Introduction

Organisations that have dealings with the public need to regularly communicate changes, manage

crisis and position the organisation in the minds of the public. Finlay (2014) offers an insight to

the gamut of corporate communication. The corporate communication function resists a single

fixed definition. It is a dynamic mixture of problem-solving skills and insights. It should be

viewed as a process, rather than an entity. But there are three key responsibilities encompassed

within a truly effective corporate public affairs function: Aiding the management of change,

helping to define a corporation's role in society, assisting in the creation of corporate vision and

purpose. The need to navigate through complex public environments; to mediate with

government, employee and complex stakeholders; to manage the effects of change and to operate

ethically whilst projecting an inspiring sense of corporate pride and vision; are amongst the

pressing tasks facing communication executives today.

This clearly suggests that the business of communicating the overall goal of an

organisation lies with corporate communication. Nevertheless, communication is a facilitator of

all the processes engaged by an organisation to promote its image, build and retain relationship,

have sound customer relations and build public confidence and trust. In the world of business

with stiff competition, corporate communication becomes a means of raising consumer's interest

through promotional activities that will take care of competitors and put the company in good

stead. Corporate communication becomes imperative for organisation to sustain and improve

consumer interests and satisfaction. Ambroz & Praprutnik (2008) defined customer satisfaction

as an organisation's ability to attract and retain customers and to improve customer relationship

overtime. It is often seen as the satisfaction with an organisation's products or service.

Furthermore, it is considered to be the key to success and long-term competitiveness. The

knowledge of customer satisfaction is the source for the fulfilment of customer expectations.

Corporate communication, therefore, serves as mediator of the company's offering and the

consumers' needs.

Understanding Corporate Communication

Corporate communication refers to the way in which businesses and organisations communicate

with internal and external various audiences. These audiences as noted by Stobierski (2019) are

customers and potential customers, employees, key stakeholders, the media and general public

and government agencies and other third-party regulators. The foregoing implies that corporate

communication is all about how companies interact with various stakeholders through internal

and external communication channels. Organisations and companies must communicate with

their stakeholders so that the stakeholders will get to understand their policies, programmes,

philosophies, prospects, challenges, etc. The methods through which companies carry out these

responsibilities is what is referred to as corporate communication. Corporate communication

empowers businesses and organisations to communicate with internal and external audiences like

employees, customers, potential customers, media, the general public, stakeholders, government

agencies, 3rd party regulators, etc. (Bhasin, 2021). Different variations of corporate

communication depend upon the audiences it is addressing. From public relations and media

relations, to press releases, news conferences, HRM, corporate communication revolves around

written words (promotional materials, reports, website copy, advertisements, memos, email,

social media, press releases, etc.); spoken words (videos, press conferences, social media videos,

meetings, interviews, etc.) and non-spoken communication (photographs, infographics,

illustrations, general branding, etc.)(Bhasin, 2021). The import of the above is that corporate

communication describes activities involved in managing both internal and external

communications in a workplace and this can include internal presentations, staff newsletters,

media releases for journalists, investor correspondence, social media and more and external

presentations like advertising, sales promotion, public relations campaigns, personal selling, etc.

Types of Corporate Communication

As noted by Cotter (2021), the two main types of corporate communication are internal and

external communications.

1. Internal Corporate Communication: Internal corporate communication is about employees,

managers, executives and board members communicating within a company. Some examples of

internal corporate communications are a memo sent from management to all employees, an all-

hands meeting between different departments or even a team chatting on slack (Cotter, 2021).

Internal corporate communication can be formal or informal and it can involve many employees

or just a few. The way your teams communicate internally is very important because it

contributes to your company's corporate culture. Finding the right tone, frequency and method

for internal communication is crucial to your business' long-term success (Cotter, 2021).

2. External Corporate Communication: External corporate communication is the face a

company presents to the outside world. It is important to manage this type of corporate

communication because it affects your company's public image. A public misstep can change the

way consumers view your product, thereby affecting sales (Cotter, 2021). External corporate

communication does not necessarily mean issuing a formal announcement or a press release. In

the age of social media, companies are also able to interact with consumers in a casual way using

tools like Twitter. Both formal and informal external communications can have an impact on

your company's brand image (Cotter, 2021).

Areas of Corporate Communication

In corporate communications, there are typically three principal areas. These, according to

Adonai Media (2021) include:

1. Management Communication: This form of communication takes place between

management and both internal and external audiences. To ensure successful external and internal

business communication, management relies on specialists to deliver their messaging effectively.

These specialists often work in marketing communication and organisational communication

(Adonai Media, 2021).

2. Marketing Communication: Marketing communication can include advertising, direct mail,

sponsorship and selling, it is quite common for businesses to allocate the bulk of their budget to

corporate and marketing communications (Adonai Media, 2021).

3. Organisational communication: Those in the public relations industry working in business

will likely be involved in organisational communication. This consists of specialists in areas

including public affairs, corporate advertising, employee communication, investor relations and

public relations (Adonai Media, 2021). These three principal clusters work together to achieve

effective business communication. Most organisations will even devise a business

communication plan, also known as a corporate communication plan, to ensure their company

successfully communicates with all stakeholders (Adonai Media, 2021).

Public Relations (PR)

What is public relations? For many, the simplistic answer is getting their name (company, client,

self) into newsprint or on air in a report or article; for others it is publicity that attracts response

through name recognition or rising sales. Governments see it as dispersal of information, for
example in a health promotion campaign. Measuring the results of these one-way (outward only)

processes is usually done by accumulating press cuttings and broadcast transcripts and giving a

value to the mentions (such as advertising equivalent cost), column inches and airtime. These

may be descriptions of some everyday public relations activities, but they do not define the

public relations process nor explain the meaning of the term ‘public relations’.

The management function of public relations is most frequently expressed in definitions.

One of the most widely taught, especially in the United States, is that of Cutlip, Center and

Broom (2006: p.5): ‘Public relations is the management function that establishes and maintains

mutually beneficial relationships between an organisation and the publics on whom its success or

failure depends.’ There are several phrases to note in this well-known definition. They first

describe public relations as a ‘management function’, which implies it is a deliberate, planned

action that has an outcome in mind. This is reinforced by ‘identifies, establishes and maintains’,

which demonstrates research and a continuum of activity. ‘Mutually beneficial relationships’

relates to a two-way communication process through which the organisation will act in the

interests of both itself and the groups or publics with which it interacts. This definition goes one

stage further than others do by defining publics as those ‘on whom its success or failure

depends’. This verges on tautology as publics by their very nature are of central importance to an

organisation by giving it a reputation and a commercial, governmental or other organisational

raison d’être. However, this is a comment that queries an aspect of this definition, not its central

thrust of being a managed process of two-way communications.

The World Association of Public Relations Practitioners met in Mexico City in 1978 and

formulated a definition of public relations, popularly known as the “Mexican Statement”.

According to this statement, as cited in Asemah (2011) and Ogande (2015), public relations is
defined as the art and social science of analysing trends, predicting their consequences,

counselling organisational leaders, and implementing a planned programme of action that

benefits both an organisation and its publics. The Public Relations Society of America (PRSA,

2015) describes public relations as a strategic communication process that builds mutually

beneficial relationships between organisations and their publics. Public relation is seen as vital

for maintaining an organisation’s image and for communicating its message to customers,

investors, and the general public. A positive perception of a company or non-profit organisation

can increase its sales and improve its bottom line.

In the UK, the common definition is that proposed by the Chartered Institute of Public

Relations (CIPR). It embodies many of the aspects of the US definitions but notably omits the

management function and says: ‘[Public relations] is the planned and sustained effort to establish

and maintain goodwill and mutual understanding between an organisation and its publics’

([Link]). It does share the continuum element of ‘planned and sustained effort’ with

objectives of establishing and maintaining goodwill and understanding, also an aspiration for

two-way communications. As in the Cutlip, Center and Broom definition, there is a strong

aspirational element that presupposes there is a nirvana of perfect communications which could

be reached, if only ‘goodwill and understanding’ were established.

Lee (2015) defines public relations as the organised effort to communicate in an

organised form and to modify attitude and behaviour towards an organisational needs and

aspiration. By organised effort to communicate, public relations aim at using or prepares

speeches for corporate officials, organising community activities, producing journals, exhibition,

research as well as advising management on internal and external relations. Coombs and

Holladay (2015) note that public relations, as a form of public communication, is associated with
special responsibilities and the need to practise ethical communication, with an emphasis on two-

way dialogue in the public arena. Public relations practitioners may act as communication

managers who organise and integrate communication activities, or as writers who craft messages

to attract public attention and garner support for the organisation.

Esuh (2012) observes that some of the goals of public relations are to create, maintain,

and protect an organisation’s reputation, as well as to enhance its prestige and present a

favourable image. Image building is essential in the eyes of an organisation’s internal and

external publics. Skinner (2010) asserts that “in a modern democracy, every organisation

survives ultimately only by public consent; as such, public relations enables an organisation to

influence public opinion, judgement and behaviour, with the obvious implication that an

organisation is dependent on the moral and financial support of its various publics in order to

survive”. Clearly, public relations is fundamentally about communication; it persuades people to

accept an idea, a product, or a company, and to take the necessary actions accordingly.

Therefore, how an organisation relates to its publics can make or mar its success.

Harlow in 1976 scoured through 472 definitions of public relations and came up with the

following definitions:

Public relations is a distinctive management function which

helps establish and maintain mutual lines of communication,
understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an
organisation and its publics; involves the management of
problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and
responsive to public opinions; defines and emphasizes the
responsibility of management to serve the public interest; helps
management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change;
serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and
uses research and ethical communication techniques as its
principal tools (Andargie, 2020).
 The British Institute of Public Relations (1994) cited in Asemah (2023) defines public

relation as deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish mutual understanding between an

organisation and the public. This means that public relations is a strategic communication

process companies, individuals, and organisations use to build mutually beneficial relationships

with the public. A public relations specialist drafts a specialised communication plan and uses

media and other direct and indirect mediums to create and maintain a positive brand image and a

strong relationship with the target audience.

Asemah (2023) views public relations as a systematic approach to issues in the

management of organisations with the sole aim of promoting organisations image, programmes

and policies, through a deliberate planned communication for mutual co-existence. In other

words, public relations is that process of articulating organisation programmes through concerted

effort and by ensuring smooth lines of communication, good will rapport and mutual

understanding between an organisation and it publics. The main objective of public relations is to

maintain a positive reputation of the brand and maintain a strategic relationship with the public,

prospective customers, partners, investors, employees and other stakeholders who leads to a

positive image of the brand and makes it seem honest, successful, important, and relevant

(Aashish Pahwa, 2019).

Daymon (2010) explains that a public relations officer with expertise in counselling,

psychology, and education can assist an organisation’s management in making decisions that

affect the organisation. Kotler and Armstrong (2009) opine that effective public relations are

developed with a company’s various public audiences by obtaining favourable publicity, building

up corporate reputation, and managing unfavourable rumours, stories, and events. Public

relations practitioners promote the image of management and bolster a good reputation through
their activities and the use of pertinent tools such as print and broadcast media. It is no

overstatement to say that when public relations is organised effectively, it creates a harmonious

alignment between an organisation and its publics in terms of reputation. The need for public

relations is increasingly recognised in many organisations.

Principles of effective communication

1. Clarity:
Ensures your message is easy to understand and free from ambiguity. Avoid jargon and

complex language, and make sure the message is clear to your audience. Clarity implies

emphasizing on a specific message or goal at a time, rather than trying to achieve too much at

once. Clarity in communication has following features: It makes understanding easier. Complete

clarity of thoughts and ideas enhances the meaning of message. Clear message makes use of

exact, appropriate and concrete words.

2. Conciseness:
Convey your message efficiently and without unnecessary words. Be brief and to the

point. Conciseness means wordiness, i.e, communicating what you want to convey in least

possible words without forgoing the other C‘s of communication. Conciseness is a necessity for

effective communication. Concise communication has following features: It is both time-saving

as well as cost-saving. It underlines and highlights the main message as it avoids using excessive

and needless words. Concise communication provides short and essential message in limited

words to the audience.

3. Completeness:
The communication must be complete. It should convey all facts required by the audience. The

sender of the message must take into consideration the receiver‘s mind set and convey the

message accordingly. A complete communication has following features: Complete

communication develops and enhances reputation of an organization. Moreover, they are cost

saving as no crucial information is missing and no additional cost is incurred in conveying extra

message if the communication is complete. A complete communication always gives additional

information wherever required. It leaves no questions in the mind of receiver. Complete

communication helps in better decision-making by the audience/readers/receivers of message as

they get all desired and crucial information. It persuades the audience.

4. Concreteness:

Concreteness entails using specific details and examples to support your message. Avoid vague

or general statements. Concrete communication implies being particular and clear rather than

fuzzy and general. Concreteness strengthens the confidence. Concrete message has following

features: It is supported with specific facts and figures. It makes use of words that are clear and

that build the reputation. Concrete messages are not misinterpreted.

5. Courtesy:

Courtesy in message implies the message should show the sender‘s expression as well as should

respect the receiver. The sender of the message should be sincerely polite, judicious, reflective

and enthusiastic. Courteous message has following features: Courtesy implies taking into

consideration both viewpoints as well as feelings of the receiver of the message. Courteous

message is positive and focused at the audience. It makes use of terms showing respect for the

receiver of message. It is not at all biased.

 6. Correctness:

Ensure your message is accurate and free from errors in grammar, spelling, and

facts. Correctness in communication implies that there are no grammatical errors in

communication. The message is exact, correct and well-timed. If the communication is correct, it

boosts up the confidence level. Correct message has greater impact on the audience/readers. It

checks for the precision and accurateness of facts and figures used in the message. It makes use

of appropriate and correct language in the message.

7. Coherence:

Coherence in communication refers to the logical and consistent connection of ideas within a

message, making it easy for the audience to understand and follow. It ensures that every part of

the communication contributes to the overall meaning, with ideas arranged in a clear and orderly

manner. A coherent message maintains consistency in tone, style, and point of view, avoiding

contradictions or abrupt shifts that may confuse the listener or reader. Effective use of transitions

and linking words helps to connect sentences and paragraphs smoothly, allowing the message to

flow naturally. Coherence is essential in both written and spoken communication as it enhances

clarity, strengthens credibility, and ensures that the intended message is accurately conveyed and

received. Without coherence, even accurate information can be misunderstood or ignored.

Building a positive corporate Image

Building a positive corporate image involves strategic efforts across brand development,

effective media relations, stakeholder engagement, and corporate behaviour. First and foremost,

organisations must focus on building a strong and consistent brand identity that reflects their core

values, mission, and unique value proposition. A compelling brand image helps to differentiate
the organisation and fosters trust among stakeholders (Keller, 2013). Consistency in visual

elements, messaging, and customer experience reinforces the brand’s credibility and appeal.

Additionally, corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives—such as community

development programmes, environmental sustainability efforts enhance a company’s reputation

by demonstrating social commitment (Carroll & Shabana, 2010). Internally, organisations should

foster a positive corporate culture where employees understand and embody the company’s

values. This internal alignment ensures employees become brand ambassadors, reinforcing the

company’s image through their conduct and communication.

Furthermore, cultivating positive media relations is essential, as the media serve as

intermediaries between organisations and the public. Maintaining regular contact with

journalists, issuing timely press releases, organising press conferences, and providing accurate

information can shape favourable media coverage and influence public perception (Wilcox et al.,

2015). Transparency and openness in media interactions also build goodwill and trust. In sum, a

positive corporate image is not accidental but the outcome of deliberate branding, responsible

corporate conduct, effective media relations, and consistent communication strategies.

Conceptualising Crisis and Crisis Communication

Crisis is inevitable in the occurrences in the society; virtually all nations of the world is affected

by one for of crisis of the other (Bland, 1998). In a crisis situation, corporate values that are

important during times of normalcy and stability may not be as critical. For instance, the normal

emphasis on cost saving would no longer be appropriate when it is necessary to take urgent steps

to save lives in a natural disaster. Crisis is simply seen as a negative circumstance involving an

organisation and its stakeholders, such as employees, customers and investors. A crisis according
to Institute of Public Relations (2007), can create three related threats; and these include public

safety, financial loss and reputation loss.

Some crises, such as industrial accidents and product harm, can result in injuries and even

loss of lives. Crises can create financial loss by disrupting operations, creating a loss of market

share/purchase intentions or spawning lawsuits related to the crisis. Crisis refers to sequence of

unwanted events at the workplace which lead to disturbances and major unrest amongst the

individuals. Crisis generally arises on a short notice and triggers a feeling of threat and fear in the

employees. In simpler words crisis leads to uncertainty and causes major harm to the

organisation and its employees (Management Study Guide, 2020). It is essential for the

employees to sense the early signs of crisis and warn the employees against the negative

consequences of the same.

Crisis does not only affect the smooth functioning of the organisation, but also pose a

threat to its brand name (Management Study Guide, 2020). A crisis is, therefore, seen as any

situation that may result in the loss of public trust, support and legitimacy for businesses, brands

and public institutions. The foregoing implies that crisis is an unpredictable major threat that can

have a negative effect on an organisation, industry or stakeholders (Caombs, 1992, p. 2). Crisis is

an accidental occurrence or an accident that is never envisaged or planned (Asemah, etal 2018).

It generally characterised by the absence of peace and a disruption in an organisation daily

routine and procedures. Asemah etal (2018), citing Ubani (1996) explains that crisis is a period

of heightened uncertainty that increases the need to plan and a point in time in which external

and internal pressure change the objectives and operations of an organisation.

Crisis communication is simply seen as the collection, processing and dissemination of

information required to address a crisis situation. Arthur (2020) notes that it is the dialogue
between the organisation and its publics prior to, during and after the negative occurrence. The

dialogue details strategies and tactics designed to minimise damage to the image of the

organisation. Crisis communications is an aspect of public relations that deals with protecting

individuals, companies and organisations facing challenges to their public image and reputation.

It is quite different from the traditional public relations, which concentrates on generating and

harnessing positive earned media to boost brand awareness and reputation. Crisis

communication is aimed at containing negative earned media by ensuring prompt, honest and

informative communication between all parties. This shows that crisis communication is aimed

preventing crisis from taking place and in a situation whereby an organisation is already facing a

crisis situation, it is aimed at mitigating the effect of the crisis by doling out information that will

help to effectively manage the crisis and prevent it from escalating further. There, corporations

must continually carry out sound information aimed at managing crisis. Thus, Business

dictionary (2020) sees crisis communication as the effort taken by a company to communicate

with the public and stockholders when an unexpected event occurs that could have a negative

impact on the company's reputation. This can also refer to the efforts of business or

governmental entities to inform employees or the public of a potential hazard such as an

impending storm which could have a catastrophic impact.

The foregoing implies that crisis communication is a special area which centres on the

reputation of the individuals as well as the organisation. The aim is to communicate as frequently

as possible so at to create goodwill between an organisation and itself so as to maintain peace.

Thus, it is seen as an initiative which aims at protecting the reputation of the organisation and

maintaining its public image. Crisis communication specialists, therefore, fight against several

challenges which tend to harm the reputation and image of the organisation. Crisis can have a
negative effect on brand image. Crisis communication experts are employed to save an

organisation's reputation against various threats and unwanted challenges. Brand identity is one

of the most valuable assets of an organisation. The main purpose of crisis communication team is

to protect the brand identity and maintain the organisation's firm standing within the industry

(Management Study Guide, 2020).

There are different objectives of crisis communication; some of the objectives as

identified by Arthur (2020) are to provide accurate, timely information to all targeted internal and

external audiences; to demonstrate concern for the safety of lives; to safeguard organisational

facilities and assets and to maintain a positive image of the organisation as a good corporate or

community citizen. Crisis communications protects and reduces the impact of the various threats

to individuals or to organisations and their stakeholders. Mistakes, serious errors of judgement or

natural disasters cannot be foreseen. This means that every public-facing organisation or

individual is vulnerable to crises. Thus, proper crisis communication, as noted by Smarp (2020)

can benefit an organisation in the following ways:

i. Protect your employees and other stakeholders during a crisis.

ii. Build trust in the workplace.

iii. Prevent the spread of misinformation in the workplace.

iv. Prevent panic and help employees feel secure.

v. Prevent the threat a crisis may have on the organisation's strategic objectives,

reputation and viability.

vi. Align employees with the overall crisis management strategy and enable them to

work towards the same goals.

vii. Align the internal and external messages.

 viii. Keep customers loyal. Keep the reputation of being an attractive employer.

Types of Crisis

There are different types of crisis and each of the crises depends on who was responsible for the

crisis and how the crisis affects the reputation of the organisation. The history with the crisis of

organisation determines the threat to the organisation's reputation. Below are some of the types

of crises:

1. Victim Crisis: This type of crisis occurs when the organisation is perceived to be a victim of

the crisis. For example, a victim crisis can happen when the organisation is rumoured to be at

fault. This event can destroy the physical infrastructure of a company, leaving it with no facility

to conduct its business. In cases like these, a victim crisis presents the organisation with little to

no reputational threat because the situation is unavoidable and the company has no way of

preventing it (Amaresan, 2019).

2. Accidental Crisis This type of crisis occurs when the organisation is at fault for the crisis, but

its actions were unintentional. An accidental crisis can occur when an organisation faces product

or equipment failure like when Samsung had to recall the Galaxy Note 7 in 2016 due to batteries

catching on fire and exploding (Amaresan, 2019). More so, accidental crises can occur when an

accuser challenges the organisation.

3. Preventable Crisis: This occurs when the organisation intentionally takes a risk that leads to a

negative outcome or event. A preventable crisis is the worst possible threat to an organisation

because there is a high reputational threat to the business. In these situations, there is immense

pressure placed on the organisation's response as well as their actions moving forward after the

crises (Amaresan, 2019).

Crisis can also categorised into personal, organisational, national, international or global:

Personal: As the name implies, personal crises are incidents that happen to individual's private

life. It could be at home, work, relationships and families.

Organisational: Organisational crises are crises that affect corporate institutions and

establishments.

National: National crisis are crisis that affect a country it is a time where a country experience

difficulty, uncertainties and threats that is potential destructive to different facet of the country. It

could be security, economic, agricultural, health and political aspects of the nation. International:

International crisis is a crisis that occurs between sovereign states

Global: Global crisis are crisis that affects the entire world. An example is COVID-19 pandemic

that rocked virtually all nations of the world.

Crisis can also be grouped into the known-unknown crisis and the unknown unknown crisis.

1. Known Unknown Crisis: These are crises that are predictable or a possibility because they

are peculiar to certain organisations. For instance, students' protest and unrest is a peculiar crisis

in higher institutions. This is the “known” aspect if this crisis. The “unknown” aspect is that

there is no definite time when this crisis will occur. Babaleye (2013), citing Black (1998)

describes known unknown crisis as the type of misfortune that may occurs because of the nature

the business of the corporate organisation is involved. Known Unknown crisis may be fore-

shadowed by series of events and may also have some warning signs or indicators before

translating to a full-blown crisis. It can be likened to a gathering in the clouds before rain fall.
2. Unknown Unknown Crisis: These types of crises are unanticipated and unpredictable. They

are usually sudden and not pre-empted. Natural disasters such as earthquake, volcanoes, etc. fall

in this category.

Phases of Crisis

Every crisis is always in four phases. An organisation must communicate during each of these

phases and evolve its communication along the way. Crisis is in the following five stages:

1. The Pre-crisis Phase: This stage involves planning and education. The organisation should

monitor emerging risks, anticipate possible crises, educate interested parties about possible

risks and suggest actions in the event of a crisis. It reaches out to necessary authorities and

groups for collaboration and future help. The organisation creates potential messages and

communications systems and tests them. It also identifies the crisis communication team that

will communicate during the event (Rouse, 2020).

2. Initial Phase: During the initial phase, the crisis has started and the organisation begins

communicating. Because it may be a confusing and intense period, the organisation needs to

seek to provide clear and accurate direction, provide resources for more information and

calm fears if necessary (Rouse, 2020).

3. Maintenance Phase: The organisation communicates updates on the crisis and details any

ongoing risks. At this time, the organisation gathers feedback from anyone affected by the

crisis, corrects any misinformation and continues to assess the situation and how it is

responding (Rouse, 2020).

4. Resolution State: When the crisis reaches the resolution phase, the situation has effectively

ended, but recovery remains and communication continues. The organisation should

communicate how it is recovering and rebuilding, and provide more detailed information
 about how the crisis happened. The resolution phase is also a good time to remind people

how to be prepared in the event of another crisis (Rouse, 2020).

5. Evaluation: During evaluation, two-way communication is important. The organisation

evaluates and assesses how the response went and how it could be improved. The

organisation reviews the crisis communication plan and updates or improves it accordingly.

An after-action report comprehensively documents the crisis and response (Rouse, 2020).

Crisis Management Techniques

1. Risk Management: This entails monitoring for situations that can trigger a crisis incident and

nipping it in the board. Risk management is the process of identifying, controlling and managing

a potential threat or situation that may result in a crisis. Risk management focuses on averting a

potential crisis situation; the focus here is prevention. It can be compared to managing and

treating the symptoms of a disease in this context crisis, instead of the crisis itself.

2. Crisis Simulation: Regular crisis simulation exercise will enhance an organisation's ability to

handle an actual crisis situation. Crisis simulation is not praying for a crisis, but preparing for a

crisis. Every organisation is susceptive to one form of crisis or the another. For instance, an

organisation that is susceptible to a fire outbreak due to the nature of their establishment can

regularly engage in a fire drill simulation to better equip them for an actual crisis.

Crisis Responds Strategies

Hasan (2013) is of the opinion that in crisis situation, publicity is the fastest and most credible

means of response. Nevertheless, there are 3 general response strategies that can be deployed in

crisis situation:
 a. Deny Strategy: This is to outrightly deny that the organisation is responsible for the

crisis.

b. Diminish Strategy: Diminish strategy is to weaken the connection between organisation

and the crisis.

c. Deal Strategy: This strategy addresses stakeholders' concern directly, by offering

compensation or accepting full responsibility for the crisis.

Effective Crisis Communication Strategies

Corporations must have effective communication strategy; thus, the following steps to effective

crisis communication strategy must be considered:

1. Create a Crisis Communication Plan: Crisis communication needs a well-set plan and

objectives. Without the proper plan, crisis communicators are less likely to follow the

company rules and they may not be able to align employees with the overall strategy. The

crisis communication plan should also identify all the possible situations in which crisis

communication is needed.

2. Understand your Audiences: Workplace crisis communicators need to have a very good

understanding of their audience. In most situations, there will be multiple audiences a

spokesperson would have to communicate and connect to. Therefore, the ability to segment

those audiences properly and adjust the approach and messages to them is crucial for

successful crisis communication. Also, depending on the type of crisis, not every employee

may be the right audience to communicate with. In any situation, however, the message

needs to be delivered on a timely manner, it needs to be clear and easy to understand. Timely

communication is crucial because the worst thing that can happen is for your employees to

hear about the crisis from a source different from their own employer.
3. Develop Holding Statements and Deliver Messages that Matter to your defined

Audiences: While full message development must await the outbreak of an actual crisis,

holding statements messages designed for use immediately after a crisis break can be

developed in advance to be used for a wide variety of scenarios to which the organisation is

perceived to be vulnerable, based on the assessment you conducted in the first step. Once you

manage to define your audiences, adjusting the internal crisis communication content is the

next important step. Remember that not every employee should receive every message

during an emergency as this approach just slows down employees' response time by

overwhelming them with irrelevant information. Ideally, your internal communication

solution should be able to target specific individuals and departments to ensure the most

pertinent information gets to those who need it most.

4. Implement a Two-way Crisis Communication: It is very important to understand that

during a crisis, employees are a valuable asset because they are the voice of the company and

they can be your strongest advocates. For that reason, crisis communication should not go

one- way. Crisis communication should enable employees to join the two-way conversations,

raise their concerns and ask questions. However, many employers base their crisis

communication on employee newsletters and similar way of communicating that do not

enable employees to share their voice and thoughts.

5. Communicate in Real-Time using the Right Communication Channels: In companies

that communicate mainly through emails, intranets or even instant messaging apps, it is not

uncommon for employees to miss out on important company updates. During the crisis,

employers cannot afford this to happen. Therefore, employers need to make sure to use the
 right internal communication channels that will be considered as their main source of

information during the crisis times.

6. Give a Special Attention to your Non-Wired Employees: Emails or intranets can be very

inefficient in providing crisis communications to non-wired employees, remote employees or

employees who may be away from their desks. In addition, they are very ineffective during a

power failure. Therefore, the most effective way to communicate during an emergency or

crisis is via mobile technology, which goes wherever your employees go.

7. Make Sure Your Messages are Accurate and Consistent: During crisis, companies are

under a microscope of the public and the media. When communicating with employees, it is

important to deliver the right information even if that sometimes means answering with “I do

not know.” Giving wrong information to the employees can cause the spread of

misinformation which can significantly hurt employees' trust that they have in their

employers. Messages delivered to employees have to be consistent no matter which

communication channel you use and whether you are communicating with internal or

external stakeholders

8. Monitor Communication and Employees' Behaviours and React on a Timely Manner:

Unfortunately, many employers do not have insights into their employee engagement with

the crisis-related content delivered to them. This causes high levels of uncertainty and fear

that employees have not even got or read the critical updates.

9. Perform a Post-Crisis Analysis: When the crisis is over, employers need to ask themselves

what they learn from this; even though these situations are not comfortable to anyone, they

should serve as a good learning curve. The five questions every employer should address

after the crisis include: What did we do right? What did we do wrong? How to improve crisis
 communication next time? What are the critical crisis communication elements that have a

big and direct impact on how the crisis was handled? And how can we better prepare our

crisis communication team? (Bernstein, 2020; Smarp, 2020).

Media relations

Media Relations is a public relations activity to convey communication messages regarding

institutional, company or institutional activities, products, and activities that need to be published

in collaboration with the mass media to create publicity and a positive image in the eyes of the

public (Ruslan, 2005).

Sommers (2009) describes media relations as “development and maintenance of effective

communication with representatives of the print and broadcast media in order to facilitate the

flow of information to the public by explaining programmes; and activities; answering media

inquiries; and supplying feature background and current information” (p.4). Through constant

communication with the media organisations, they get their publics acquainted with their

programmes and activities. In this way, media relations become the chief source through which

public relations practitioners achieve the purpose of reaching their publics.

Nwosu (2005) opined that media relations is not merely a means of reaching the publics

of an organisation. It is also a strategic public relations function which establishes and maintains

mutual understanding, goodwill, cooperation, and support between an organisation and the mass

media practitioners. The aim of this relationship is hinged on achieving maximum positive

publicity, media support, as well as other well defined corporate and public relations objectives.

Media relations exists to facilitate mutual cooperation between an organisation and the media.

This cooperation entails sending information from the organisation to the media while the media
reciprocate by generating news from such information. In this vein, Rodman (2012), stated that

media relations are part of the art of news management which involves “the practice of

developing and maintaining contact with reporters” (p. 344).

Media relations is an aspect of public relations. It occupies a key position in the activities

and function of a public relation practitioner. The place of mass media is strategic to a public

relations practitioner because the media serve as the bridge between any organisation and its

publics. The practitioner views journalists as audience, through whom to reach the larger

audience and as gate keepers representing and responding to the public’s quest for knowledge.

In carrying out media relations practices certain techniques and tools are applied by

public relations practitioner. The study by Nkwocha (2005) on effectiveness of media relations

tools and strategies showed that the effectiveness of tools and strategies is measured by four

instruments. These instruments are: high positive publicity that organisations earn from

journalists and their respective media. Such publicity helps the organisations in creating

awareness for their business activities, policies, programmes, products and services; low negative

media reports, attacks and criticisms on organisations and their activities and projects; journalists

covering organisations are being more informed and knowledgeable about their area of

specialisation and coverage as part of media relations and the friendly and cordial relationship

that exist between the organisations and journalists.

Ilupeju (2003), identifies the following as public relations techniques which also serve as

tools for media relations practitioners; awards to journalists or media organisations, anniversary

celebrations, house journals, brochures, facility visits, exhibitions, sponsorship, patronage and

endorsement. Nkwocha (2005), similarly posited that the above tools, including press luncheon,

parties and receptions, social welfare packages and periodic stipends for journalists who cover
the activities of the organisation and press information kits containing corporate information and

pictures contribute to maximum publicity and mutual relationship between organisations and

media practitioners.

According to Wardhani (2008), the objectives of media relations in organisations are as

follows: To get the broadest possible publicity regarding the activities and steps of the

institution/organisation that are good for the public to know; get a place in the media coverage

(coverage, reports, reviews of fair, objective and balanced headlines) on matters that benefit the

institution/organisation; obtain feedback from the community regarding the efforts and activities

of the institution/organisation; complete data/information for leaders of organisational

institutions to assess situations or problems that affect the company's success; create a stable and

sustainable relationship based on mutual trust and respect.

Supa (2008), defined media relations is the practice, performed by public relations

practitioners, of providing information subsidies to the media to systematically distribute

information on behalf of their client (Turk, 1985). Information subsidy is a term used to describe

the generation by practitioners of pre-packaged information to promote their organisations’

viewpoints on issues, with little cost (in terms of time or money) or effort to the person receiving

the information (Zoch and Molleda, 2006). In other words, the media relations practitioner acts

as a sort of “pre-reporter” for the journalist, providing them with information that they need to do

their jobs. Sallot, Steinfatt and Salwen (1998) explain the process as an effort by practitioners “to

gain ink and air time” by “continually offer[ing] journalists unsolicited assistance in the

performance of their jobs. With good reason, journalists perceive that practitioners have self-

serving motives for offering this ‘service’” (p. 374).

 There are varying estimates of how much news in the media originates from media

relations efforts. The success of media relations is most often dependent on the media relations

practitioner’s understanding of the media audience. It has been estimated that as much as 50% or

more of daily newspaper content originates from media relations efforts (Curtin, 1999). This,

however, is most likely very generous, particularly considering that media relations practitioners

and journalists have had a “rocky” past.

It is also a generous estimate considering that much research has shown that journalists

desire to act independently (Pincus, Rimmer, Rayfield & Cropp, 1993; Turk, 1985, 1986a,

1986b). Perhaps more likely than the up to 50% estimate, Elfenbein (1986) and Martin and

Singletary (1981) indicate that up to 90% of the information that media relations practitioners

provide is never used. Whether information that is provided by media relations practitioners is

used by journalists is most likely dependent on a variety of factors, including the practitioner’s

view about what is considered newsworthy, as well as the relationship between the practitioner

and the journalist. However, while these may be the two most important factors, a variety of

other factors must also be considered.

Much literature has focused on helping public relations practitioners better practice media

relations. Howard and Mathews’ (2000) book On Deadline: Managing Media Relations is one of

the most comprehensive works in the area of media relations. It offers media relations

practitioners a helpful guide in dealing with journalists. Howard (2004) offers a succinct list of

tips that media relations practitioners must keep in mind. She addresses the importance of the

relationship, stating that “the emphasis in a media relations program should be on the relations

aspect – working to build long-term relations with the people who cover your organisation” (p.

36).
 Beyond the concept of the newsworthiness of the practitioner’s information and the

actual practitioner-reporter relationship, Howard and others offer tips on the practice of media

relations. Howard (2004) summarizes the lessons in the Howard and Matthews’ (2000) book as:

knowing deadlines for all media that normally cover your organisation, timing announcements in

order to accommodate various media and remembering that there may be special requirements

for your organisation (in the case of publicly-held companies) or perhaps special requirements

for your media outlet. She also lists the importance of mastering the basic skills of writing and

editing, learning to become a “reporter’s reporter” – in other words, don’t be afraid to ask

questions of the reporter, such as what their needs are – and trying to get a good grasp of what

reporters need in order to do their job well.

She recommends that practitioners take advantage of technology, such as e-mail and Web

sites, remembering that accessibility is paramount – that is, you must be available to answer any

questions that the media may have – which may mean matching your work schedule to that of

the journalists, keeping key materials at home – if you are to be accessible, then you must have

the information you need to answer questions. Howard also writes that the use of internal media

may be as beneficial to reporters as it is to your employees. She suggests not being afraid to say

no – this is different than saying “no comment” – and when you decline to be a part of a story, it

must be for a good reason, such as that what the reporter is seeking involves proprietary

information, you don’t have the staff to be involved, you are involved in labor relations, etc. And

finally, it is important to remember your organisation’s employees – that they are your best

ambassadors, and your commitment to effective media relations should not supersede your

obligation to the employees of your organisation.

 This list, however, is not an exhaustive checklist of good practices in media relations,

though it is a good place to start. Other researchers have focused on specific areas of good

practices. Kent and Taylor (2003), for example, focus on maximizing media relations through

corporate Web sites. Their focus is on the dialogic function of the Internet, that is, the two-way

communication aspect that the Internet may have, and how to achieve it through corporate Web

sites. They suggest that achieving successful media relations via the Web means maintaining

easy-to-use Web sites, making sure that the information on the Web site is relevant to the

journalists you are targeting, keeping information updated and generating return visits, and

making sure there is the opportunity for interactivity with journalists.

Cantelmo (2014) offers suggestions on the value of targeting. “Targeting means tailoring

and directing news releases and other press material to editors and reporters who are most

interested in the subjects covered and therefore more likely to give them news and feature

treatment” (p.12). He indicates that there are two basic elements to targeting: first, the fitting of

material to the editorial interest of the reporters you are trying to communicate with, and second,

localizing the material to fit the geographical orientation of the media you are contacting. He

states that “as with all good communications, the more you can tailor your messages to the needs

of the receiver, the better your chances for getting their attention and influencing their behaviour

on your behalf” (p.13). Other researchers offer different versions of some of these best practices.

Duke (2001) concedes that e-mail is an important part of the media relations practice, but

warns that “email alone cannot be used to establish and maintain good media relations. Media

relations involves good working relationships. Such relationships may include a face-to-face

meeting, a phone call, a letter and other communication techniques” (p.20). The findings of her

study indicate that while e-mail and technology has made contacting journalists easier, it does
not necessarily add to the relationship-building aspect that most researchers and practitioners

agree is paramount to effective media relations. What results from this examination is that there

is no definitive way of practicing media relations, in fact, it would be easier to say that there is

only a list of what should not be done in practicing media relations.

Seitel (2007) offers a list of “don’ts” for media relations practitioners. The list includes:

don’t sweat skepticism (journalists aren’t paid to ask easy questions), don’t “buy” journalists

(bribes are unethical on both sides), don’t expect news agreement (this is discussed later with

regard to newsworthiness), don’t have an attitude with reporters (ultimately they decide what to

print), don’t lie (Seitel, and others, indicate this is the cardinal rule in media relations), don’t

“badger” the journalist about your “news,” don’t send clips of other stories about your client,

don’t bluff (admitting you don’t know the answer to a question but then reassuring the journalist

you will find out the answer will gain you more respect than trying to talk your way through it),

don’t go “off the record” (if you don’t want to see something on the news, don’t say it), don’t

make promises you can’t keep (if you guarantee the reporter an interview with your company

president, make it happen), don’t play favourites (you may have only a few journalists who are

your primary targets but you don’t want to alienate others, and remember that journalists tend to

move around), don’t assume that the journalist is “out to get you (treat all questions from

journalists with equal respect), don’t assume the journalist will use every word you say (only a

few words might make it to print or on television, so choose your words carefully), don’t let the

journalist dominate the conversation in an interview setting (ask for clarification if you don’t

understand the question), don’t say “no comment” (it sounds guilty). While this is not an

exhaustive list of things not to do, these practical tips are generally found throughout the

literature.
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