PHYS 131 PHYSICS FOR LIFE SCIENCES

OPTICS
Dr. Yaseera Ismail
School of Chemistry and Physics
Westville Campus
University of KwaZulu-Natal
H-Block, H3-084
email: Ismaily@[Link]

PHYS 131
 Optical Instruments
1. The Human Eye; Corrective Lenses
2. Magnifying Glass
3. Microscope
4. Resolution of the Eye and Useful Magnification

PHYS 131
 Chapter 25

The human eye and its defects

PHYS 131
 The Human Eye
The human visual system involves communication between the eye
and the brain to represent external stimuli as images.

Mechanics of the human eye

Defects in vision:

• Near-sightedness (myopia)
• Far-sightedness (hyperopia)

PHYS 131
 The Human Eye
The human eye resembles a camera in its basic function

It has an adjustable lens

The iris controls the amount of light

entering the eye.
The retina acts as the film or sensor
in a camera.
It is located on the curved rear
surface of the eye

PHYS 131
 The Human Eye
The optical system of the eye creates an image of the visual world
on the retina.

The optic nerve carries impulses

to the brain, where visual
information is interpreted.

Damage to an optic nerve results

in vision loss

PHYS 131
 The Human Eye

The lens of the eye (n = 1.386 to n = 1.406) does little of the bending
of the light rays

Most refraction is done at the front surface of the cornea (n = 1.376)

at its interface with air (n = 1)
PHYS 131
 The Human Eye
Lens acts as fine adjustment for focussing at different distances.

Ciliary muscles change the curvature of the lens so that its focal
length changes

PHYS 131
 Process of Accommodation
Refraction at the cornea and surface of lens produces a real image of
object viewed

Focus on distant object: Ciliary muscles are relaxed and lens is thin.
Parallel rays focus at the focal point on retina

Process called Accommodation

PHYS 131
 Process of Accommodation
Focus on nearby object: Ciliary muscles contract causing centre of the
lens to thicken. This shortens the focal length so images of near
objects can be focused on the retina.

Process called Accommodation

PHYS 131
 Process of Accommodation
Accommodation: Process of adjusting the curvature of lens so that its
focal length is changed ie. image falls on retina and is in focus

The near point: The closest distance at which the eye can focus
clearly. Typically 25 cm (closer for children - 10 cm)
The far point: The farthest distance at which an object can be seen
clearly
As people age ability to accommodate is reduced and near point
increases
Normal eye: near point 25 cm, far point ∞
PHYS 131
 Myopia and Hyperopia
Near-sightedness (myopia): far point is too close.
Far-sightedness (hyperopia): near point is too far away.

Both of these vision defects can be adjusted by the correct choice of

‘corrective lenses’.
In each case the ‘corrective lenses’ adjust for the lack of focus on
retina

The thin lens equation is used to

determine the focal length or power

PHYS 131
 Myopia
Near-sightedness (myopia): Far point is too close. Eye can only
focus on nearby objects

Far point is not infinity but closer: distant objects are not seen clearly

Cause: eyeball too long / curvature of cornea too much. Images of distant
objects are focused in front of retina

Diverging lens (it causes parallel rays to diverge) allows rays to be

focused on retina: corrects defect

PHYS 131
 Hyperopia
Far-sightedness (hyperopia): Near point is too far. Eye cannot focus
on nearby objects.

Distant objects are seen clearly but near point is greater than 25 cm – makes
reading difficult

Cause: eyeball too short / cornea is not curved enough. Image of near object
focused behind retina

Converging lens: converges rays partially so image is produced on retina

and defect corrected

PHYS 131
 Myopia

Nearsightedness (myopia): Eyes cannot focus on distant objects

Near point is at 25 cm
Far point is not at infinity but closer

Exercise: Determination of corrective lens power (Myopia):

Far point of eye is 17 cm. This gives image distance di = -0.17m
(diverging lens).

PHYS 131
 Solution to exercise on Myopia
Need to correct the far point – object must be at ‘normal’ far point
so do = ∞

1 1 1
Calculate f using = +
𝑓 𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖

P = 1/f (Power - ve)

Image distance: Distance eye can focus on,

Object distance – what it needs to be corrected to
PHYS 131
Solution to exercise on Myopia

1 1
𝑃= +
𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖

1 1
𝑃= −
∞ 0,17m

𝑃 = −5,88 𝐷

PHYS 131
 Hyperopia
Farsightedness (hyperopia): Eyes cannot focus on objects nearby
Near point is greater than 25 cm
Far point is at infinity
Determination of corrective lens power (Hyperopia):
Near point of eye is 70 cm
This gives image distance di = -0.70m (upright, virtual image-same
side of lens, convex lens with object within focal point)
Need to correct the near point – object must be at ‘normal near point’
so do = 25 cm = 0.25 m
Calculate f using 1/f = 1/do + 1/di and P = 1/f (Power +ve)

PHYS 131
Solution to exercise on Myopia

1 1
𝑃= +
𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖

1 1
𝑃= −
0,25 m 0,70m

𝑃 = +2,57 𝐷

PHYS 131
 Exercise: Farsighted eye (Hyperopia)

Sue is farsighted with a near point of 100 cm. What lens power
should her reading glasses be so that she can read a newspaper at a
distance of 25 cm?

Assume the lens is very close to the eye.

PHYS 131
Solution to exercise: Farsighted eye (Hyperopia)

When the object is placed at 25 cm from the lens, we want the

image to be 100 cm away on the same side of the lens (so the eye
can focus on it)

Image is virtual so di = - 100 cm.

Object must be at ‘normal near point’ so do = 25 cm = 0.25 m

PHYS 131
Solution to exercise: Farsighted eye (Hyperopia)

We will use thin lens equation to determine the focal length needed.

We can then calculate lens power using :

P = 1/f (P measured in Diopters (1 D = 1 m-1))

1 1
𝑃= +
𝑑𝑜 𝑑𝑖

PHYS 131
 Solution to example: Farsighted eye (Hyperopia)
Given that d0 = 25 cm and di = -100 cm the thin lens equation gives:
1 1
𝑃 =𝑑 +𝑑
𝑜 𝑖

Then:
1 1
𝑃= − = +3D
0,25m 1 m

Power of lens = 1/f = + 3.0 D (+ converging lens)

PHYS 131
 Exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)

A nearsighted eye has a near point of 12 cm and a far point of 17 cm.

(a) What power lens is needed for this person to see distant objects
clearly?

(b) What then will be the near point?

(Assume that the lens is 2 cm in front of the eye)

PHYS 131
Solution to exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)
For a distant object (d0 = ∞ )

The lens must put the image at the far point of the eye ie. 17 cm in
front of eye (so eye can focus on it)

We can then use thin lens equation to find the focal length of lens
and its lens power.
PHYS 131
Solution to exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)
Far point correction

For an object at infinity d0 = ∞

The image must be in front of the lens 17 cm from the eye or (17
cm – 2 cm) = 15 cm from the lens, hence di = - 15 cm = -0.15 m
(diverging lens)

PHYS 131
Solution to exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)
Use thin lens eq to solve for the focal length of lens needed:

1 / f = 1 / d 0 + 1 / di

1 / f = 1 / ∞ + 1 / -0.15 m

f = -0.15 m, P = 1 / f = - 6.7 D

Negative sign indicates

that it must be a
diverging lens for the
myopic eye

PHYS 131
 Exercise : Nearsighted eye (Myopia)

A nearsighted eye has a near point of 12 cm and a far point of 17 cm.

(a) What power lens is needed for this person to see distant objects
clearly?

(b) What then will be the near point?

(Assume that the lens is 2 cm in front of the eye)

PHYS 131
Solution to exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)
For a distant object (d0 = ∞ )

The new near point can be calculated for the lens by again using the
thin lens equation

PHYS 131
 Solution to exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)
b) Calculating new ‘near point’:

The near point when glasses are worn is where an object is placed
(d0) so that the lens forms an image at the near point of the naked
eye ie. 12 cm from the eye.

So image point is (12 cm – 2 cm) = 10 cm in front of the lens so

di = -0.10 m. The thin lens equation gives (using f = -0.15m):

1 / d0 = 1 / f – 1 / di

1 / d0 = -1 / 0.15 m + 1 / 0.10 m = 1 / 0.30 m d0 = 30 cm

PHYS 131
 Solution to exercise: Nearsighted eye (Myopia)
b) Calculating new ‘near point’:

d0 = 30 cm

which means the near point, when the person is wearing glasses,
is 30 cm in front of lens – or 32 cm from the eye

PHYS 131
 Underwater Vision
When your eyes are under water, distant objects look blurry because
of the water-cornea interface

The difference in indices of refraction is very small (n = 1.33 water,

n = 1.376 cornea)

Light rays are bent very little and are focused far behind the retina

PHYS 131
 Underwater Vision

Wearing goggles will restore air-cornea interface

(n = 1 air, n = 1.376 cornea)

Rays will be focused

PHYS 131
Magnifying glass and the Compound
Microscope

PHYS 131
 Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass (simple magnifier) is a converging lens.
It allows us to focus on objects closer than the near point, so that
they make a larger, and therefore clearer, image on the retina.

How large an object appears and how much detail we can see
depends on the size the image it makes on the retina

PHYS 131
 Magnifying Glass
The size of the image on the retina depends on the angle subtended
by the object at the eye.

Eg: if you hold a coin 30 cm from your eye it looks twice as tall
than if you hold it 60 cm
from your eye. This is
because the angle that it
subtends is twice as great

PHYS 131
 Magnifying Glass
If one wants to examine an object in detail we always bring it close
to our eyes so that it subtends a greater angle

PHYS 131
 Magnifying Glass
Our eyes can only accommodate up to a certain point – the near
point. We will assume a standard distance of N = 25 cm (near point
for average human eye).
A magnifying glass allows us to place the object closer to our eye
so that it subtends a greater angle

PHYS 131
 Magnifying Glass
If an object is placed within the focal length of the lens (magnifying
glass) then the converging lens produces a virtual image which must
be atleast 25 cm from the eye if the eye is to focus on it.

The magnifying glass therefore allows us to focus on objects closer

than the near point, so that they make a larger, and therefore clearer
image on the retina

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye

The magnifying glass therefore allows us to focus on objects closer

than the near point, so that they make a larger, and therefore clearer
image on the retina

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye
The angle an object subtends at the eye is much larger when a
magnifier is used.

The angular magnification or magnifying power of the lens is defined

as:
𝜃′ angle subtended by image
𝑀= =
𝜃 angle subtended by object

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye

If the eye is relaxed it will be focussed at infinity, magnification is

then given as:

𝑵
𝑴=
𝒇
N = near point (25 cm for normal eye),
f = focal length of converging lens (magnifier)

Shorter focal length = greater magnification of lens

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification –Unaided Eye
A small object (height h) is too small to see at object distance

do = N (the near point),

where it subtends an angle

θ ≈ h / N.
do

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye
To magnify the image, the object is placed just inside the focal point
of the lens, at object distance

do < f,

to form an enlarged virtual image at di ≥ N.

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification

If the image is at infinity (eye relaxed) or if the image is at the near

point (focused eye)

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye
If the image is at infinity (eye relaxed), then

do ≈ f,

so the image (and the object) subtends an angle

θ ≈ h / f .

θ ≈ h / do .

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye

The image and the object subtend an angle

θ ≈ h / do .

PHYS 131
Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye
𝜃′ angle subtended by image
𝑀= =
𝜃 angle subtended by object

θ ≈ h / N. θ ≈ h / do .

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Relaxed Eye
The power of a magnifying glass is described by its angular
magnification:
angle subtended by image
=
angle subtended by object

If the eye is relaxed (N is the near point distance and f the focal
length):

Remember θ ≈ h / f θ≈h/N

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Focused Eye
Focused: If the image is at the near point

(di = −N),

then (from thin lens equation)

1 1 1 1 1 1
= + ⟹ = −
𝑓 𝑑0 𝑑𝑖 𝑓 𝑑0 𝑁

1 1 1
= +
𝑑0 𝑓 𝑁
1 𝑁+𝑓 𝑁𝑓
= ⟹ 𝑑0 =
𝑑0 𝑁𝑓 𝑁+𝑓

PHYS 131
Angular Magnification – Focused Eye

Previously showed that θ ≈ h / do .

𝑁𝑓
𝑑0 =
𝑁+𝑓

ℎ ℎ ℎ(𝑁 + 𝑓)
𝜃′ = = =
𝑑0 𝑁𝑓 𝑁𝑓
𝑁+𝑓

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Focused Eye
If the eye is focused at the near point:

ℎ(𝑁 + 𝑓)
′
𝜃 𝑁𝑓 ℎ(𝑁 + 𝑓) 𝑁
𝑀= = = .
𝜃 ℎ 𝑁𝑓 ℎ
𝑁
𝑁+𝑓 𝑁 𝑓 𝑁
= = + = +1
𝑓 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Focused Eye
If the eye is focused at the near point:

ℎ(𝑁 + 𝑓)
𝜃′ =
𝑁𝑓

ℎ
𝜃=
𝑁

PHYS 131
 Angular Magnification – Focused Eye

The magnification of a given lens can be increased a little by moving

the lens and adjusting your eye so it focuses on the image at the eye’s
near point

In this case magnification is given by

(N = near point, f = focal length)

Magnification is slightly greater when the eye is focused at its near

point (25 cm), rather than relaxed

PHYS 131
 Exercise: Magnifying Glass

A 8-cm focal length converging lens is used as a ‘jeweller’s loupe’

which is a magnifying glass. Estimate:

(a) the magnification when the eye is relaxed

(b) the magnification if the eye is focused at its near point, N = 25 cm

PHYS 131
 Solution to exercise: Magnifying Glass

A 8-cm focal length converging lens is used as a ‘jeweller’s loupe’

which is a magnifying glass. Estimate:

(a) the magnification when the eye is relaxed

When eye is relaxed and focused at infinity

M=N/f

M = (25 cm) / (8 cm) ≈ 3 x

PHYS 131
 Solution to exercise: Magnifying Glass

A 8-cm focal length converging lens is used as a ‘jeweller’s loupe’

which is a magnifying glass. Estimate:

(b) the magnification if the eye is focused at its near point, N = 25 cm

When eye is focused at its near point and the lens is near eye

M = N / f + 1 =((25 cm) / (8 cm) + 1 ) ≈ 4 x

PHYS 131
 Compound Microscope
A compound microscope comprises of an objective (converging
lens) and an eyepiece (converging lens).

PHYS 131
 Compound Microscope
A compound microscope has an objective (converging lens) and an
eyepiece (converging lens) a distance l apart.

PHYS 131
 Compound Microscope
The object is placed close to the objective, to form an enlarged real
image I1, which is magnified by the eyepiece acting as a magnifying
glass.

PHYS 131
 Magnification of a Compound Microscope
The overall magnification of a microscope is the product of the lenses

The image I1, formed by the objective lens is a factor mo greater than
the object itself

ℎ𝑖 𝑑𝑖
𝑚𝑜 = =
ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑜

𝑑𝑖 = ℓ − 𝑓𝑒

ℎ𝑖 ℓ − 𝑓𝑒
𝑚𝑜 = =
ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑜

PHYS 131
 Magnification of a Compound Microscope

The eyepiece acts as a

simple magnifier. If we
assume the eye is
relaxed, the eyepiece
angular magnification is
given as

𝑁
𝑀𝑒 =
𝑓𝑒

PHYS 131
 Magnification of a Compound Microscope

The overall magnification of a microscope is the product of the lenses

ℎ𝑖 ℓ − 𝑓𝑒 𝑁
𝑚𝑜 = = 𝑀𝑒 =
ℎ𝑜 𝑑𝑜 𝑓𝑒

𝑁 ℓ − 𝑓𝑒
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑒 𝑚𝑜 =
𝑓𝑒 𝑑𝑜

Since 𝑓𝑒 and 𝑓𝑜 is small in comparison to ℓ, then

ℓ − 𝑓𝑒 ≈ ℓ

PHYS 131
 Magnification of a Compound Microscope
Since the object is near 𝐹𝑜 hence,
𝑑𝑜 ≈ 𝑓𝑜

Recall, ℓ − 𝑓𝑒 ≈ ℓ

𝑁 ℓ − 𝑓𝑒
𝑀 = 𝑀𝑒 𝑚𝑜 =
𝑓𝑒 𝑑𝑜

𝑁ℓ
≈
𝑓𝑒 𝑓𝑜

PHYS 131
 Microscope Magnification
The magnification is given by:

and do ≈ fo

PHYS 131
 Resolution of the Human Eye and Useful
Magnification
Resolution is the distance at which a lens can just distinguish objects
at a given distance apart.

The human eye can resolve objects that are about

• 1cm – 2 cm apart at a distance of 20 m,
• 0.1 mm – 0.2 mm apart at 20 cm.

Light has a resolution of about half a wavelength, i.e. about 200 nm.
This limits the useful magnification of a light microscope to about
500x – 1000x.
PHYS 131
 Summary

The retina of the human eye acts as the film or sensor in a camera

Focus on distant object: Ciliary muscles of eye are relaxed and

lens is thin. As a result parallel rays focus at the focal point on
retina

Focus on nearby object: Ciliary muscles of eye contract causing

centre of the lens to thicken, this shortens focal length so images
of near objects can be focussed on retina

Change in lens curvature to allow light to focus on retina is called

the process of accommodation

PHYS 131
 Summary

Nearsightedness (myopia): Eye can only focus on nearby objects. It

can be corrected by the use of a diverging lens

Farsightedness (hyperopia): Eye cannot focus on nearby objects. It

can be corrected by the use of a converging lens

PHYS 131
 Summary
A magnifying glass (simple magnifier) is a converging lens. It
allows us to focus on objects closer than the near point, so that they
make a larger, and therefore clearer, image on the retina

Relaxed eye

Focused eye

PHYS 131
 Summary

Compound Microscope

PHYS 131
PHYS 131 PHYSICS FOR LIFE SCIENCES
OPTICS
Dr. Yaseera Ismail
School of Chemistry and Physics
Westville Campus
University of KwaZulu-Natal
H-Block, H3-084
email: Ismaily@[Link]

PHYS 131