraft if the pilot should enter instrument flight
conditions or key instrument fail.

There are two basic methods utilized for learning attitude instrument flying. ① “control and
performance” and ② “primary and supporting.” The main difference between the two methods is
the importance that is placed on the attitude indicator and the interpretation of the other flight
instruments.

1. Control/Performance method

Method of which adjust control instruments based on the performance instruments. Aircraft
performance is accomplished by controlling the aircraft attitude and power output.

1) Control Instruments: Attitude Indicator (flight controls) & Power Indicator (MP and tachometer)
The control instruments depict immediate attitude and power changes.

The control instruments do not indicate how fast the aircraft is flying or at what altitude it is flying.
In order to determine these variables and others, a pilot needs to refer to the performance
instruments.

2) Performance Instruments: ASI, Turn coordinator, ALT, VSI, HI

The performance instruments directly reflect the performance the aircraft is achieving.
Speed – ASI, Altitude – Altimeter, Climb performance – VSI

Other performance instruments available are the heading indicator, pitch attitude indicator, and the
slip/skid indicator.

3) Navigation Instruments: GPS, VOR, GS

4) The Four-Step Process used to change attitude

① Establish an attitude indicator and power setting of control instruments

② Trim set
③ Cross-check the performance instrument whether it is indicating desired performance
④ Adjust as required the attitude indicator and power setting of control instruments

2. Primary and supporting method

The second method for performing attitude instrument flight is a direct extension of the
control/power method.

By utilizing the primary and supporting flight instruments in conjunction with the control and power
instruments, the pilot can precisely maintain aircraft attitude.

This method utilizes the same instruments as the control/power method; however, it focuses more
on the instruments that depict the most accurate indication for the aspect of the aircraft attitude
being controlled.

Pitch Bank Power

Primary Supporting Primary Supporting Primary Supporting
AI AI TACH
Straight and Level ALT HI ASI
VSI TC MP
Constant airspeed AI AI TACH
ASI HI ASI
climb or descent VSI TC MP
Constant rate climb AI TACH
VSI AI HI ASI
and descent TC MP
AI TACH
Standard rate turn ALT TC AI ASI
VSI MP
Area of Operation: ATC Clearance and Procedures & Compliance with Departure, En-route, and
Arrival procedures

1. IFR flight plan & ATC Clearance (Part 91.173, IFH 10-2)

(91.173) No person may operate an aircraft in controlled airspace under IFR unless that person had
① filed IFR flight plan and ② received an appropriate ATC clearance.

1) How to file: Foreflight, FSS (by telephone or website), Radio or Phone with ATC

-. File at least 30 min prior to estimated departure time to preclude possible delay in receiving
a departure clearance
-. Stored in the system for 2 hours from proposed time of departure

2) Cancelling IFR flight plans

-. Tower airports: automatically canceled by ATC upon landing

-. Non-Tower airports: Pilot is responsible for cancelling the flight plan. Contact ATC/FSS to cancel,
stating “cancel my IFR flight plan”.
-. Flight plan can be canceled any time a pilot is operating in VFR conditions outside airspace A

3) Clearance

① Basic IFR departure clearance items (C.R.A.F.T)

C: Clearance Limit
R: Route
A: Altitude
F: Frequency (for departure)
T: Transponder code

② Abbreviated clearance: Includes Departure Procedures. “Cleared Sanford 1 departure as filed”

③ The term “Cruise” in the clearance

④ VFR on Top

⑤ Clearance void time (AIM5-2-7): “Clearance void if not off by 0900”

The time at which your clearance is void and after which you may not takeoff. Without control
tower, the pilot must notify ATC within 30 min from the void time if the pilot did not depart.
Other IFR traffic will be suspended until the aircraft contacts ATC. And search and rescue procedures
will be begun.

⑥ Clearance separations
ATC does not provide separation for an aircraft operating -
-. Outside controlled airspace
-. On an IFR clearance with “VFR-On-Top” authorized
-. On an IFR clearance, at any time in VFR conditions, since uncontrolled VFR flights may be
operating in the same airspace

2. Departure Procedures (IFH 10-5, AIM 5-2-9)

Instrument departure procedures are preplanned IFR procedures to reduce workload of

pilot/controller, provide obstruction clearance and a safe way to depart the airport from the
terminal area to the en-route structure.

There are two type of Departure Procedures, Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP) and Standard
Instrument Departure (SID).

① When ATC clearance containing a DP is expected, the use of DP requires pilot possession of at
least the textual description

② If pilot does not possess a preprinted DP or for any other reason does not wish to use DPs, the
pilot is expected to advise ATC or file “NO DP” in the remarks

③ If a DP is accepted in a clearance, a pilot must comply with it

Obstacle Departure Procedure (ODP)

ODPs provide obstruction clearance via the least burdensome route from the terminal area to
the appropriate en-route structure.
1) Printed either textually or graphically
2) ODPs are recommended for obstruction clearance from terminal to en-route structure
3) May be flown without ATC clearance, unless an alternate DP (SID or radar vector) has been
specifically assigned by ATC.
4) ODP is needed when any obstacles penetrate 152FPNM (or 40:1) slope (OIS).
Obstacle Identification Surface (OIS) begins at the DER and slopes upward at 152FPNM until
reaching the minimum IFR altitude or entering the en-route structure.
5) When obstacles penetrate the OIS, a higher climb gradient of 200FPNM or greater is
required.
6) Obstacle clearance is based on the assumption that the aircraft (all engines are operating) will
cross Departure End of Runway (DEP) at 35ft, make no turns until 400ft above DER, and climb at
200FPNM until the minimum IFR altitude, unless otherwise specified.
7) In non-mountainous areas, within 25NM will give 1000ft obstacle clearance at 25NM from DER
8) In mountainous areas, within 46NM will give 2000ft obstacle clearance at 46NM from DER
9) This assessment area is limited to 25/46NM, beyond this distance, the pilot is responsible for
obstacle clearance if not operating on a published route, if below the MEA or MOCA, or an ATC
assigned altitude.
10) Obstacles that are located within 1NM of DER and penetrate the 40:1 OIS are referred to as
“low, close-in obstacles.” The standard required obstacle clearance (ROC) of 48ft per NM to
clear these obstacles would require a climb gradient greater than 200FPNM for a very short
distance, only until the aircraft was 200ft above the DER. (152FPM + 48FPNM = 200FPNM)
11) 200FPNM is based on GS. (GS/60 X FPNM = FPM)

Standard Instrument Departures (SID)

1) SIDs are ATC procedures printed for pilot/controller use in graphic form to provide obstruction
clearance and a transition from the terminal area to the en-route structure.
2) Primarily designed for system enhancement and to reduce pilot/controller workload
3) Always printed graphically
4) ATC clearance must be received prior to flying a SID

Departures from airports without an operating control tower

When departing from airports that have neither an operating tower nor an FSS, a pilot should
telephone the flight plan to the nearest ATC facility at least 30 minutes before the estimated
departure time.
1) If weather conditions permit, depart VFR and request IFR clearance as soon as radio contact
is established with ATC.
 2) If weather conditions make it undesirable to fly VFR, telephone clearance request.
In this case, the controller would probably issue a short-range clearance and might restrict the
departure time to a certain period. “Clearance void if not off by 0900.”

Radar-Controlled Departures
On IFR departures from airports in congested areas, a pilot normally receives navigational
guidance from departure control by radar vector.
1) Pilot is expected to fly the assigned headings and altitudes until informed by controller
2) Departure control provides vectors to either a navigation facility, or an en-route position

3. En Route Procedures (IFH 10-7)

Procedures en route vary according to the proposed route, the traffic environment, and the ATC
facilities controlling the flight. Some IFR flights are under radar surveillance and controlled from
departure to arrival and others rely entirely on pilot navigation.

1) ATC reports

All pilots are required to report unforecast weather conditions or other information related to safety
of flight to ATC.

The PIC of an aircraft operated in controlled airspace under IFR shall report as soon as practical to
ATC any malfunctions of navigational, approach, or communication equipment occurring in flight:

① Loss of VOR, TACAN or ADF receiver capability

② Complete or partial loss of ILS receiver capability

③ Impairment of air-to-ground communications capability

The pilot-in-command shall include within the report (1) aircraft identification, (2) equipment
affected, (3) degree to which the pilot to operate under IFR within the ATC system is impaired, and
(4) nature and extent of assistance desired from ATC.

2) Position Reports (IFH 10-7, FAR 91.183, FAR 91.123, AIM5-3-2 & AIM 5-3-3)

Position reports are required over each compulsory reporting point (▲) (including VFR-on-top)
Reports at reporting points (△) are made only when requested by ATC.
Along direct routes, reports are required of all IFR flights over each point used to define the route
of flight.

When informed by ATC “RADAR CONTACT.” → Pilot should discontinue position reporting
* When ATC advises “RADAR CONTACT LOST” or “RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED.” → Position
reporting should be resumed
(What to report) Position report at compulsory reporting points (IPTATENR)
Identification
Position
Time
Altitude or Flight Level
Type of flight plan
ETA & name of next reporting point
Name only of the next succeeding reporting point along route of flight
Remarks

(When to report) Other mandatory report (DRUMS)

Deviation from clearance
Requested
Un-forecast Wx
Malfunctions §91.187
Safety of flight

(When to report) Other reports to ATC without a specific request (AMARVELOUS D VFR 500)
In addition to required position reports, the following reports should be made to ATC without a
specific request. At all times or When not in radar contact
Assigned, requested or required by chart
Missed approach (to request alternate action)
AS changes in TAS when it varies by 5% or 10kts (whichever is greater) from the flight plan
Reaching a clearance limit (any assigned holding fix or point)
Vacating any previous assigned Altitude for a newly assigned altitude
ETA changes of 3 minutes of more (When not in radar contact)
Leaving a clearance limit (any assigned holding fix or point)
Outer Marker inbound (When not in radar contact – precision approach)
Un-forecast Wx
Safety of flight
Deviations
VFR on top altitude changes
FAF inbound (When not in radar contact – non-precision approach)
Radio/Nav failures (Any loss in controlled airspace of VOR, TACAN, GPS, ILS, Comm)
Unable to climb/descend at a rate of at least 500FPM
3) Low Enroute Charts

: Aeronautical charts for en-route instrument navigation below 18,000’ MSL. Revised every 56 days

MEA Min Enroute alt gives obstacle & nav signal guarantee
Min obstruction clearance alt along a depicted route that will guarantee VOR signal
MOCA
w/in 22 nm of VOR station

MORA Min off route ALT: clear obstruction by 1000 for non-mountainous and 2000 for
(Jeppesen mountainous. It does not guarantee Nav & radio signal
chart) *OROCA: Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude
Min reception ALT. Lowest alt at which an intersection can be defined by ground-
MRA
based navigation aids
MCA Min crossing altitude – must be at this alt. upon crossing the fix
MAA Max authorized ALT: above this may have conflicting signal
Min safe ALT: 1000 obstacle clearance within 25nm radius of depicted nav aid
MSA
* If it is not a circle, we call it Minimum Sector Altitude
* if no applicable min altitude is prescribed, 2,000ft above the highest obstacle within 4nm for
mountainous. If any other case, 1,000ft above the highest obstacle within 4nm

4) Planning the descent and approach

When landing at an airport with approach control services and where two or more IAPs are
published, information on the type of approach to expect is provided in advance of arrival. This
information is broadcast either on ATIS or by a controller.

The purpose of this information is to help the pilot plan arrival actions; however, it is not an ATC
clearance or commitment and is subject to change. Fluctuating weather, shifting winds, blocked
runway, etc.

It is important for a pilot to advise ATC immediately if he or she is unable to execute the
approach or prefers another type of approach.

If the destination is an airport without an operating control tower and has ASOS/AWOS, the pilot
should monitor the weather for the airport and ATC should be advised that weather information
has been received and what the pilot’s intentions are.

* 3NM prior to IAF, start Descend & Approach checklist, and Approach briefing.
4. Terminal Arrivals (IFH 10-9, AIM 5-4-1)

Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) (Jets & Turbo prop)

STARs are preplanned IFR procedures that provide obstruction clearance from the en-route to
terminal area and provide the pilot with a safe way to arrive the airport.

STARs have been established to simplify clearance delivery procedures for arriving aircraft at
certain areas having high density traffic.

1) If the STARs have been published, a pilot may be issued a clearance containing a STAR
whenever ATC deems it appropriate
2) To accept the clearance, a pilot must possess at least the approved textual description.
3) It is the pilot’s responsibility to either accept or refuse an issued STAR by advising ATC or file
“NO STAR” in the remarks
4) If a STAR is accepted in a clearance, compliance is mandatory.
*Cleared via / Descend via: Only “Descend Via” clearance gives you the vertical authorization.
“Cleared” or “Cleared Via” are lateral clearance.

1) Approach Briefing

Briefing strip, Plan view, Profile view, Minimum, Go missed procedure

2) Procedure turns

Do not fly an procedure turn when (SHARPTT)

Under certain conditions, during an approach procedure, a course reversal maneuver or procedure
turn may be necessary. However this procedure is not authorized when -
S: Straight in
H: Holding pattern is published in lieu of PT
A: Arc to final approach course
R: Radar vectoring is provided to the final approach course
P: No PT depicted on chart
T: Teardrop entry
T: Executing timed approach from a holding fix (IFH 10-18)

3) Holding procedures (AIM 5-3-8, IFH10-10)

Whenever delay is expected due to weather or traffic, holding may be assigned by ATC

(1) Standard pattern: right turn (Nonstandard pattern: left turn)

(2) Fix identification: VOR, DME, LOC, GPS, Cross radials

(3) Wind correction

Adjust outbound timing to achieve a 1-minute inbound leg (Below 14,000’ MSL).
Compensate for the effects of wind primarily by using drift correction on the outbound leg. When
outbound, the PF will triple the inbound drift correction to avoid major turning adjustments (or
use ground track on the PFD).
Ex) If the inbound correction is 8°, outbound correction should be 24°.

(4) Holding instruction

Where a holding pattern is not charted, the ATC clearance specifies the following:
① Direction of holding from the fix (N, NE, E, SE, etc.)
② Holding fix
③ Radial, course, bearing, airway, or route on which the aircraft is to hold
④ Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used
⑤ Direction of turn, if left turns are to be made
⑥ Time to expect-further-clearance (EFC)

(5) Entries (Recommended)

Three “recommend” holding pattern entry procedures: Deviations coupled with excessive airspeed
may result in the exceeding holding protected airspace.
When a speed reduction is required, start the reduction when 3 minutes or less from the holding
fix. (SR20, reduce to 120kts, 65%power/22”MP)
 Entry Procedure
Heading to parallel the holding course outbound on the non-holding side for
(a) Parallel 1 minute, turn in the direction of the holding pattern through more than 180°,
and intercept the holding course inbound (at an angle 45°)
Turn outbound to a heading for a 30° for a period of 1 minute then turn in the
(b) Teardrop
direction of the holding pattern to intercept the inbound holding course
(c) Direct Turn to follow the holding pattern

* Make all turns during entry and while holding at:

①3°/sec (Standard rate turn), or
② 30° Bank, or
③ A bank angle provided by a flight director system

(6) Speeds/Altitudes

Aircraft should be at or below the maximum speed prior to initially crossing the holding fix

Altitude (MSL) Airspeed (KIAS)

MHA-6,000ft 200
6,001-14,000ft 230
Above 14,001ft 265
* Speed restriction is depicted in parenthesis inside the holding pattern on the chart ex) (175)

(7) Timing/Patterns

① Outbound leg
The initial outbound leg should be flown for 1 min (Below 14,000’ MSL) or 1-1/2 min. Timing for
subsequent outbound legs should be adjusted, as necessary, to achieve proper inbound leg time.

Outbound timing begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position cannot
be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed (wings level or abeam to fix
whichever comes last)

Adjust outbound timing to achieve a 1-minute inbound leg (Below 14,000’ MSL).

② Inbound Leg

At or below 14,000ft MSL 1 min

Above 14,000ft MSL 1-1/2 min
Inbound leg timing begins when CDI centered or wings level whichever comes first.

DME: DME pattern lengths specified

* The holding pattern entry time and the time leaving the holding fix must be reported to ATC.
5. Approaches

1) Instrument approach to civil airport

① Approach to airport without an operating control tower

② Approach to airport with an operating control tower, with No Approach Control

③ Approach to airport with an operating control tower, with Approach Control

2) Precision Approaches

Standard instrument approach procedure in which an electronic glide slope is provided, such as ILS
and PAR

Reduce airspeed to 110kts(appx 55% Power), 3minutes prior to arrival at the IAF or FAF.

Verify that the approach, and the unit is switched to VLOC

One dot below the glideslope, Set 50% flaps, reduce power to 25% power, while maintaining 100kts,
and intercept the glideslope.

Descend below DA when requirements are met.

3) Non-precision approaches

Standard instrument approach procedure in which no electronic glide slope is provided, such as
LOC, RNAV, VOR

Within 1/2nm from the FAF, Set 50% Flaps, reduce airspeed to 100kts, and crossing the FAF reduce
power to 25%, maintain 100kts, descend at 700FPM.

4) Different types of GPS approaches

5) Radar Approaches

6) Circling Approach Procedures (AIM 5-4-20, IFH 10-20)

A circling approach is an extension of an instrument approach procedure which provides for visual
circling of the airport prior to landing.

Landing minimums listed on the approach chart under “CIRCLING” apply when it is necessary to
circle the airport, maneuver for landing, or when no straight-in minimums are specified on the
approach chart.

The circling minimums published on the instrument approach chart provide a minimum of 300
feet of obstacle clearance in the circling area.

During a circling approach, the pilot should maintain visual contact with the runway of intended
landing and fly no lower than the circling minimums until positioned to make a final descent for a
landing.

It is important to remember that circling minimums are only minimums. If the ceiling allows it,
fly at an altitude that more nearly approximates VFR traffic pattern altitude.

*Circling-Only Procedures

The first approach of this type created at the airport is labeled with the letter A, and the lettering
continues in alphabetical order.

Circling only approaches are designed for one of the following reasons:

① The final approach course alignment with the runway centerline exceeds 30°
② The descent gradient is greater than 400 ft/NM from the FAF to the threshold crossing height
(TCH). When this maximum gradient is exceeded, the circling only approach procedure may be
designed to meet the gradient criteria limits.
③ A runway is not clearly defined on the airfield

Expanded radius C
CAT 1.3 Vso (kt) Radius for circling
(1,000ft or less in MSL)

A < 90 1.3 NM 1.3NM

B 91-120 1.5 NM 1.7 NM
C 121-140 1.7 NM 2.7 NM
D 141-165 2.3 NM 3.6 NM
E > 165 4.5 NM 4.5 NM
* The approaches using expanded circling approach areas can be identified by the C on the
circling line of minima.

RVR: Runway visual range as measured in the touchdown zone area

RVR (ft) SM 3200 5/8 SM 5000 1SM

1600 1/4 SM 4000 3/4 SM 6000 1 1/4 SM
2400 1/2 SM 4500 7/8 SM

7) Approaches to Parallel Runways & Side-Step Maneuver

8) Timed Approaches From a Holding Fix

9) Standard Instrument Approach Procedure Charts

* Visual descent Point: Point at which 3-degree normal descent is applied from MDA to the RWY
touchdown point

[Link] (How to Brief a Jeppesen Approach Chart: Boldmethod Live)

Jeppesen Legend p.76~

6. Lost Communication (91.185)

1) Check frequency, volume, jacks, previous frequency

2) squawk 7600

3) If VFR remain VFR and land as soon as practical

If IFR,

(1) Route: in order of importance -AVEF

① Assigned by the last ATC clearance

② Vectored: ex) go direct to your fix, route or airway specified in the vectored clearance

③ Expected: if there is no assigned or vectored route

④ Filed: as filed in your flight plane if none of the above

(2) Altitude: the highest of -MEA

① MEA

② Expected

③ Assigned

Clearance limits With EFC Without EFC

Begin descent & approach at ETA time –
Limit is an IAF Begin descent & approach at EFC time
if already passed continue with approach
Hold on your entry heading or published
Not an IAF Continue to an IAF
then continue to an IAF
HOLD there until your ETA or if already passed, proceed with approach
Regulations and Publication related to IFR operation

1. 14CFR parts 61, 71, 91, 95, and 97

Part 61: Certification: pilots, flight instructors, ground instructors

1) Requirements and conditions for certificates
Content 2) Privileges and limitations of certificates
#3, 51, 57, 133
61.3 (e): No person may act as PIC under IFR or in weather conditions less than VFR wx min unless person
holds instrument rating on pilot certificate for any airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift being flown or ATP
61.51(g): (1) Person may log instrument time when operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments
under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions (2) Instructor may log instrument time when
conducting instruction in actual instrument (3) Under instrument experience, follow information must be
recorded: Location and Type of each instrument approach and name of the safety pilot, if required
61.57 (c): Instrument experience: A person may act as PIC under IFR or less than VFR min only if (1) Within
6CM preceding the month of the flight, 6 instrument approaches, holding, intercepting and tracking
navigational course * If the pilot has not accomplished at least 6 approaches (including holding
procedures, intercepting/tracking courses through the use of navigation systems) within this first
6 months, he is no longer legal to file and fly under IFR. To become legal again, the regulations
allow a “grace period” (the second 6-month period), in which a pilot accompanied by
appropriately rated safety pilot. Safety pilot condition (1) At least private pilot with category and
class ratings (2) Current medical certificate (3) If the flight is to be conducted under IFR,
instrument rating is required (d) If the second 6-month period also passes without accomplishing
the minimum, the pilot should get the ‘IPC (Instrument Proficiency Check)’ given by an examiner,
an authorized instructor, or an FAA-approved person to conduct instrument practical tests.
61.133: Without IR, the carriage of passengers for hire on cross-country flights in excess of 50
nautical miles or at night is prohibited
Part 71: Designation of Class A, B, C, D, and E airspace areas, Air traffic service routes, and Reporting
points
1) Airspace A, B, C, D and E
Content 2) 71.11: Air Traffic Service (ATS) routes: Centerline extending from one navigation aid, fix, or
intersection to another navigation aid, fix, or intersection ex) VOR airway, RNAV routes
Part 91: General operating and flight rules
1) About rules of flight
Content 2) Subparts of each rule
#3, 103, 113, 117, 123, 167, 169, 171, 173, 175, 177, 179, 181, 183, 185, 187, 205, 411, 413
91.3 (b): PIC may deviate from any rule required to take action for the emergency (c) upon the request of
administrator, send a written report of the deviation
91.113 “Right of way rule”: (c) Aircraft in distress (d) Converging: BalloonGliderAirshipAircraft towing
or refuelingAircraft to the other’s right (e) Approaching head-on: Alter to the right (f) Overtaking:
Overtaken aircraft
91.169 IFR alternate airport: (b) at least 1 hour before and for 1 hour after the ETA, greater than 2,000ft
ceiling and 3 sm visibility (c) IFR alternate airport wx min (1) with instrument approach ①Precision app:
 600ft ceiling, vis 2sm ②non-precision approach: 800ft ceiling, vis 2sm ③no instrument approach: ceiling
and visibility allowing descent from MEA to landing under VFR
91.175 Operation below DA/DH or MDA: (1) Normal descent rate allows landing (2) VIS greater than min
(3) RWY environment in sight (except that pilot may not descend below 100ft above the TDZE as a white
light reference
91.179 IFR cruising ALT: In controlled airspace-assigned by ATC, In uncontrolled airspace-Magnetic course
of 0~179 Odd thousand-foot MSL, 180~359 Even thousand-foot MSL
Part 95: IFR altitudes:
Subpart A: Definition and symbol
Content Subpart B: Designated Mountainous Areas
Subpart D: Change over point (midway between nav facilities)
Part 97: Standard instrument approach procedures
1) Symbols and terms used in procedures
Content 97.3: “Aircraft approach category” means a group of a/c based on Vref or 1.3 Vso, if Vref is not
specified

2. Instrument Flying Handbook

Purpose:
Contents:
Availability:
Method of revision:

To provide specific information about a particular topic

3. Instrument Procedures Handbook

Purpose:
Contents:
Availability:
Method of revision:

4. Aeronautical Information Manual

AIM (Aeronautical Information Manual)

Provide information about basic of flight and ATC procedures in the US NAS
5. Practical Test Standards

PTS (Practical Test Standards)

It is issued by FAA and describes the standard you have to meet to get a certificate or rating,
6. Airport Facility Directory / Chart supplement

Chart Supplement
1) Information: Airports, communications, navigation aids (NAVAIDs) pertinent to IFR flights, VOR
receiver check points, FSS number, ARTCC frequencies and various special notices essential to
flight are included.
2) Effective for every 56 days
Weather Information

1. AWOS, ASOS, and ATIS reports

AWOS: Automated Weather Observing System

1) Auto generated
2) Issued minute-by-minute or 30mins
3) FAA/State operate
ASOS: Automated Surface Observing System
1) Auto generated
2) Issued hourly
3) NWS/DOD/FAA operate
* Difference between AWOS and ASOS: ASOS additionally provide the surface weather in detail
such as precipitation or obstruction visibility such as fog and haze
ATIS: Automated Terminal Information System
1) Generated by human using a data provided by ASOS
2) Issued hourly
3) Include pertinent airport information
2. TIBS

1) Telephone Information Briefing Service which is available by telephone throughout Alaska

2) TIBS was suspended on September 13, 2018 within the contiguous US

3. TWEB

1) Continuous broadcast of recorded NOTAM and weather information prepared for a 50nm along
a route and for selected terminal areas

2) Flight service discontinued the TWEB

4. METAR, TAF, FA, and radar reports

Aviation Routine Weather Report (METAR)

1) Observation of current weather condition within 5nm of the specific airport. Issued usually 55
minutes past every hour, valid only when issued, but used as a reference for the rest of the hour
until a next METAR is issued. Coverage area is within 5 NM.
2) VC vs. DSNT: Vicinity is between 5 and 10 NM. / Distant is between 10 and 30 NM.
3) Definition of Ceiling: The height-above-ground level of the lowest broken or overcast layer. If
the sky is totally obscured, the height of the vertical visibility (VV) is used as the ceiling height.
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast (TAF)
1) Forecast of weather condition within 5sm of the specific airport. Issued 4 times a day, valid for
24-30 hours depending on airport.
2) The TAF has different types of indications:
 - BCMG: The weather will change gradually over two hours or more.
- FM(FROM): It is a significant change in the conditions, a rapid weather change within 1 hour.
- TEMPO: It indicates temporary changes that are greater than 50% chance of happening. They
may last for 1 hour or less, and they cover half of the period.
- PROB30/40: It indicates a low probability of 30%/40% chance of a thunderstorm or precipitation
event and its associated weather and obscuration elements (wind, visibility and/or sky condition).
Area Forecast (FA)
It has been replaced by Graphic Area Forecast
5. Surface Analysis, Weather Depiction, Radar Summary Chart

Surface Analysis Chart

1) These charts depict isobar, positions of highs and lows, ridges and troughs; location and type
of fronts. Issued every 3 hours, valid only when issued
- Dry line: A boundary separating moist and dry air masses
- Trough: elongated area of relatively low atmospheric pressure
- Squall line: A line of active thunderstorms

Weather depiction charts have been discontinued

Radar Summary Chart
It may vary to some fast updates ranging from 4-6 minutes. It displays precipitation intensity,
trend, or moisture presence. Issued every hour.
6. Significant Weather Prognostic Charts

Low Level Significant Weather Chart (SigWx)

1) This low-level weather chart depicts weather flying categories, turbulence and freezing levels
 below FL240. Issued 4 times a day, left panel valid for 12 hours, right panel valid for 24 hours
* Inflight icing is not on the Low-Level SigWx Chart.

2) WX fliying categories

*Low Level: SFC-FL240 // Middle Level: FL100-FL450 // High Level: FL250-FL630

7. Winds and Temperature Aloft Charts

Winds and Temperature Aloft Chart

1) The winds aloft are forecasts of wind direction, wind speed, and temperature at specified times,
altitudes and locations. Issued 4 times a day, valid time is stated on forecast
2) Wind forecasts are not issued for altitudes within 1,500 ft of a location’s elevation. Temperature
forecasts are not issued for altitudes within 2,500 ft of a location’s elevation. They are indicated
in reference to the true North. Above FL240, temperature does not include minus
3) Light and variable winds or wind speeds of less than 5 knots are expressed by 9900.
Decoding winds of 754556:
4) Wind directions
If you read it, it’s true. If you hear it, it’s magnetic.
- All charts and textual sources (METAR, TAF, winds aloft, surface analysis charts, etc.) use true
north as the reference.
- ATIS/AWOS/ASOS broadcasts, or any information a controller gives you over the radio, is
magnetic.
- One exception to this rule is that a FSS briefer will read you the winds referenced to the north,
since they’re just reading you the charts/textual information.
8. PIREPS

Pilot Weather Reports (PIREP)

1) Pilots should report any observation of bad or good weather to help other pilots with flight
 planning and preparation.
2) Aircrafts in flight are the best way to localize icing and turbulence conditions.
3) There are 2 types of PIREP:
o Urgent (UUA): Tornadoes, severe or extreme turbulence or icing, hail, wind shear, volcanic ash
o Routine (UA): Normal report
* PIREP GNV UUA/OA OCF 190026
GVN: Area where it is reported
UUA: Urgent
OCF 190026: 190° radial 26nm from OCF VOR
* Ceiling is stated by MSL
9. Freezing Level Charts

Freezing Level Chart

1) It shows the lowest altitude at which the temperature reaches 0°C over a given location
2) ‘Multiple freezing layers’ indicate temperature inversion
10. Stability Charts

1) LI (lifted index) is a measure of atmospheric stability

2) Positive LI= Stable <-> Negative LI = Unstable

11. Severe Weather Outlook Charts

1) 24-hour outlook for thunderstorm activity

2) Left panel covers first 12-hour, right panel covers next 12-hour

12. AIRMET, SIGMET, and Convective SIGMET

Airmen’s Meteorological Information (AIRMET)

1) It is a description of moderate weather phenomena that may affect the safety of flight. Issued
4 times a day, valid for 6 hours.
2) There are 3 types of AIRMET. All weather in AIRMETs are moderate.
- AIRMET SIERRA: for IFR conditions or mountain obscuration.
- AIRMET TANGO: for moderate turbulence, surface winds more than 30 knots, and low-level
wind shear.
- AIRMET ZULU: for moderate icing and freezing levels.
Significant Meteorological Information (SIGMET)
1) It is a description of severe weather phenomena which is not associated with convective activity
that may affect the safety of flight and implies severe weather not associated with convective
activity. Issued only when is needed, valid for 4 hours.
2) It would be issued in case of:
- Severe or extreme turbulence
 - Severe icing
- Widespread dust storm or sand storm lowering visibility less than 3 miles
- Volcanic ash
Convective SIGMET
1) It is a description of severe weather phenomena associated with thunderstorms. It implies
severe or greater turbulence, severe icing, a low-level wind shear. Issued hourly at 55 minutes
past the hour, valid for 2 hours or until superseded by the next hourly issuance.
2) A convective SIGMET is issued with these criteria. [AIM 7-1-6]
- Severe thunderstorm due to tornado, wind surface greater than 50kt, and hail greater than 3/4
inch in diameter
- Line of thunderstorm
- Embedded thunderstorm
- Thunderstorm producing precipitation greater than 40% of area or 3,000 square miles

Cross Country Flight Planning

1. Cross Country Flight Planning

1) Preflight (FAR 91.103, PAVE)

2) Departure (SID, ODP)
3) Enroute (ALT & Route)
4) Arrival (STAR)
5) Approach (SIAP)
6) Alternate (WX min, GPS requirements)
* Preferred routes: Preplanned routes developed by ARTCC. They are useful for planning the most
efficient route of flight by minimizing route changes and helping manage air traffic

2. Complete IFR Navigation Log

Navigation Equipment

1. VHF Omnirange (VOR)

VOR (Very High Frequency Omni-directional Range) (AIM1-1-3)

Nav aid using very high frequency signal 108.00-117.95MHz (50kHz spacing) / 3 – Letter Identifier
(The accuracy is usually +/- 1 degree)
Principle
Two Phases
1) The Reference Phase: broadcast in all directions (Shining all directions)
2) The Variable Phase: Rotating beam around the reference
 The difference between the Reference Phase and the Variable Phase is used by the VOR
receiver in the airplane to calculate the bearing from the station

CDI (Course Deviation Indicator)

1) Definition: an avionics instrument used in navigation to determine an aircraft’s lateral position
in relation to a course TO or FROM a radio navigation beacon. 10° deviation total, 2° per 1 dot
* VOR 60 to 1 Rule: At 60 miles from a VOR, each radial will be separated by 1NM (Each
degree(1/2dot) equals 1NM) 1NM=100ft
Ex) At 10miles from the VORTAC, radials would be separated by 0.166NM
2) OBS (Omni Bearing Selector): is on the CDI and the knob allows the selection of the
radial(course) you wish to track from a VOR ground station
Service volume: VOR standard service volume (FAR 1-1-8)

*Minimum guarantee range: it does not mean the signal cannot be received when out of the
service volume. However, there can be noise exist and the service is not guaranteed
 VOR Errors (CARLP)
1) Cone of confusion: close to a station the TO / FROM and CDI indicators fluctuate and/or you
get the OFF flag
2) Area of Ambiguity: TO/FM indicator shows a confusion when the A/C is on perpendicular area
from the selected course.
(=When you want to intercept a radial that it’s more than 90degrees of your current position)
3) Reverse sensing: The instrument is reversed when the OBS is set to the reciprocal of the course
they want to fly. However, ADAHRS prevent it through magnetometer
(If the needle is left of center, turning left will actually push the needle away from you rather than
centering it)
4) Line of Sight: VORs are based on line-of-sight. If terrain or the horizon obscures a direct path
between your airplane and the VOR, it will be unusable.
5) Prop settings: Certain RPM settings can cause VOR CDI to fluctuate as much as +, -6 degree
VOR receiver accuracy check (FAR 91.171)
1) Every 30 days for IFR
2) Recording VOR Check (Dog Poop Bear Shit): Date, Place, Bearing Error, Signature
3) 6 Ways to check Accuracy (Very Good Airman Always Do Bench test)
(1) VOT (VOR test facility): An approved VOR test signal, but not all airports have VOTs, so
you’ll need to check the A/FD. (+/- 4 degrees based on reading FROM)
(2) VOR Checkpoint on the airport Ground.: (+/- 4 degrees)
(3) Airborne VOR Check: (+/- 6 degrees)
(4) Airway: Identify a prominent terrain feature(=Landmark) under the centerline the airway
at least 20NM from the VOR site as low as possible and note the deflection over that point from
the airway itself (+/- 6 degrees)
(5) Dual Check: If a dual system VOR is installed in the aircraft, one system may be checked
against the other. (+/- 4 degrees)
(6) Bench Test Conducted by avionics maintenance personnel. The MOST accurate one.
VOR/DME: VOR and DME are co-located
VORTAC: VOR and TACAN are co-located which provides VOR azimuth, TACAN azimuth and
TACAN distance (DME) at one site. TACAN (Tactical Air Navigations Systems) is a Military
navigation system. It has been developed because DME was considered unsuitable for military.
And the DME portion of the TACAN system is available for civil use
* All VORTAC has DME
* How can you tell a VOR is operative?
= Morse code every 5 seconds. If you don’t hear Morse code or radiate a T-E-S-T code (-. …-), it
means it’s under maintenance
2. Distance Measuring Equipment (DME)

DME (Distance Measuring Equipment) (AIM1-1-7)

 Measure Slant distance through UHF Frequency (962~1213MHz)
Principle
1) DME receiver send UHF frequency(960~1,215Mhz) from Aircraft to Ground antenna
2) Station responds to Aircraft
3) Calculate distance by Time & Speed
Service volume

Limitation
1) Line of sight signals (up to 199NM)
2) Measures Slant range (-will be more than the actual horizontal distance to the site)
* DME error is greatest when the aircraft is high and close to the DME station
Q. How can you avoid slant range error?
= 1mile(6000ft) or more from the facility for each 1000ft (AGL) above the elevation
* GPS can substitute DME based on FAR 91.205 (e)
* Identification: DME identifier is sent every 30 seconds at a higher pitch
3. Instrument Landing System (ILS)

* ILS system is divided functionally into 3 parts: Guidance, Range, Visual Information

Guidance

Localizer
1) Localizer
 (1) Location: located at far end of the Runway
(2) Frequency range: 108.1 to 111.95 MHz with odd tenths only
(3) Feature: Horizontal guidance
(4) Coverage range: Its range is that first is 10NM and 35degrees wide, and second is 18NM,
10degrees wide range up to an altitude of 4500feets.
(5) Width: Between 3~6degrees so that the width at the threshold would be 700 feet. Usually
5degrees total width (2.5 full deflection to each side, which is 4 times more sensitive than a VOR)
(6) Figures: Use 90hz and 150hz to identify the position through the amount of two different hz

Glide Slope
(1) Location: Transmitter abeam the 750~1250feets offset by 250~650feets from runway centerline
(2) Frequency range: 329.3 to 335 MHz (UHF (Ultra High Frequency))
- Glide Slope is automatically tuned with localizer frequency
(3) Feature: Vertical guidance
(4) Range: typically, up to 10NM
(5) Slope: 2.5-3.5 degrees above the horizon
- In order to intersect the MM at about 200feet (approx. Decision Altitude) and the OM at about
1400feet (FAF (Final Approach Fix) for non-precision) above runway elevation
(6) Errors: False glide slope above normal glide slope
① Objects below 5,000 feet AGL have a tendency to reflect glideslope signals. This can create
false glideslopes, which are often at 9 degree and 12-degree angles to the runway. This is why
pilots are always taught to intercept the glideslope from below
② ILS critical area: Glide slope can be affected by other aircraft located at ILS critical area when
the weather is less than 800ft & 2SM
Range

DME
Marker Beacon
Provides range information over specific points along the approach. Transmits at 75 MHz
OM (Outer Marker): 4-7 miles out, usually 1,400ft AGL. Indicate the position at which the aircraft
should intercept the Glide Slope at the appropriate interception altitude +/-50ft. BLUE. “---"
 MM (Middle Marker): ~3,500feet from the runway (Landing threshold). Indicates the approximate
point where the Glide Slope meets the Decision Height. Usually, 200feet above the touchdown
zone elevation. AMBER. “. - . -“
IM (Inner Marker): Between the MM and runway threshold. Indicates the point where the Glide
Slope meets the DH(Decision Height) on a CATⅡ&Ⅲ ILS approach. WHITE. “. . .”
* CATⅡ&Ⅲ only has IM (CAT Ⅰ->Ⅲ it improves the function of light. So, CATⅢ has no DA
FAR 91.175 (k)
- Substitutions for the OM: Compass Locator, Precision Approach Radar (PAR), Airport Surveillance
Radar (ASR)
- Substitutions for the DME: VOR, NDB fixes authorized in the SIAP, or RNAV fix from the SIAP
Visual information (FAR 91.175)

1) Continuous descent (FPM, ASI)

2) Flight visibility more than approach chart
3) Visible information
: Approach light system (white) (descend until 100ft above the touchdown zone elevation),
threshold, threshold markings, threshold lights, runway end identifier lights, visual glideslope
indicator, touchdown zone markings, touchdown zone lights, runway, runway light
*TDZE VS Airport Elevation

a) TDZE (Touch Down Zone Elevation) is the highest elevation in the first 3,000feet of the runway
starting at the threshold

b) Airport Elevation is the highest point on any of the runways of the airport

4. Marker Beacon Receivers/Indicators

5. Automatic Direction Finder (ADF)

NDB (non-directional radio beacon) (AIM1-1-2)

Navigational aid using radio signal
Advantage: NDB signals follow the curvature of the Earth, it can receive greater distance at lower
altitude, compared to VOR
Disadvantage: NDB signals affected by atmospheric condition, terrain and electrical storm
ADF (Automatic Direction Finder)
Airborne partner to the NDB finding aircraft position by Magnetic heading and relative bearing
* Relative bearing: clockwise direction from current HDG to the station
6. Transponder/Altitude Encoding

[Transponder requirements] FAR 91.215

A.A.B.C.1.2.3.

- ADIZ
- Class A airspace

- Class B airspace

- Class C airspace and above it

* Above the ceiling and within the lateral boundaries of Class B or C up to 10,000 MSL

- Above 10,000 MSL

- Above 2,500 AGL (in case that 10,000 MSL is at and below 2,500 AGL)

- 30NM Mode C veil (from SFC up to 10,000 MSL)

*Can fly w/o transponder if authorized before at least 1 hour

[Transponder Mode]

Mode A Only provide a 4-digital identification code for the aircraft

Mode C Provides the a/c’s pressure altitude combined with Mode A
Mode S It provides the automatic collision avoidance combined with Mode C
[ADS-B requirement] FAR 91.225 transponder requirement + G123

- Transponder requirement

- 12nm over Gulf of Mexico from 3,000 MSL

7. Electronic Flight Instrument Display

8. Global Positioning System (GPS)

RNAV (Area navigation)

Allows navigation course form anywhere without any ground facility
GPS (AIM 1-1-17)
GNSS (Global navigation satellite system) of USA
Types of GNSS: GPS(USA), Galileo (EU), GLONASS(Russia). Bei DOU (China)
Principle
Trilateration or Tri-angulation: By calculating the time between the receiver and the satellite, it
measures distance
(1) At least 3 satellites are required for 2d position (latitude and longitude)
(2) At least 4 satellites are required for 3d position (latitude, longitude and altitude)
(3) 5 satellites: RAIM (fault detection)
* If there is less than 5 satellites‘LOI’ (=Lost of Integrity))
(4) 6 satellites: Isolation of bad satellite: FDE (False Detection and Exclusion)
Components
1) Controller: DOD (Department of Defense) ex) NASA, Military
- controls station and ensure accuracy
2) Station: Satellites in space at least 24 satellites (+30 satellites)
- 24 satellite ensure more than 5 satellites at any given location
3) User: Antennas (=Aircraft GPS)
GPS reliability augmentation systems
1) RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
: Verifies integrity (usability) of GPS signals to verify there is more than 5 available satellites
- If it has more than 6, it enables FDE (False Detection and Exclusion) isolating the bad satellite
- Without RAIM, the pilot has no assurance of the GPS position integrity
2) WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System)
: Composed of Ground station and Geostationary satellites, so that Ground station collects GPS
signals and reduce the error and it is broadcasted via Geostationary satellites
- It allows for APV (Approach with Vertical guidance) approaches such as LPV and LNAV/VNAV
- It provides extremely accurate navigation capability. GPS usually shows +/- 50ft, but WAAS
shows only +/- 10ft error
GPS instrument procedures 4 types
1) LNAV (Lateral Navigation): the most basic GPS approach/only provides lateral navigation
2) LP (Localizer Performance): Require WAAS / only provides lateral guidance. It is not downgrade
version of LPV. It is decided based on the terrain or obstruction
3) LNAV/VNAV (Lateral Navigation/Vertical Navigation)
- Require WAAS or Baro-aided GPS receiver
- Use FMS system (Baro-altimeter but not precise as LPV)
4) LPV (Localizer Performance with Vertical Guidance)
- The most precise GPS approach option
- Lateral approach guidance is the same as the LP approach
- There is also scaling for the vertical guidance resulting in a final precision of +/- 49feet at the
missed approach point
- Unlike the LNAV/VNAV, this approach is only available with a WASS receiver
5) Other course directional aid (when the RWY is not aligned with Nav aid)
(1) LDA: localizer type directional aid (glide slope might be installed) Width is 5 °
(2) SDF: simplified directional facility (glide slope is not installed) Width is 6 degree or 12 °
* LDA has at least OM while the SDF has no marker beacon
6) Other approaches
(1) Radar approach: the radar controller vectors the aircraft to align with runway
(2) No gyro approach: upon failure of HDG, the pilot should request this approach
(3) Visual approach: It can be assigned by ATC, either the airport or preceding aircraft in sight
with 1000ft ceiling 3sm vis
(4) Contact approach: It must be requested by pilot. COC & 1sm vis.
GPS error(3SNORI)
 1) Signal multi path: signal is reflected due to the terrain or some objects
2) Satellite shading: one satellite is overlapped with the other
3) Selective availability: intentional error by DOD
4) Number of visible satellites: lack of required number
5) Orbital error: when its orbital stray away from the original path
6) Receiver clock error: due to the inaccurate receiver’s clock, there can be a timing error
7) Ionosphere delays error: light is refracted in ionosphere
RNP (Required Navigation Performance)
: Navigation which permit the operation of aircraft along a precise flight

* Terminal activated 30NM from the airport

* Final approach activated 2NM from the airport
9. Automatic Pilot

1) Max speed: 185KIAS

2) Disengage: ①T/O & L/D ②Go-missed or Go-around ③Mod or Sev TB ④100ft below MDA or
DA ⑤Course deviation exceeds 50%

3) Flap limited 50%

4) Min-engage-height is 400ft AGL

5) Min speed is 95 with flaps up, 78 with flaps 50%

10. Flight Management System

FMS (Flight Management System)

Receives inputs from various sensors and provides guidance to the autopilot and flight director
throughout the flight. The FMS also automatically monitors and selects the most appropriate
navigation source for accurate positioning. (GPS, VOR/DME, INS etc.)
Logbook Entries Related to Instrument Instruction

1. Training Records

61.51(g): (1) Person may log instrument time when operates the aircraft solely by reference to
instruments under actual or simulated instrument flight conditions (2) Instructor may log instrument
time when conducting instruction in actual instrument (3) Under instrument experience, follow
information must be recorded: Location and Type of each instrument approach and name of the
safety pilot, if required

2. Endorsement

61.57 (d): Instrument proficiency check must be given by ①An examiner ②Company check pilot
③Authorized instructor ④A person approved by the Administrator

Operation of Systems

1. Airplane systems, to include

a. Primary flight controls

It is required to control an aircraft safely during flight. Flight controls uses a combination of push
rods, cables, and bell cranks.

Aileron: controls roll about the longitudinal axis

*Differential aileron: One aileron is raised a greater distance than the other aileron is lowered to
produces more drag than an increase in AOA on the downward aileron. It prevents adverse yaw
Rudder: controls yaw movement of the aircraft about the vertical axis
*A rudder-aileron interconnect is installed to provide a maximum of 8° down aileron with full
rudder deflection. however, aileron inputs will not cause rudder deflection
Elevator: controls pitch about the lateral axis
b. Secondary flight controls

Improve the performance of the airplane or relieve the excessive control forces

Flaps: Electric single slotted flap (0%: Up(green), 50%: 16°(yellow), 100% 32°(yellow))
It helps to increase descent rate without increasing airspeed. They increase wing camber, like
other flaps. When extended, they open a slot between the wing and the flap. By opening a slot
between the wing and the flap, high pressure air from the bottom of the wing flows through
the slot into the upper surface. This adds energy to the wing's boundary layer, delays airflow
separation, and produces less drag. The result is lots of additional lift without the excessive drag
*Wing camber: Curvature of the airfoil which cause pressure difference which increase lift as well
as drag
 Trim
It’s a device designed to fly hands-off the aircraft. Trim systems are used to relieve the pilot of
the need to maintain constant pressure on the flight controls. Roll and pitch trim are provided
by adjusting the neutral position of a compression spring cartridge.
c. Powerplant and propeller

Powerplant
- Teledyne Continental IO-360-ES
*I: fuel injection O: horizontally opposed 360: Cubic inch of cylinder ES: de-rated (original is
215HP)
- Horizontally opposed
* Better cooling, Better sight, Reduced vibration
- Six cylinder
- Normally aspirated (it doesn’t have a turbocharger or supercharger)
- Direct driven: Propeller is directly linked to crank shaft (Engine RPM=Propeller RPM)
- Fuel injected engine
* A: evenly distribution, rapid response for thrust, reduction in icing
* D: vapor lock, difficult to start when it is hot, expensive
- 2000 hours TBO (time between overhaul)
* TBO: Manufacturer’s recommended running hours
- 200HP at 2700RPM
- Air-cooled engine
- two engine-driven magnetos: for performance and safety: it has nothing to do with battery or
alternator
* *intakecompressionpowerexhaust
Propeller
- Hartzell manufacturer
- Constant speed propeller
- Deliver oil pressure to governor which regulates propeller pitch
* high RPM low pressure at hub  centrifugal force cause low pitch angle propeller
* low RPM  high pressure at hub  high pitch angle propeller
- Three blade: 74-inches Two blade: 76-inches
d. Landing gear

- Fixed tricycle type

- Nose wheel is free castering and can turn through an arc of approximately 108° either side

- Steering is accomplished by differential application of individual main gear brakes

- Each main gear wheels is equipped with independent hydraulically operated, single disc type brake
e. Fuel, oil, and hydraulic

Fuel
- 60.5 total & 56-gallon useable fuel
- consist of 30.3-gallon capacity, fuel collector, selector valve, electronic boost pump, engine-
driven fuel pump
- gravity fed from each tank to the associated collector
- float type fuel quantity provide fuel level information to the fuel quantity indicators
- vent lines maintain positive pressure in the tank and remove fuel evaporation
* each collector incorporates a vent to the associated fuel tank
- excess fuel is returned to the selected tank
- a tab indicate 13 gallons usable in each tank
- fuel grade 100(green) & 100ll(blue)

Oil
- for engine lubrication and cooling
- 8 quarts capacity & minimum is 6 quarts and 7 quarts for extended flight
- oil annunciator will illuminate if ①oil temps exceeds 240°F ② Oil pressure is less than 10psi
* For engine break in, use the mineral oil for 25 hours.
After engine break in, use the ashless dispersant lubrication oil
 Hydraulic
Each brake is connected, by a hydraulic line, to a master cylinder attached to pilot’s rudder pedals.
(BrakesMaster cylinderHydraulic fluidsCompression on brake pads)
f. Electrical

Power generation
Alternator 1 Alternator 2
- 28 volts - 28.75 volts
- Belt driven - Gear driven
- 75 amp - 20 amp
- mounted on the right front of the engine - Mounted on the rear of the engine
Power storage
Battery 1 Batter 2
- 24 volts - composed of two 12 volts batteries
- 10amp.h - 7amp/h
- mounted on the right firewall - located below parachute
- charged from Main distribution Bus - charged from CB panel Essential Bus

<Power distribution>

- Isolation diode prevents ALT 2 from feeding the Main Distribution Bus

- Since ALT 2 / Essential Distribution Bus voltage is slightly higher than ALT 1/ Main Distribution
Bus voltage, ALT 1 will not feed the Essential Distribution Bus unless ALT 2 fails

- BAT provides the power when MCU distribution buses drop below the battery voltage

- in the event of an ALT 2 failure, the CB panel Essential Bus will be powered from ALT 1 through
the Main Distribution buses

g. Avionics
Transponder: Mode C (identification and ALT)

Hour meter

ELT

MFD (Multi-function Display): displays engine parameters, navigation map

Auto pilot: Two-axis autopilot

GPS & COMM

Digital clock

Audio Panel: traditional transmitter and receiver selectors

h. Pitot-static, vacuum/pressure, and associated flight instruments

- consist of single heater pitot tube mounted on the left wing & dual static ports mounted on the
fuselage

- internally mounted alternate static pressure source provides backup static pressure from inside
the cabin to the right of the pilot’s leg

-water traps with drain hole of the pitot tube, it should be drained each annual inspection and
when there is known water in the system

ADAHRS
ADC (Air Data Computer)
- Altitude (static port)
- VSI (static port)
- ASI (pitot tube + static port): only shows IAS, TAS. *GS is indicated by satellite
AHRS (Attitude Heading Reference System)
- Attitude (accelerometer: sense the movement of aircraft)
- Heading (magnetometer: seeks magnetic currency)
i. Environmental

CAPS Deployment
1) Mid-air collision
2) Structural failure
3) Loss of control
4) Landing in inhospitable terrain
5) Pilot incapacitation
j. Deicing and anti-icing

Deicing: removal of icing

- Heat/defrost (through right muffler)
- Pitot heat
Anti-icing: prevention of icing
- Static port is designed to protect from the icing
- Fuel vent is placed inside of the wing to prevent icing
Icing backup
- Alternate air intake source
- Alternate static source