Soil Mechanics | 1

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 01: Introduction

1) Introduction to Soil mechanics → ❖ There are following processes involved in

❖ Soil mechanics is the branch of engineering Geological cycle →
that studies the behaviour of
unconsolidated solid particles (soil) and
their response to applied forces, using the
principles of mechanics and hydraulics.

❖ It involves understanding the physical

properties of soil, such as strength,
deformation, and flow of water through
soil.
❖ Karl von Terzaghi is considered as the
father of soil mechanics. And he gave the A. Weathering of rocks →
theory of consolidation & concept of ❖ weathering of rocks can be due to two
effective stress in his book Erdbaumechanik different process which are →
in year 1925.
a) Physical weathering →
1. Soil → ❖ Disintegration of rocks due to application of
❖ ‘Soil’ word is derived from Latin word physical forces is called physical
‘solium’ which means the top layer of weathering.
surface. ❖ Mineralogical composition does not change
❖ As per civil engineering perspective, Soil is due to physical weathering and coarse-
a naturally occurring, unconsolidated grained particles of soil are formed.
mixture of mineral formed by weathering
and disintegration of rocks. ➢ There are Following factors that causes
physical weathering →
❖ It consists of solid particles, including 1. Temperature variation
inorganic minerals, organic matter, water, 2. Abrasion
and air, which together form the medium 3. Wedging acting of ices
for supporting plant growth and providing 4. Spreads of roots of plants
foundation stability.
➢ The shape of the particles of soil can be
2. Origin of soil & Geological cycle → as following in physical weathering →
❖ Soil is formed due to the weathering and 1. Rounded
disintegration of rocks. Over time, soil can 2. Sub-rounded
transform back into rock through processes 3. Angular
like compaction, cementation, and 4. Sub-angular
lithification.
❖ This continuous cycle of rock formation,
weathering, and soil creation is known as b) Chemical weathering →
the Geological cycle or Rock cycle. ❖ Disintegration of rocks is due to chemical
reactions is called chemical weathering.

❖ Mineralogical composition of soil changes

due to chemical weathering and fine-
grained particles of soil are formed.

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 Soil Mechanics | 2

➢ There are following factors that causes c) Glacial → when the disintegrated soil
chemical weathering → particles are transported by the melting
1. Hydration → when rock minerals react glacial, called Glacial deposited soil. Ex-
with water. Till, drift, out wash.
2. Carbonation → when rock minerals react
with CO2. d) Gravity → when the disintegrated soil
3. Hydrolysis → when rock minerals react particles are transported by the gravity,
with H⁺ & OH⁻ ions. called Colluvial soil. Ex- Talus
4. Solution → when rock minerals dissolved
in any solution.
5. Oxidation → when rock minerals react 2) Introduction to the following soils →
with O2. A. Bentonite and Black cotton soil →
❖ Both Contains montmorillonite clay
mineral.
B. Transportation of soil → ❖ High activity number.
❖ After the weathering and disintegration of ❖ Show less shrinkage limit & greater the
rocks, soil formed and further is liquid limit.
transported by some agent. ❖ Absorbs more water that causes greater
change in volume (high shrinkage &
➢ On the basis of transportation, soils are swelling).
two types → ❖ It has greater the voids that cause high
1) Residual soil → after the weathering if the compressibility.
soil is retained over its parent rocks, called ❖ Not suitable for foundation or engineering
residual soil. structures.
❖ Residual soil has better engineering ❖ Bentonite soil is formed by decomposition
properties than transported. of volcanic ash.
❖ Black cotton soil is formed by
decomposition of basalt & trap.
2) Transported soil → after the weathering if
the soil is transported by different agencies, ➢ Note →
called transported soil. ❖ If any soil has lesser shrinkage limit &
❖ There are followings transporting agents → greater liquid limit, it means →
1. Water 3. Glacial  It has more voids that causes high
2. Air 4. Gravity compressibility.
 Absorbs more water that causes greater
a) Water → when the disintegrated soil change in volume (high shrinkage &
particles are transported by the water or swelling)
river, called Alluvial soil.  Indicates the presence of clay minerals. Clay
 Lacustrine soil → Soil deposited under minerals has -ve electric charge at the
lake surface, due to which it can hold large
 Marine soil → Soil deposited under sea. Ex- amount of water content.
Marl  High activity number.
 Not suitable for engineering structures.
b) Air → when the disintegrated soil particles
are transported by the air, called Aeoline
soil. Ex- Sand dunes, loess.
❖ It is highly compressible and permeable
soil.
❖ It has low shear strength and load bearing
capacity.

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 Soil Mechanics | 3

B. Calcareous soil → Contains high amount of b) Peat → It is fully decomposed Organic soil.
CaCO3. c) Humus → It is partly decomposed Organic
C. Caliche → It is the combination of Gravel, soil.
Sand & Silt cemented by CaCO3.
d) Cumulose soil → Muck + Peat

D. Diatomaceous soil → It is formed by the 3) Properties of soil →

decomposition of skeleton of Diatoms & 1) Phase diagram of soils →
forming the siliceous compound.
❖ Diatoms are the unicellular organisms.

E. Dispersive clays → The clay that are

formed by the decomposition of soil mass in
still water.

F. Varved clay → It is formed by deposition of

alternate layer of Clay & Silt. Max thickness
is 1cm. ❖ Generally, a soil mass consists of three
components Air, Water & soil solid in
G. Indurated clay → The clays that are nature. But for study we represent them
formed by the Induration process (by separately by a diagram, called phase
application of heat & pressure) diagram.

H. Tuff → It is formed by the deposition of

lava, coming from the volcanic eruption. A. Phase diagram for Partly saturated
conditions →
I. Marl → It is fine grained, marine deposited
soil.
❖ It is formed by the decomposition of marine
animals & vegetations.

J. Tundra → It is formed by the combination

of peat & shrubby vegetations.
❖ It is found in excessive winter condition.

➢ Perma-frost → due to very low

temperature, the layer of soil at greater
depth are permanently freezed, this process
is called perma-frost.
• W = total weight of soil mass
K. Moorum → • Wa = weight of air
L. Organic soils → It is formed by the • Ww = weight of water
decomposition of organic matters (plants & • Ws = weight of soil
vegetations). Ex- Muck, Peat & Humus. • V = total soil mass volume
• Va = volume of air
a) Muck → It is the soil which contains both • Vw = volume of water
Organic and Inorganic particles. • Vv = volume of voids
• Vs = volume of solids

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❖ Weight of air can be neglected. 2) Water or moisture content (w) →

❖ Ws & Vs will remain unchanged for a soil ❖ It is defined as the ratio of weight of water
to the weight of soil solid.
• Total weight, W = Ww + Ws ❖ w=
Ww
and 0≤w<∞
Ws
• Total volume, V = Vv + Vs W
❖ Ws = 1+w
Or = Va + Vw + Vs
❖ It has no upper limits.
B. Phase diagram for dry condition →

3) Void ratio (e) →

❖ It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids
to the volume of soil solid.
Vv
❖ e = Vs and 0<e<∞
V n
❖ Vs = 1+e and e = 1− n
❖ It has no upper limits.
1
❖ e ∝ Denseness and e ∝ Permeability.
❖ Engineering significance of void ratio is
more than porosity.
❖ Generally, when the soil mass gets
completely dry then the free spaces or voids
in between are filled only with air ➢ Note →
(gaseous). In this case liquid phase remains Fine- Coarse-
absent. grained soil grained soil
• V = Vs + Vv and Vv = Va Size of voids Less More
• W = Ws here Ww = 0 Volume of one Less More
void
No. of voids More Less
C. Phase diagram for Saturated condition → Void ratio (e) More Less
Water content More Less

4) Porosity (n) →
❖ It is defined as the ratio of volume of voids
to the total volume of soil mass.
Vv
❖ n= and 0<n<1
V
e
❖ n = 1+e

5) Degree of saturation (s) →

❖ It is defined as the ratio of volume of water
❖ When the soil mass gets completely
to the volume of voids.
saturate then the free spaces or voids in Vw
❖ s= and 0≤s≤1
between are filled only with water. Vs
• V = Vs + Vv and Vv = Vw ❖ In dry condition, s = 0
• W = Ws + Ww here Wa = 0 ❖ In fully saturated condition, s = 1

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➢ Conditions of soil at different degree of ❖ γsub =

Wsub
and γSub = γSat – γW
V
saturation →
s Soil conditions
0 – 0.25 Humid 5. Dry unit weight (γd) → It is defined as the
025 – 0.50 Damp ratio of weight of dry soil/Soil solid to the
0.50 – 0.75 Moist total volume of soil mass.
0.75 – 1 Wet ❖ γd =
Ws
=1 Wet/saturated V
❖ γd ∝ Denseness

6) Air content (aC)→

❖ It is defined as the ratio of volume of air to ➢ Decreasing order of unit weights →
the volume of voids. ❖ γS > γSat > γb > γd > γSub
Va
❖ aC = Vv and 0 ≤ aC ≤ 1
❖ aC + s = 1
❖ In dry condition, aC = 1 9) Specific gravity (G) →
❖ In wet condition, aC = 0 1. True specific gravity (GT) → It is defined
as the ratio of weight of soil solid to the
weight of water.
Ws 𝛄𝐬
7) Percentage of air voids (na) → ❖ GT = Ww and GT = 𝛄𝐰
❖ It is defined as the ratio of volume of air to 1
❖ GT ∝ Organic content
the total volume of soil mass.
Va
❖ na = and 0 ≤ na ≤ 1
V
❖ na = aC x n
2. Apparent specific gravity (Gm) → It is
defined as the ratio of total weight of soil
mass to the weight of water.
8) Unit weight → W 𝛄𝐛
❖ Gm = Ww and GT = 𝛄𝐰
1. Bulk unit weight (γb) → It is defined as the
total weight to the total volume of the soil
mass. ➢ Specific gravity of different soils are as
❖ γb =
W follow →
V
• G (Fine-grained) > G (Coarse-grained)
• G (Inorganic) > G (Organic)
2. Saturated unit weight (γsat) → It is defined
as the weight of saturated soil to the total
volume of the soil mass. ➢ Types of soils on the basis of specific
Wsat gravity →
❖ γsat =
V
Specific gravity Type of soil
2.65 – 2.68 Sand / Gravel
2.66 – 2.7 Silt
3. Unit weight of soil solid (γs) → It is
2.75 – 2.85 Soil with high Mica/
defined as the weight of soil solid to the
Iron
volume of soil solid.
Ws 2.6 – 2.9 (2.65) Inorganic soil
❖ γs = 1 – 2 (1.2) Organic soil
Vs

4. Submerged unit weight (γsub) → It is

defined as the ratio of weight of submerged
soil to the total volume of soil mass.

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➢ Note → 4) Arrangement of the particles in the soil

❖ Specific gravity is measured @ 27⁰C. mass →
❖ As we know that unit weight of soil solid
doesn’t change & remains same at any
temperature of place. So,
γS @ 27⁰C = γS @ T⁰ or
G.γw @27⁰C = G.γw @T⁰C

1) Cubical array →
10) Density Index, Relative density or ❖ In this, soil is in loosest state and max. void
Degree of density (ID) → ratio & porosity are observed.
❖ It represents the compactness of soil. ❖ 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.91
❖ 𝑛𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.47
❖ It is valid only for cohesionless soil.
e − e
❖ ID = e max− e • If e = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 , ID = 0
max min
2) Rhombohedral array →
• If e = 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 , ID = 1
❖ It is the densest state of the soil in which
1
−
1 min. void ratio & porosity are observed.
❖ ID =
𝛄𝐝 min
1
𝛄d
1
❖ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.35
−
𝛄𝐝 min 𝛄𝐝 max ❖ 𝑛𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 0.26

❖ 0 ≤ ID ≤ 1
❖ ID ∝ Shear strength 5) Interrelationship between the
1
❖ ID ∝ Compressibility properties of soil →
❖ S.e = WG

(𝐺+𝑆.𝑒) γw
➢ Degree of denseness & density index → ❖ γb = (1+𝑒)

ID Degree of denseness 𝐺 γw γb (1− 𝑛𝑎 )𝐺 γw

0 – 15 Very loose soil ❖ γd = = 1+𝑤 =
1+𝑒 (1+𝑊𝐺)
15 – 35 Loose soil
(𝐺+𝑒) γw
36 – 65 Medium loose soil ❖ γSat = (1+𝑒)
65 - 85 Dense soil
85 - 100 Very dense soil
(𝐺−1)γw
❖ γSub = (1+𝑒)
= γd – (1 – n) γw
11) Relative compactness (Rc) →
❖ It is defined as the ratio of actual obtained ❖ γb = γd + s.(γSat - γd)
dry density of soil at the field to the
maximum dry density.
𝑛 𝐺
❖ e = 1−𝑛 = 𝐺 𝑇 – 1
𝛄d
❖ Rc = 𝛄𝐝 For both cohesive & 𝑚
max
cohesionless soil.
𝑒
❖ Rc = 80+0.2ID For cohesionless soil ❖ n = 1+𝑒
only.
❖ aC + S = 1

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 Soil Mechanics | 7

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 02: Index Properties of soil

➢ Index properties → Size of sieve passing Quantity (gm)

❖ The properties which are used to identify through 90% of particles
and classify the soil and indicates nature 425 mic 25
and behaviour of soil, called index 2 mm 50
properties of soil. 4.75 mm 200
10 mm 300
➢ Followings are the index properties of 20 mm 500
soil → 40 mm 1000
1) Water content →
❖ We have already discussed about water ➢ Note →
content. ❖ According to IS 2720:1973 (part -2),
➢ Methods to determine water content → Accuracy in measurement of quantity
1. Oven dry method should be kept 0.04%
2. Sand bath method
3. Alcohol sprit method
4. Pycnometer method 2. Sand bath method →
5. Calcium carbide/moisture meter ❖ It is a field method used when oven is not
method available.
6. Radiation method ❖ It is low accurate than oven dry method
7. Torsional balance/Infrared lamp because there is no control on temperature.
method ❖ It is not suitable for →
• Organic soil • Soil containing
1. Oven dry method → highly gypsum
❖ The oven drying method is a laboratory
technique for determining the water 3. Alcohol sprit method →
content of soil by removing moisture from a ❖ In this method, Methylated sprit is used to
sample in an oven until it reaches a increase the rate of drying and ignition
constant weight. capacity of soil.
❖ It is a most accurate method. ❖ It is low accurate than oven dry method
because there is no control on temperature.
➢ Temperature ranges → In no case ❖ It is also not suitable for →
temperature should exceed 110⁰C, to • Organic soil • Soil containing
reduce the losses of structural water. highly gypsum
❖ For inorganic soils → 105 – 110⁰C
❖ For organic soils → temperature ≯ 60⁰C,
4. Pycnometer method →
to reduce the oxidation.
❖ It can be used when Specific gravity of soil
❖ For the soil containing gypsum →
is known.
temperature ≯ 80⁰C.
❖ It is also used to determine the Specific
❖ Drying period of soil in oven → 16 – 24
gravity of soil.
hrs.
❖ It is suitable for Coarse-grained and
Cohesionless soils only.
➢ Quantity of soils depends upon the
❖ Volume of pycnometer → 900ml.
followings → 𝐖 −𝐖 𝐆 –𝟏
• Gradation of soil • Max size of ❖ Water content, w = (𝐖𝟐 − 𝐖𝟏 ) ( )–1
𝟑 𝟒 𝐆
• Degree of particles
wetness

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 Soil Mechanics | 8

5. Calcium carbide method → 3. Pycnometer method →

❖ It is quickest method (5 – 7 min) also called ❖ It is used for Coarse-grained and
rapid moisture method. Cohesionless soils.
❖ In this method, Calcium carbide is reacted ❖ In this, vacuum pump can be used to
to water and emits Acetylene gas on the remove the entrapped air at a pressure of
basis of which water content is determined. 56 cm height of Hg.
Higher the amount of acetylene gas, higher 𝐖 −𝐖
❖ Specific gravity, G = (𝐖 − 𝐖 𝟐) − (𝐖𝟏 − 𝐖 )
will be the water content. 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑 𝟒

❖ CaC2 + H2O → Ca(OH)2 + C2H2↑

3) Unit weight or Density →

❖ We have already discussed about the unit
6. Radiation method →
weight.
❖ It is a field or in situ method in which radio
➢ Methods to determine the unit weight of
action material Co – 60 are used to
soil →
determine the moisture content.
1. Core cutter method
❖ Higher the losses of energy, higher will be
2. Sand replacement method
the water content.
3. Water displacement method
4. Submerged unit weight method
5. Water balloon method
7. Torsional balance or Infrared lamp
6. Radiation method
method →
❖ It is a lab method in which Infrared rays
are used to dry the sample. In this, drying
1. Core cutter method →
and weighing of soil are sone
❖ It is suitable for soft soil, Fine-grained,
simultaneously.
clayey soil and Cohesionless soils.
❖ It is suitable for the soil that absorbs more
❖ It is used to determine the bulk unit weight
water from the atmosphere.
(density) of soils.

➢ Equipment →
2) Specific gravity →
a) Core cutter →
❖ We have already discussed about the
❖ Dia – 100mm
specific gravity.
❖ Height – 130mm
❖ Volume – 1000cc
➢ Methods to determine specific gravity →
1. 50 ml density bottle method
b) Dolly →
2. 500 ml flask method
❖ Dia – 115mm
3. Pycnometer method
❖ Height – 25mm

1. 50 ml density bottle method →

c) Rammer →
❖ It is a most accurate method and suitable
❖ Shaft dia – 25mm
for all types of soils.
❖ Base dia – 140mm
❖ In this, Kerosene oil is used as standard
❖ Height – 900mm
fluid to determine the specific gravity.
➢ Procedure →
❖ First clean the ground and place the core
2. 500 ml flask method →
cutter with dolly.
❖ It is suitable for Coarse-grained and
❖ Now, give blows using rammer till dolly is
Cohesionless soils.
visible. Then, collect the soil sample and
calculate its weight.

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 Soil Mechanics | 9

❖ Now, we can determine bulk unit weight 3. Water displacement method →

using weight of soil and volume of core ❖ It is suitable for cohesive soil or highly
cutter (soil) γb =
Weight of soil sticky soil.
Volume of core cutter (soil)
❖ In this method, unit weight of soil is
determine using Archimedes’ principle.
❖ We can also determine dry unit weight after
❖ Unit weight of paraffin wax = 0.908g/ml
calculating the water content.
γb
γd = 1+w
➢ Procedure →
2. Sand replacement method → ❖ First collect the soil sample in the form of
❖ It is suitable for hard soil or granular soil lump and give regular shape. And calculate
where core cutter method can’t be applied. its weight.
❖ In this method, unit weight of soil is ❖ Then, sample is coated with paraffin wax to
determined using bulk unit weight protect from disintegration.
(density) of standard sand. ❖ Now, gradually lower the sample into a
container filled with water. And using
➢ Standard sand should be → volume of displaced water, determine the
❖ Well graded volume of soil.
❖ Passing through 1mm & retained on 600mic ❖ Now, we can determine the bulk unit
IS sieve. weight of soil using weight and volume.
Weight of soil
γb = Volume of soil
➢ Equipment →
a) Calibrating container of 1000cc volume.
❖ We can also determine dry unit weight after
b) Sand pouring cylinder.
calculating the water content.
γb
γd = 1+w
➢ Procedure →
❖ First determine the bulk unit weight of
standard sand using Calibrating container 4. Submerged unit weight method →
of 1000cc & Sand pouring cylinder. ❖ This method is similar to water
Weight of sand
γb = Volume of calibrating container (sand) displacement method. The different is that
the volume of sample is determined using
submerged weight & Archimedes’ principle.
❖ Now excavate the ground up to 15cm depth
using metal tray and collect the soil sample
and determine its weight.
4) Particle or Grain size distribution →
❖ Then, place this standard sand pouring
❖ Grain/particle size analysis is the method
cylinder over excavated hole. And
by which we separate soil into different
determine the volume of hole using
fractions based on their particle’s sizes.
standard sand.
❖ As we know that the soil is made by
❖ Now, we can determine bulk unit weight of
different kinds of soil grains of different
soil using weight of soil & volume of hole
Weight of soil
shapes and sizes due to which soil show
(soil). γb = Volume of hole (soil) different kinds of properties.

❖ We can also determine dry unit weight after ❖ The soil particles having size greater than
calculating the water content. 75mic, called coarse-grained & having size
γb
γd = 1+w smaller than 75mic called fine-grained.
❖ And a soil mass consists of both coarse-
grained and fine-grained particles due to

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 Soil Mechanics | 10

which grain size analysis is done in two ❖ In wet sieve analysis, retained particles
stages. That are → over 75mic sieve is washed out to remove
A. Sieve analysis all the finer particles sticking to the sand.
B. Sedimentation analysis ❖ Now, the wet sand retained on 75mic after
washing is dried. And after drying the dry
sieve analysis is carried out.
A. Sieve analysis method→
❖ Sieve analysis is the method of particle size
analysis, using which we determine the b) Coarse sieve analysis →
amount of particles of different sizes ❖ It is done for Gravel or coarse fraction
present in the sample. In this method, soil is having size between 4.75mm to 80mm.
sieved through a set of sieves.
❖ Sieve analysis is done for coarse-grained ❖ Set of sieves for gravel fraction (set of
soils or soil having particles between 75mic coarse sieves) consists sieves of size 80mm,
to 80mm. 40mm, 20mm, 10mm, 4.75mm and pan.
❖ Sieve analysis itself is done in two ways →
1) Dry sieve analysis
2) Wet sieve analysis 3) After sieving by fine or coarse sieve
analysis, we calculate the percentage
amount of soil retained on each sieve. %
➢ Procedures → Weight of retained soil
retained = Total weight of sample
1) We take 500 gm of soil sample without
washing that should not contain any lumps.
❖ And we also calculate the cumulative
2) Soil sample is sieved through 4.75mm sieve.
percentage retained. Cumulative
The soil particles having size greater than
percentage retained is the total
4.75mm, called gravel & having size smaller
percentage amount of soil which could not
than 4.75mm, called sand.
pass through a particular sieve.
❖ This way coarse-grained soil is divided into
4) This way using cumulative percentage
two categories Gravel & Sand. And sieve
retained we calculate the percentage finer.
analysis is done in two stages. That are →
Percentage finer is the total percentage
a) Fine sieve analysis
amount of soil which could pass through a
b) Coarse sieve analysis
particular sieve.
a) Fine sieve analysis →
❖ It is done for Sand or coarser fraction
having size between 75mic to 4.75mm. ➢ Note →
❖ Use IS 460:1962 – for various standard size
❖ Set of sieves for sand fraction (set of fine of sieves.
sieves) consists sieves of size 2mm, 1mm, ❖ Size of sieve represents the size of opening
600mic, 425mic, 212mic, 150mic, 75mic of mesh.
and pan.

B. Sedimentation analysis method →

❖ If soil portion passing through 75mic sieve ❖ Sedimentation analysis is the method of
that we collect in pan, is 5 % to 10% then particle size analysis, using which we
wet sieve analysis is carried out. determine the amount of particles of
❖ The purpose of wet sieve analysis is to different sizes present in the sample.
remove all the particles which are finer
than 75mic.

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 Soil Mechanics | 11

❖ Sedimentation analysis is done for fine- ❖ Settling medium is Infinite but our
grained soils or soil have particles lesser suspension is in the jar and its walls affect
than 75mic. the results to some extent as falling
❖ Smaller particles carry charges on their particles may collide with the wall.
surface and have tendency to stick to each
other and these can’t be analysed by sieve ❖ Sedimentation analysis cannot be used for
analysis method. particles of size larger than 0.2 mm because
❖ Sedimentation analysis is based on Stokes they may cause to generate turbulent
‘law. conditions and stokes law is not applicable
for that.
➢ Stokes ‘law →
❖ According to this law a small particle in a ❖ Sedimentation analysis is also not
liquid suspension tries to settle down due applicable for particles smaller than 0.2
to its own weight under the action of micron because such small particles may
gravity. And its downward velocity keeps set Brownian motion in the suspension and
on increasing because of acceleration due to these particles do not settle as per stokes
gravity. law.

❖ It assumes Discrete setting but without

❖ But two forces Buoyant force and drag treatment particles forms flocs.
force, which acts opposite to the direction
of motion of the particles and start
retarding the particle until it acquires the • v = Terminal velocity or settling velocity
equilibrium condition. And because of • 𝛾𝑆 = Dry unit weight of soil
which particle’s velocity becomes constant. • 𝛾𝑊 = Unit weight of water
That is, now particle falls with a constant • 𝐷 = Diameter of particles
velocity, which is called its terminal • Ƞ = kinematic viscosity
velocity or settling velocity.

❖ The expression for terminal velocity can be ➢ Methods of Preparation soil suspension
obtained by writing equation of equilibrium for sedimentation analysis →
for this falling particle in fluid. 1) Take about 50 gm of oven dried soil sample
4 4
γS 3 πr 3 = γW 3 πr 3 + 6πƞrv passing through 75 mic sieve. And do pre-
❖ Solving this equation, we get the terminal treatment.
velocity as this.
𝛾𝑆 − 𝛾𝑊 (𝐺− 1)𝛾𝑊 ➢ Pre-treatment →
v = 𝐷2 = 𝐷2
18ƞ 18ƞ ❖ In pre-treatment we remove Organic and
❖ Here, v ∝ 𝐷2 it means larger the diameter of Calcium compound by mixing some agents
a particle, higher its speed will be and which are →
smaller the particle slower it will settle to ❖ For Organic compound → Oxidising agents
the bottom. (H2O2)
❖ For Calcium compound → HCl of 0.2N
➢ Assumptions and limitations of Stokes ❖ After pre-treatment, do post-treatment
‘law →
❖ Particles’ shape is spherical but fine soils
particles are never spherical and actually
are flaky or needle shaped in reality.
❖ Specific gravity of solids for different
particles is different, but we use its average
value.

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 Soil Mechanics | 12

➢ Post-treatment → layer, only particles of size smaller than D

❖ In sedimentation analysis, we allow will be present.
discrete settling, discrete setting mean
individual settlement of particles without 6) Now, we can calculate percentage finer
forming flocs. These flocs behave like a after any time (T) that is
single particle and according to Stokes ‘law 7)
Concentration of sample (size smaller than D)
Concentration of the total soil sample(all size particles)
larger the diameter of a particle, higher its
speed will be.
8) To determine the concentration of soil
particles on any layer we employ two
❖ For discrete settlement, we mix 100ml
methods →
deflocculating or dispersing agents into the
1. Pipette method
soil sample which are →
2. Hydrometer method
• Sodium Hexametaphosphate
• Sodium Carbonate
• Sodium Oxalate
1. Pipette method →
• Sodium Silicate
❖ In the pipette method the concentration of
solids is determined directly by collecting
➢ Preparation of dispersing agent solution
sample of soil suspension from a specified
for post-treatment →
sampling depth time to time using pipette.
❖ Take 1000ml distilled water and mix 33gm
of sodium hexametaphosphate & 7gm of
❖ For pipette method, we require only 500ml
sodium carbonate
volume of soil suspension. And is placed in
constant temperature of 27°C for about an
2) After mixing the 100 ml deflocculating or
hour. The jar is then taken out and Shaked
dispersing agents, distilled water is added
so that suspension becomes homogeneous.
to it to make the suspension volume 1000
ml. So, VT = 1000ml
❖ Volume of pipette is generally 10ml or 10cc
Vp = 10ml
3) And the sample is stirred with a mechanical
❖ As we know that large particles settle with
stirrer for few minutes. Make sure
greater speed than small particles do. So, at
suspension is completely mixed and is
a certain depth we will find different
homogeneous. This means the number of
concentrations of different particles at
different sized particles at any depth is the
different times.
same.
❖ When 2 minutes elapsed then we take our
first sample. Pipette is gradually lowered to
4) At the beginning of the sedimentation,
the depth of 100 mm into the suspension.
amount of particles at any layer of the
So, sampling depth or effective depth, He =
suspension will be same. But as time
10cm (constant)
proceeds, particles start settling down and
amount of particles of different layers
❖ Now, using our formula
become different. Distance (He ) (𝐺− 1)𝛾𝑊
V= = 𝐷2 we
Time (t) 18ƞ
5) Now by simple equation of motion, we can can determine the size of particles (D) on
calculate the velocity of particles at any this layer. So, in above this layer we will
depth (He ) that is equal to settling velocity. find all the particles of size smaller than D.
Distance (He )
V = Time (t)
=
(𝐺− 1)𝛾𝑊
❖ After determining the size, sample is dried
𝐷2 and we can be sure that no in oven at 105°C to 110°C for 24 hours. And
18ƞ
particle of this size (D) will be present after drying weight of the sample is taken.
above this layer. which means above this So dry weight = Wd

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 Soil Mechanics | 13

about an hour. The jar is then taken out and

❖ Now, we can calculate % fineness → Shaked so that suspension becomes
• Concentration of total soil suspension = homogeneous.
WT
VT
Wa
❖ As we know that large particles settle with
• Concertation of dispersing agent = greater speed than small particles do. So, at
VT

• Concentration of solids in pipette =

Wd a certain depth we will find different
𝐖𝐝 𝐖𝐚
VP
concentrations of different particles at
𝐕𝐓
−
𝐕𝐓 different times. This results in non-
❖ % fineness = 𝐖𝐓
𝐕𝐓 uniform specific gravity of suspension at
different depths. The lower layers of the
❖ In similar fashion more samples are taken suspension have higher specific gravity
after 4, 8, 15 and 30 mins and 1, 2, 4, 8 and than that of upper layers. Hence in
24 hours and percentage finer for different equilibrium condition of hydrometer, now
sized particles can be known. suspension provides lesser buoyant force to
the hydrometer. And hydrometer starts
settling down. And with it changes its
2. Hydrometer method → readings. Hence, effective depth (He) is
❖ Hydrometer is an instrument used to not constant.
measure the relative density (specific
gravity) of liquids based on the concept of ➢ Determination of effective depth (He) →
buoyancy. ❖ Effective (sampling depth) is the depth
from the free surface to the layer at which
❖ Hydrometer consists of a sealed hollow concentration of solid particles is to be
glass tube (bulb) with a narrow stem which determined.
has graduations for measurement. Readings
on the stem (hydrometer reading & specific
gravity) increase downwards and decrease
upwards.
❖ Relationship between specific gravity &
hydrometer reading is → RH = (G – 1) x
1000
He
❖ Bulb contains a material called ballast such
as lead or mercury for stability.
❖ Here, volume of hydrometer is determined
neglecting volume of stem or include only
volume of bulb. And we can determine its
volume easily by distilled water.

1 Vh
➢ Procedures in hydrometer method → ❖ He = H + 2 (h − )
A
❖ In the hydrometer method the • He = Sampling (effective) depth
concentration of solids is determined by • H = Depth of hydrometer’s submerged neck
taking specific gravity at different layer. (hydrometer reading, Rh)
• Vh = Volume of hydrometer (bulb)
• A = Cross-sectional area of container
1) For hydrometer method, we require • H = height of bulb of hydrometer
1000ml volume of soil suspension. And is
placed in constant temperature of 27°C for

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 Soil Mechanics | 14

2) After complete mixing the jar is placed and 4) Then, we can also determine the
a stopwatch is started. Then we insert the G R
percentage fineness = (G−1) x Wch x 100
hydrometer in the suspension to note down T

our first reading which is taken after 30

➢ Note →
seconds. And We take more readings after 8 1
minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes and 1, 2, 4, ❖ Rhc ∝ 𝐻 & Rhc ∝ Density
𝑒
8 and 24 hours from the beginning of the
sedimentation. ➢ Particles/grain size distribution curve →
❖ After determination of % fineness and
Diameter of particles by both Sieve &
➢ Corrections in hydrometer readings → Sedimentation analysis we plot a curve
❖ Now if we notice, the reading we noted is between them, called (GSD) Grain Size
not the correct specific gravity of soil distribution curve.
suspension. So, we need following ❖ In GSD curve, Percentage of particles are
corrections for accurate measurement → kept on Y-axis and diameter of the particles
• Meniscus correction (Cm) → always +ve are kept on X-axis on log scale.
• Dispersing agents’ correction (CD) →
always -ve ❖ Gradation (GSD) curve can be represented
• Temperature correction (CT) → may be in two ways.
both ±ve a) Particle size increases from left to right

❖ Dispersing agents’ correction → when we

add dispersing agent to the soil suspension,
its particles increase the density of the
suspension. Therefore, dispersing agent
correction will always be -ve.

❖ Temperature correction → Hydrometers

are generally calibrated at 27⁰C
temperature, so if the temperature of the
suspension is different from 27⁰C, we need
to apply the temperature correction.
Generally, if temperature of any liquid rises, b) Particle size decreases from left to right.
its density decreases

• If temperature ↑↑ than 27⁰C → +ve CT

• If temperature ↓↓ than 27⁰C → -ve CT

❖ Combined correction (C) = Cm – CD ± CT.

❖ So, corrected hydrometer reading will be
→ Rhc = Rh + C

3) Now, using our formula

Distance (He ) (𝐺− 1)𝛾𝑊
V= = 𝐷2 we
Time (t) 18ƞ
can determine the size of particles (D) on
this layer. So, in above this layer we will ❖ There can be many others of different
find all the particles of size smaller than D. shapes. Each curve represents the different
soil’s gradation.

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 Soil Mechanics | 15

❖ These curves are steep and have very short

range of particle sizes.

c) Gap graded soil → When a certain size of

particles is missing in the soil mass, called
gap graded soil.
❖ These curves are horizontal.

➢ Introduction to the following 5) Consistency of soil →

Coefficients → ❖ Consistency is a property of soil which is
❖ These parameters are defined to classify the used to describe the degree of firmness of
soil gradation, if it is well graded or poorly soil or the resistance of soils to deformation
graded. and rupture. such as soft, medium soft, stiff,
& medium stiff.
• 𝐃𝟔𝟎 = The Size (diameter) below which
60% particles of soil mass are finer.
❖ It is defined only for fine grained soils,
• 𝐃𝟑𝟎 = The Size (diameter) below which
specially for clays and it is measured for
30% particles of soil mass are finer.
wet, moist and dry soil samples. And it also
• 𝐃𝟏𝟎 = The Size (diameter) below which
changes with the amount of water.
10% particles of soil mass are finer.

𝐃 A. Different Types of Consistency state &

a) Coefficient of Uniformity (Cu) → Cu = 𝐃𝟔𝟎 Consistency curve →
𝟏𝟎
❖ A Swedish agriculture engineer Albert
b) Coefficient of Curvature (Cc) → Cc =
(𝐃𝟑𝟎 )𝟐 Atterberg mentioned that depending upon
𝐃𝟔𝟎 𝐱 𝐃𝟏𝟎 the water content the consistency of fine-
grained soils can be described in four states
or depending upon the water content soil
➢ Gradation of soil → may appear in one of these four states.
❖ The distribution of particles of different a) Solid state
sizes in soil mass is called grading of soil. b) Semi-solid state
c) Plastic state
❖ Soil gradation is generally the d) Liquid state
classification of coarse-grained soils
based on the different particle sizes
contained in the soil.

a) Well graded soil → It means good

distribution of particles.
❖ When all the particles of different sizes are
present in this soil, called well graded soil.
❖ These curves are S-shape and have long
range of the particles.

b) Uniformly graded soil → When a soil mass

contains particles of about same size, called a) Solid State →
uniformly graded soil ❖ It is the consistency state between 0%
water content to Shrinkage limit.

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 Soil Mechanics | 16

❖ Within this state, with increase in water 1) Shrinkage limit →

content volume of soil doesn’t increase ❖ It is defined as the lowest water content at
because the water content is used to fill the which soil is fully saturated. Hence no
voids. volume change with water content
reduction below shrinkage limit.
b) Semi-solid state →
❖ It is the consistency state between ❖ Shrinkage limit is the boundary between
Shrinkage limit to Plastic limit. Solid state to Semi-solid state of
❖ If the water content is increased beyond consistency.
Shrinkage limit, volume of soil starts
increasing & soil enters into a state, called ➢ Determination of Shrinkage limit →
semi-solid state. ❖ Following is the method to determine the
shrinkage limit.
❖ In this state if we try to mould the soil, it
cracks. Soil has no plasticity and becomes
brittle. 2) Plastic limit →
❖ It is defined as the water content below
c) Plastic State → which on reducing the water content soil
❖ It is the consistency state between Plastic begins to crumble when rolled into threads
limit to Liquid limit. of 3mm diameter.
❖ If the water content is further increased ❖ Plastic limit the boundary water content
beyond Plastic limit, soil enters into a state between Semi-solid state to Plastic state of
called Plastic state. consistency.

❖ It is the state in which soil can be moulded ➢ Determination of Plastic limit →

into different shapes without rupturing it Following is the method to determine the
due to its plasticity. plastic limit.
❖ Coarse grained soils cannot achieve the ❖ Thread test
plastic state of consistency because soil
needs clay minerals to become plastic
which coarse soils does not contain. Their 3) Liquid limit →
liquid limit and plastic limit coincide ❖ It is defined as the min. water content at
because at higher water content soil starts which soil is the verge of flow. And above
flowing without even reaching at plastic this limit soil starts flowing like liquid.
limit. ❖ Liquid limit is the boundary between Plastic
state to Liquid state of consistency.
d) Liquid State →
❖ If the water content is further increased ❖ Above liquid limit, almost all types of soils
beyond Liquid limit, soil enters into a state have same (negligible) shear strength.
called liquid state. ❖ Shear strength at liquid limit is 2.7KN/m2
❖ In this state soil has zero shear strength. (negligible)
Also, it offers practically no resistance to
flow and it flows like a liquid. ❖ The liquid limit of the soil depends upon the
clay mineral present in it. Some clay
B. Consistency or Atterberg limits → minerals have larger surface area and clay
❖ It is defined as the water content at which particles have negatively charged surface.
the soil changes from one state to other is So greater the surface area, stronger the
known as the Consistency limit. surface charge and greater will be the
❖ There are following Atterberg limits → amount of absorbed water, therefore higher
will be the liquid limit.

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 Soil Mechanics | 17

➢ Determination of Liquid limit → 2) Flow index →

Followings are the methods to determine ❖ The slope of Flow Curve of soil obtained
the liquid limit. from Casagrande method or cone
1. Casagrande test/method penetration method, called flow index.
2. Cone penetration test/ method ❖ Flow index is a measure of the rate at which
3. One point method a soil mass loses its shear strength with an
4. Vane shear test increase in the water content..

C. Consistency index & soil classification

based on the consistency index →
1) Consistency index or relative
consistency →
❖ It is defined as the ratio of the difference
between the liquid limit and the natural
water content of the soil to its plasticity
index.
❖ It indicates the consistency or firmness of a
soil.
W −W
❖ IC = L I n 𝐖 −𝐰
P ❖ IF = 𝐥𝐨𝐧𝐍𝟏 − 𝐥𝐨𝐠𝐍
𝟐

a) If, natural water content > Liquid limit → it 𝟏 𝟏

means
❖ Soil with flow curve steeper will have the
a) Soil is in liquid state
flow index value higher than that of the soil
b) Ic < 0
with the flow curve flatter.
c) zero shar strength/foundation is not
❖ And a soil with higher value of flow index is
suitable
said to possess lower shear strength than
b) If, Plastic limit ≤ natural water content ≤
that of a soil with lower value of flow index.
liquid limit, it means → 1
a) Soil is in plastic state ❖ IF ∝ Shear Strength
b) 1≤ Ic ≤0. ❖ IF ∝ Liquidity or fluidity of soil

c) If, natural water content < plastic limit, it

means → ➢ Decreasing order of Flow index when
a) Soil is in semi solid state standard rubber base in Casagrande
b) Ic > 1 method, is changed →
❖ IF (Hard rubber base) > IF (Standard rubber
➢ Conclusion → base) > IF (Soft rubber base).
1. Greater the natural water content or
fluidity, lesser will be the consistency index,
shear strength & toughness. 3) Plasticity index →
2. If, Natural water content, fluidity or ❖ It is defined as the range of water content
firmness↓ → Ic ↑, Shear strength & over which the soil remains in plastic state.
toughness↑.
3.
Liquid state Plastic state Semi-solid
state
Ic < 0 1≤ Ic ≤ o Ic >1

❖ PI or IP = 𝐖𝐋 − 𝐖𝐏
❖ IP ∝ Compressibility

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 Soil Mechanics | 18

❖ IP ∝ clay particles a) Soil is in liquid limit

❖ Usually, plasticity index depends on the b) IL > 1
amount of clay present in the soil. Greater c) Zero shear strength & soil is not suitable
plasticity indicates an excess of clay in the for foundation.
soil & soil can hold more water.
b) If, Plastic limit ≤ natural water content ≤
a) If Plastic limit of soil is greater than the Liquid limit, it means →
liquid limit (IP = -ve) or both WL and WP a) Soil is in plastic state
cannot be determined, in all these b) 0 ≤ IL ≤ 1
conditions, soil is considered to have
plasticity index zero and soil is reported as c) If, natural water content < plastic limit, it
non-Plastic. means →
b) Organic soils have high Liquid Limit and a) Soil is in semi-solid state
high Plastic Limit so they have very low b) IL < 0
value Plasticity index.

➢ Soil may be classified based on the ➢ Conclusion →

plasticity index → 1. Greater the natural water content, fluidity
or firmness, Greater will be the liquidity
Plasticity Plasticity of soil
index & lower will be the shear strength
index
IP = 0 Non-plastic soil and toughness.
0 < IP < 7 Low-plastic soil
7 < IP < 17 Medium plastic soil 2. If, Natural water content, fluidity or
IP > 17 Highly plastic soil firmness↓ → IL ↓, but Shear strength &
toughness↑.
3.
4) Shrinkage index →
❖ It is defined as the range of water content Liquid state Plastic state Semi-solid
over which the soil remains in semi-solid state
state of consistency. IL > 1 0 ≤ IL ≤ 1 IL < 0
❖ IS = WP − WS

➢ Note →
❖ The shear strength of soil in the plastic state
5) Toughness index →
is 100 times greater than that in the liquid
❖ It is defined as the ratio of plasticity index
state (270KN/m2).
to flow index.
IP ❖ IL + IC = 1
❖ It = 𝟏
If ❖ IL ∝ 𝐈
a) For all types of soil → 0 ≤ It ≤ 3 𝐂

b) Indicates soil is easily crushable/friable or Constancy IC IL Description

not of soil of soil
c) It ∝ Shear strength Liquid state <0 >1 behave like
1
d) If ∝ Shear Strength liquid
Plastic state 0 – 0.25 1 – 0.75 Very soft
0.25 – 0.5 0.75 – 0.5 Soft
0.5 – 0.75 0.5 – 0.25 Medium stiff
6) Liquidity index → 0.75 - 1 0.25 - 0 Stiff
❖ It indicates the fluidity or liquidity of soil. Semi-solid >1 <0 Hard/very
W −W stiff
❖ IL = n I P Solid ≫1 ≪0 Very hard
P
a) If, natural water content > Liquid limit, it
means →

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 Soil Mechanics | 19

7) Shrinkage ratio → ➢ Unconfined compressive strength of soil

❖ It is defined as the % change in volume with (qu) →
respect to dry volume (volumetric ❖ It is defined as the True compressive stress
shrinkage) per change in water content. induced in soil at failure during axial
❖ Shrinkage ratio indicates how much volume loading.
change is possible as changes in water Load at failure
a) qu = C/S area at faulure
content above the shrinkage limit occur.
b) It is not defined for cohesionless soils.
❖ Shrinkage ratio is defined for volume
change above shrinkage limit, because
below shrinkage limit no volume change 11) Sensitivity of soil (St) →
occurs in the soil. Hence, the Shrinkage ❖ It measures the loss in strength of soil due
ratio will be zero. to disturbance or transportation in same
water content.
∆𝐕/𝑽𝒅 ❖ If, Sensitivity ↑ – Shear Strength ↓
❖ SR = x 100
∆𝐖 ❖ Loss in unconfined comp. strength occurs
due to following reasons →
a) When the volume of the soil reduces to or 1) Distortion of soil structure
𝛄
increases from shrinkage limit, SR = 𝛄 𝒅 2) Reorientation of water molecules
𝒘
b) If all the measurements are in gram per cc, Unconfined comp. [Link] Undisturbed sample
St =
SR = γd (γW = 1gm/cc) Unconfined comp. strength of Disturbed sample

St (Unit less) Types of soil

≤1 Insensitive
8) Volumetric shrinkage → 1-2 Little sensitive
❖ It is defined as the % of change in volume 2-4 Normal sensitive
with respect to dry volume. 4-8 Sensitive
∆V
❖ VS = V x 100% 8 - 15 Extra sensitive
𝑑
> 15 Unstable/quick clay
9) Linear shrinkage →
❖ It is defined as the ratio of change in length 12) Thixotropy →
of soil mass to the initial length of soil when ❖ If a remoulded or disturbed soil mass is left
water content is reduces up to shrinkage alone undisturbed at same water content
limit. for the some-time, it regains strength loss
𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿𝑓
❖ Ls = x 100. due to reorientation of water molecules.
𝐿𝑖

❖ This property to gain in strength with the

passage of time is called thixotropy.
10) Degree of shrinkage →
a) Only clay particles (size < 2μ) have
❖ It is defined as the % of Change in volume thixotropy.
with respect to initial volume. b) If, Sensitivity↑ – Thixotropy↑
DOS Types of soil for foundation
<5% Good soil
5 – 10% Medium soil 13) Activity (At) →
10 - 15% Poor soil ❖ Activity is defined as the measurement of
>15% Very poor soil water holding capacity of clayey soils.
Plasticity index
❖ Activity = % of clay fraction
Volume of clay
❖ % Of clay fraction (C) =Total volume of soilx100
❖ If, C = 0 then Activity = 0

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 Soil Mechanics | 20

❖ Activity depends upon the followings →

1) Amount of clay minerals present in soil.
2) Types of clay minerals →
1. Kaolinite
2. Iolite
3. Montmorillonite

➢ There are following types of soils based

on activity number →
Activity no. Types of soil
< 0.75 Inactive soil
0.75 – 1.25 Normal active soil
> 1.25 Active soil

➢ There are following clay minerals &

their activity number →
Activity no. Clay minerals
0.4 – 0.5 (0.38) Kaolinite
0.5 – 1 (0.98) Iolite
1–7 Montmorillonite
4–7 If Na+ & Montmorillonite
1.5 If Ca++ & Montmorillonite

14) Collapsibility →
❖ The property of soil to collapse under the
application of load and pressure is called
collapsibility.
❖ There are following problems & their
collapse potential →
Collapse potential Problems
0 – 1% No problems
1 -5% Moderate problem
5 – 10% Trouble
10 – 20% Severe trouble
> 20% Very severe trouble

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 Soil Mechanics | 21

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 03: Classification of soils

➢ Classification of soils → Classification ➢ Short note →

means, grouping of the soil on the basis of
Classification of soils Particles’ size
different factors.
1. Coarse-grained soil → 75mic – 4.75mm
1) Gravel → 4.75mm – 80mm
1. On the basis of purely particles size → a) Fine-gravel → 4.75mm – 20mm
1) Coarse grained soil → b) Coarse-gravel → 20mm – 80mm
❖ If more than 50% of particles retains on
75mic sieve, called coarse grained soil. 2) Sand → 4.75mm – 75mic
❖ Particle’s size → 75mic – 4.75mm a) Fine-sand → 75m – 0.425mm
❖ Coarse-grained soil is further classified into b) Medium-sand → 0.425m – 2mm
Gravel & Sand. c) Coarse-sand → 2mm – 4.75mm
a) Gravel → If particles are passing through
80mm & more than 50% particles retain on 2. Fine-grained soil → Size < 75mic
4.75mm, called gravel. 1) Silt → 75mic – 2mic
a) Fine-silt → 2mic – 10mic
❖ Particle’s size → 4.75mm – 80mm
b) Medium-silt → 10mic – 20mic
1. Fine gravel → 4.75mm – 20mm
c) Coarse-silt → 20mic – 75mic
2. Coarse gravel → 20mm – 80mm 2) Clay → Size < 2mic

b) Sand → If more than 50% particles are

passing through 4.75mm & retains on
75mic, called sand. 2. Highway research board classifications
❖ Particles’ size → 4.75mm – 75mic →
1. Fine sand → 75m – 0.425mm ❖ Also called public road administration
2. Medium sand → 0.425m – 2mm classification.
3. Coarse sand → 2mm – 4.75mm ❖ This used to identify the quality of soil for
highway/pavements construction.
❖ In this, soils are classified in term of group
2) Fine grained soil → index (GI).
❖ If more than 50% of particles are passing ❖ GI → 0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd
through 75mic sieve, called fine grained
soil. 3. Textural classification of soil →
❖ Particles’ size < 75mic ❖ It was suggested by US Bureau of public
❖ Fine-grained soil is further classified into road.
Silt & Clay. ❖ When soil mass contains a certain fraction
of Sand, Silt & Clay. Then a textural chart is
a) Silt → If particles are passing through used to identify the types of soil.
75mic & more than 50% particles retains ❖ On the basis of % of these fraction soils are
on 2mic, called silt. classified.
❖ Particles’ size → 75mic – 2mic ❖ Textural classification is influences by size,
1. Fine silt → 2mic – 10mic shape & gradation of soil particles in soil.
2. Medium silt → 10mic – 20mic ❖ This system assume that the soil does not
3. Coarse silt → 20mic – 75mic contain the particles of size larger than
sand.
b) Clay → If more than 50% of particles are ❖ In this, an equilateral triangle is divided
Passing through 2mic sieve, called clay into 12th zones and each zone indicates the
❖ Particles’ size < 2mic type of soil.

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 Soil Mechanics | 22

❖ This system does not take into account the 1) Classification of coarse-grained soils →
plasticity or consistency properties which ❖ It is classified on the basis of their grain size
are very important when it come to the fine distribution.
grain soil. ❖ According to this system, Coarse grained
soils are those which retained more than
50% of their mass on the sieve size 75mic.
❖ Coarse grained soil is further divided into
two parts →
a) Gravel → If particles are passing
through 80mm & more than 50%
particles retain on 4.75mm, called
gravel.

b) Sand → If more than 50% particles

are passing through 4.75mm &
retains on 75mic, called sand.

1. When % of fineness (Silt or clay) < 5% in

coarse grained soil →
a) Gravel is classified in two types →
1. GW → Well graded gravel
❖ CU > 4
❖ 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3
4. Indian standard soil classification
system (ISSCS) →
2. GP → Gap graded gravel
❖ It is derived from Unified soil classification
❖ CU ≯ 4
system (USCS).
❖ 1 ≰ CC ≰ 3
❖ Both AASHTO & USCS are adopted by US
engineering agency and state department.
b) Sand is classified in two types →
❖ USCS was first developed by Casagrande
1. SW → Well graded sand
that’s why also called Casagrande soil
❖ CU > 6
classification
❖ 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3
➢ Symbol for the following soils →
2. SP → Poorly graded sand
Soil types Prefix ❖ CU ≯ 6
Gravel G ❖ 1 ≰ CC ≰ 3
Sand S
Silt M 2. When % of fineness(silt or clay) is 5 –
Inorganic clay/clay C 12% in coarse grained soil→
Organic soil O ❖ In this case both, plasticity & gradation
characteristic are considered.
Soil group Suffix ❖ We use dual symbol to represent them.
Well-graded W
Poorly-graded P a) Gravel is classified in four types →
Clayey C 1. GW-GC → Well graded gravel with clay
Silty M ❖ When Clay Content > Silt
Low compressibility/plasticity L ❖ CU > 4
Medium compressibility/plasticity I ❖ 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3
High compressibility/plasticity H

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 Soil Mechanics | 23

2. GW-GM → Well graded gravel with silt 2. GM → Silty Gravel

❖ When Silt content (8%) > Clay ❖ IP < 4
❖ CU > 4 ❖ When Silt content > clay
❖ 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3

b) Sand is classified in two types →

3. GP-GC → Poorly graded gravel with clay 1. SC → Clayey Sand
❖ When Clay Content > Silt ❖ IP > 7
❖ CU ≯ 4
❖ 1 ≰ CC ≰ 3 2. SM → Silty Sand
❖ IP < 4

4. GP-GM → Poorly graded gravel with silt

❖ When Silt content > Clay 2) Classification of fine-grained soils →
❖ CU ≯ 4 ❖ It is classified by its plasticity characteristic
❖ 1 ≰ CC ≰ 3 (Plasticity Index & liquid limit) or Plasticity
chart given by Casagrande.
b) Sand is classified in four types → ❖ Equation of A-line & U-line gives
1. SW-SC → Well graded sand with clay relationship between plasticity index and
❖ When Clay Content > Silt liquid limit of soil.
❖ CU > 6
❖ 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3 ❖ Equation of A-line → IP = 0.73(WL – 20)
❖ Equation of U-line → IP = 0.9(WL – 8)
❖ Clay is kept above A-line as they have high
2. SW-SM → Well graded sand with silt value of plasticity index. And Silts & organic
❖ When Silt content > Clay soil lies below the A-line.
❖ CU > 6 ❖ If the water content by oven drying
❖ 1 ≤ CC ≤ 3 decreases more than 30%, it is organic soil
otherwise Inorganic.
3. SP-SC → Poorly graded sand with clay
❖ When Clay Content (9%) > Silt ➢ ISSCS classifies soil in Three categories
❖ CU ≯ 6 which are →
❖ 1 ≰ CC ≰ 3 1) High liquid limit soil → lies right to the
vertical line of 50% water content. And
represented by symbol ‘H’.
4. SP-SM → Poorly graded sand with silt
❖ When Silt content > Clay a) CH → Clay with high compressibility
❖ CU ≯ 6 b) MH → Silt with high compressibility
❖ 1 ≰ CC ≰ 3 c) OH → Organic soil with high
compressibility.
3. When % of fineness (silt/clay) > 12% in
coarse grained soil → 2) Medium liquid limit soil→ Medium
❖ In this case we consider the plasticity category soil is defined b/w the liquid limit
characteristics of soils 35% - 50%. And represented by ‘I’
a) CI → Clay with medium
a) Gravel is classified in two types → compressibility
1. GC → Clayey Gravel b) MI → Silt with Low compressibility
❖ IP > 7 c) OI → Organic soil with medium
❖ When clay content > silt compressibility

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 Soil Mechanics | 24

3) Low liquid limit soil → lies left to the 3) Highly organic soil →
vertical line of 50% water content. And ❖ We can identify them by looking, these are
represented by symbol ‘L’. termed as peat. With Pt symbol.
a) CL → Clay with Low ❖ These are not further sub-divided.
compressibility
b) ML → Silt with Low
compressibility

c) OL → Organic soil with low

compressibility
➢ Note → If the test results are above U-line
these are considered as faulty. And
experiment should be repeated because no
soil will lie above U-line.

Short Note of Chapter -03 →

❖ Indian Standard soil Classification System →
Soil

Coarse-grained soil Fine-grained soil Highly organised soil

Low Compressibility Medium Compressibility High compressibility

ML CL OL MI CI OI MH CH OH

Gravel Sand

GW, GP GM, GC SW, SP SM, SC

(GW – GM), (GW – GC), (SW – SM), (SW – SC),

(GP – GM), (GP – GC) (SP – SM), (SP – SC)

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 Soil Mechanics | 25

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 04: Soil structure & Clay
mineralogy

1. Structure of soil → ❖ When load is applied in these types of soil

❖ It is defined as the arrangement of solid within its strength, shows less
particles within the soil mass. compressibility. But if load exceeds than
❖ Structure of soil depends upon gravitational bond strength between particles, it shows
force & electric charges acting on the soil highly compressible.
particles.

3) Flocculent & Dispersed structure →

2. Types of structures of soil → ❖ It is formed in that soil which contains
❖ There are following types of structures. particles size lesser than 0.2μ.
❖ This type of arrange is mainly due to
1) Single grained structure → electric charges on the surface of particles.
❖ Clay particles have flocculent & dispersed
structure.
❖ The clay particles have -ve charges on its
surface & +ve on its edges, and Lesser the
size of particles higher will be the specific
surface area. This is the reason to have
more ‘water retention capacity’ of clay.

❖ It is formed in that soil which contains

A. Flocculent structures →
particles size greater than 20μ.
❖ Ex- Coarse silt, Sand, Gravel etc.
❖ Also called coarse grained structure
❖ This type of arrange is mainly due to
gravitational force.
❖ When external loads are applied in these
types of soil, grain to grain transfer of load
is observed.

2) Honeycomb structure → ❖ It is formed when the net electric forces or

charges between soil solid particles are
attractive in nature.
❖ In this, Face to edge arrangement of
particles is observed.
❖ Soils having flocculent structures shows
higher permeability due to larger size of
voids.

❖ It is formed in that soil which contains ❖ When load is applied in these types of soils
particles size between 2μ - 20μ. within its bond strength, shows less
❖ Ex- fine silt, medium silt. compressibility. But when applied load
❖ This type of arrangement is due to both exceeds than bond strength, shows more
gravitational force & electric charges.

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 Soil Mechanics | 26

compressibility & collapse suddenly. Its

behaviour is similar to brittle materials. ++
I I + W - + W -

B. Dispersed structures →
I
++
I + W - + W -
++
I I + W - + W -
I I + W - + W -
++
Rigid layer Loosely held
layer

Thickness of double
❖ it is formed when the net electric forces or diffuse layer
charges between soil solid particles are
repulsive in nature. ❖ The water held in the zone of double diffuse
❖ In this, Face to face or Edge to edge layer called ‘adsorb water’. And adsorb
arrangement of particles is observed. water imparts plasticity to the clay.
❖ Kerosene is non-polar liquid due to which
❖ Soils having dispersed structures shows can’t impart plasticity in clay when mixed.
lesser permeability due to smaller size of
voids as compared to flocculent structure. ➢ Note →
❖ Stress-strain behaviour of such structure is  With increase in thickness of DDL, the
similar to ductile materials. tendency of flocculent structure will
decrease.
 Marine clay → Flocculent structure
C. Concept of double diffuse layer (DDL) →  Lacustrine clay → Dispersed structure.
❖ As we know that water molecules are di-
polar (Have both +ve & -ve charges) and the
centre of gravity of +ve & -ve charges don’t 4) Skeleton structure & Cohesive matrix
coincide. Hence, it behaves as a bar of
structure →
magnet, and as we know that clay particles A. Skeleton structure →
have -ve charges on its surface & +ve on
edges.

❖ The +ve charge of water molecules attracts

with -ve charge of clay particles with a
strong bond strength and forms a rigid
layer. Here above rigid layer the +ve charge
of water attract with -ve charges of water
but with very weak bond and forms a layer
called loosely held layer.

❖ The overall thickness of layer (Rigid layer + ❖ If the % of coarse-grained particles are
Loosely held layer) called thickness of more than fine-grained in a soil mass, forms
double diffuse layer. coarse-grained skeleton structure.
❖ In this structure, fine-grained particles will
occupy the voids between coarse-grained.

❖ Main load carrying capacity in these types

of soils is due to coarse-grained particles.

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 Soil Mechanics | 27

❖ Such structure has greater load carrying ➢ Arrangement or structures of clay

capacity & low compressibility. minerals →
❖ Clay minerals are made up with two
B. Cohesive Matrix structure → structural units/sheets which are →
1) Tetrahedral or silica sheets
2) Octahedral sheets

1) Tetrahedral or silica sheets →

❖ It is a fundamental arrangement of the
minerals in which 4, O2⁻ ions enclosed with
1, Si4⁺ ions at the centre.
❖ The base O2 in tetrahedral sheet or silica
sheet are shared with two more sheets.
❖ Net charge on silica sheet is ‘⎯1’.
❖ Silica sheet is represented by trapezium.
❖ If the % of fine-grained particles are more
than coarse-grained in a soil mass, forms
cohesive matrix structure. 2) Octahedral sheets →
❖ It is the fundamental arrangement of the
❖ When load is applied in these types of soils, minerals in which 6, OH⁻ ions enclosed with
is carried by fine-grained particles because 1 cation at the centre. And the cation may
coarse-grained are not in contact with each be Mg2⁺, Al3⁺ or Fe2⁺.
other.
❖ This structure has low load carrying ❖ If the cation is Mg2⁺ presented, sheet is
capacity & high compressibility. called Brucite sheet.
❖ If the cation is Fe2⁺ presented, sheet is
3. Clay Mineralogy → called Ferrite sheet.
❖ Clay mineralogy is the branch of science ❖ If the cation is Al3⁺ presented, sheet is called
with deals with the study of structure of Gibbsite sheet or Alumina sheet.
clay minerals on molecular level, on atomic
level and on microscopic level. ❖ When one cation replaces another cation of
❖ Clay particles are flaky shape and made up similar size, this phenomenon is called
by different clay minerals. And clay Isomorphous substitution.
particles have -ve charges at surface & +ve
at the edges. ❖ Net charge on octahedral sheet is ‘+1’.
❖ Clay minerals imparts plasticity to the ❖ Octahedral sheet is represented by
clayey soil. rectangle.
❖ Clay minerals present in the soil are
generally Hydrous aluminons-silicates. ➢ Following types of clay minerals are →
1) Kaolinite →
➢ Clay minerals are generally divided into ❖ Its single structural unit is compound of one
3 groups → silica sheet and one alumina or Gibbsite
1) Kaolinite & Halloysite sheet.
2) Illite ❖ It is a 1:1 Mineral
3) Montmorillonite ❖ The thickness of one structural unit is 7Å.
❖ No. of structural units are joint together by
➢ Note → Hydrogen bond that is very strong bond.
❖ When we dry halloysite, kaolinite is formed.
And both are same. ❖ Hydrogen bond is very strong bond due to
which it doesn’t allow water molecules to

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 Soil Mechanics | 28

enter. Thus, less swelling & shrinkage ❖ Plasticity or Plasticity index →

behaviour is observed. Montmorillonite > Illite > Kaolinite.
❖ Low compressibility.
❖ It is least active mineral. ❖ Grain size → Kaolinite > Illite >
❖ Ex- Found in China clay. Montmorillonite

➢ Base exchange capacity of clay minerals

2) Illite → or particles →
❖ Its single structural unit is compound of ❖ As we know that in both tetrahedral sheet &
two silica sheet and one alumina or Gibbsite Octahedral sheets, base or surface ions are -
sheet. And the alumina sheet separates or ve charge like O2⁻ or OH⁻. And central
sandwiched between these two-silica sheet. portion has +ve ions like Si4⁺, Mg2⁺, Al3⁺ or
❖ It is a 2:1 mineral Fe2⁺etc. thus, its surface has strongly -ve
❖ The thickness of one structural unit is 10A⁰ charges and isomorphous substitution also
❖ No. of structural units are joint together by cause of -ve charges. This is the reason to
Ionic or K⁺ bond that is stronger than attract the +ve ions or cations toward the
Vander Waals but weaker than H⁺ bond. clay surface.
❖ Due to presence of K⁺ bond it allows least ❖ But the attracted +ve ions towards the
water to enter. Thus, shows medium surface of clay particles can replaced to
swelling & shrinkage. another ions.
❖ Replacement order of cations are →
Li⁺ < Na⁺ < H⁺ < K⁺ < NH4⁺ < Mg2⁺ < Ca2⁺ <
3) Montmorillonite → Al3⁺
❖ Its single structural unit is compound of
two silica sheet and one alumina or Gibbsite ❖ As we know that water is di-polar, so its +ve
sheet. And the alumina sheet separates or ions attracted towards the surface of clay to
sandwiched between these two-silica sheet. make them electrically neutral.
❖ It is also a 2:1 mineral
❖ The thickness of one structural unit is 10A⁰ ❖ The Ability of clay particles to attract or
❖ No. of structural units are joint together by absorbs +ve ions or cations on its surface or
Vander Waals bond that is very weaker edges, called base or cation exchange
than H⁺ & K⁺ bond. capacity.
❖ Base exchange capacity depends upon the
❖ Due to presence of very weak bond, it structure of the minerals & size of the clay
allows much water to enter. Thus, causes minerals.
highly swelling & shrinkage
❖ High compressibility
❖ It is a highly active mineral ❖ Base exchange capacity is measured in
❖ Ex- Found in Black cotton soil & Bentonite terms of weight of +ve ions or cations which
soil. are attracted over the surface of 100gm of
dry clay soil.
❖ And it is expressed in meq/100gm. Where
➢ Note— in decreasing order → milli equivalent → 1mg of +ve ions or
❖ Swelling & shrinkage behaviour → cations which can displace 1mg of
Montmorillonite > Illite > Kaolinite. Hydrogen

❖ Strength of bonding b/w structural units →

Kaolinite > Illite > Montmorillonite.

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 Soil Mechanics | 29

➢ Base exchange capacity of the following

clay minerals is →
Minerals Base exchange capacity
(meq/100gm)
Kaolinite 3–8
Illite 40
Montmorillonite 80

➢ Note →
❖ If Na⁺ cation is attracted on the surface of
clay particles, it can absorb more water, and
has greater thickness of DDL & greater
liquid limit than Ca2⁺.
❖ Thus, If Na⁺ cation is attracted on the
surface of clay particles, high swelling and
shrinkage behaviour is observed. To reduce
swelling & shrinkage Na⁺ is replaced by
Ca2⁺. (Isomorphous substitution).

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 Soil Mechanics | 30

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 05: Compaction of soil

1. Introduction to compaction → lubricating agent between the soil particles

❖ It is defined as the Artificial process of and help them to come closer. But excessive
volumetric change in soil by expulsion of water causes negative impact. So how much
air. water we need for a good compaction is
❖ By compaction, particles come close to each determined by a lab test called Proctor
other and increases the density of the soil. Compaction Test.
❖ The amount of compaction is measured by ❖ These test gives relationship between water
the dry density of the soil. content and dry density for different types
of soil.
❖ Compaction is more effective in partially ❖ And result obtained by these tests are
saturated soil than in completely saturated. plotted on a curve called Compaction
curve.
❖ Compaction is more effective in well graded
soil containing gravel and sand while less
effective in soils containing silts and clays. ➢ There are following types of lab tests →
Because gravel and sand particles are 1) Standard proctor test
angular/irregular in shapes which 2) Modified proctor test
contributes to better interlocking during 3) Light compaction test as per IS 2720
compaction. While silts and clays which are 4) Heavy compaction test as per IS 2720
finer particles are more cohesive and
plastic, this cohesive causes more difficult 1) Standard proctor test →
to compact. ❖ This test was developed by American civil
engg. And soil scientist Ralph Roscoe
❖ Compaction provides various benefits but Proctor.
excessive compaction causes negative ❖ Purpose → To find out relationship
impacts like increase water logging & between the dry density and water content
surface runoff, Negative impact in soil of soil.
fertility & aeration.

❖ Compaction is a short-term process caused ❖ Soil sample → 3kg of oven dry and passed
by dynamic loads. through 4.75mm sieve.
❖ Compaction can be done by Hand or by ❖ Initially water content →
machines/equipment. 1. For coarse grained → 4% of dry wt. of
soil.
2. Advantages of compaction → 2. For fine grained → 10% of dry wt. of
❖ Increases → density, shear strength, frost soil.
resistance, stability and load bearing
capacity.
❖ Decreases → permeability, compressibility ❖ Volume of mould → 944cc
and void ratio. ❖ No. of soil layers → 3
❖ No. of blows → 25
❖ Weight of hammer → 2.495kg
3. Compaction lab tests → ❖ Ht. of free fall of hammer → 12 inches/
❖ As we known that during compaction if we 304.8mm
add a little amount of water to soil, it gets ❖ Compactive effort → 592.71 KJ/m3
better compacted. Because water acts as

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 Soil Mechanics | 31

2) Modified proctor test → content), bulking of sand occurs. Thus,

❖ Purpose → To find out relationship causes increase in volume and decrease in
between the dry density and water content density.
of soil. ➢ Compaction curve obtained by protector
test for cohesionless soils →
❖ Volume of mould → 944cc
❖ No. of soil layers → 5
❖ No. of blows → 25
❖ Weight of hammer → 4.54 kg
❖ Ht. of free fall of hammer → 18 inches/
457.2mm
❖ Compactive effort → 2696.30 KJ/m3 / 4.5
times of standard proctor test.

3) Light compaction test as per IS 2720 →

➢ Purpose → To find out relationship 5. Compaction of cohesive soils →
between the dry density and water content ❖ Compaction of cohesionless soil is preferred
of soil. by impact or kneading loading not by
vibrations.
❖ Volume of mould → 1000cc ❖ With increase in moisture content, dry
❖ No. of soil layers → 3 density increases due to re-arrangement of
❖ No. of blows → 25 the particles till a certain amount of
❖ Weight of hammer → 2.6kg moisture content (OMC) but after this
❖ Ht. of free fall of hammer → 12.205 inches/ (OMC), with increase in water content, dry
310mm density decreases.
❖ Compactive effort → 593.01 KJ/m3
❖ Here in initially, water acts as a lubricant &
4) Heavy compaction test as per IS 2720 → reduces friction between the particles.
➢ Purpose— To find out relationship b/w the ❖ Dry density depends upon the applied
dry density and water content of soil. energy. Higher is the energy applied, higher
will be the density and lesser will be the
OMC.
❖ Volume of mould → 1000cc
❖ No. of soil layers → 5
❖ No. of blows → 25 ➢ Optimum moisture content (OMC) →
❖ Weight of hammer → 4.9kg ❖ A certain amount of moisture content at
❖ Ht. of free fall of hammer → 17.72 inches/ which dry density of soils is obtained max.
450mm by compaction, called OMC.
❖ Compactive effort → 2703.881 KJ/m3/ 4.5 ❖ OMC is different for different types of soils.
times of light compaction test. ❖ At OMC the degree of saturation (s) is
approx. 85 – 90% & is constant. It means to
4. Compaction of cohesionless soil → remove all the airs from the voids
❖ Compaction of cohesionless soil is preferred practically is not possible. Because during
by dynamic or vibrations loading not by compaction when hammer is lifted, some
static loading. amount of air enters.
❖ In cohesionless soil, max. dry density is
obtained in dry condition or completely
saturated conditions. Because in partially
saturated condition (at 4 – 5% water

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 Soil Mechanics | 32

➢ Compaction curve obtained by protector 1) Water content →

test for cohesive soils → ❖ The effect of water content on compaction
is given by two theories →
a) Lubrication theory
b) Lambes theory
Dry density →

➢ Lubrication theory →
E3 ❖ This theory is given by Ralph Roscoe
E1 Proctor.
v E2 ❖ According to this theory, when water
content is less than OMC, soil mass is stiff
and shows greater resistance to the

γd max
Water content →
particle’s movement. Hence, less dry
OMC
density is observed.
➢ Air void line →
❖ A line representing a constant percentage of ❖ On further increasing the water content
air voids is known as air void line when beyond OMC, water replaces the solids
percentage of air void is zero called zero air particles and dry density starts decreasing.
void line. ❖ Hence, Dry density of soil is max. at OMC.

➢ Saturation line →
❖ A line representing a constant degree of
saturation is known as saturation line when
degree of saturation is 100% it is called
100% saturation line.
Dry side Wet side
➢ Note →
 Zero air void line is equal to 100%
saturated line.
OMC

6. Field compaction control →

❖ While compaction at field, compaction ➢ Lambes theory →
control is maintained by water content & ❖ According to this theory, lesser the water
dry density of soil. content than OMC, lesser will be the
❖ Dry density of soil (γd) is calculated by thickness of DDL. Hence, tendency to
proctor needle test. become flocculent structure increases that
has more void and less dry density (γd).
7. Factors affecting the compaction of soil
❖ There are following factors that affect the ❖ On further increasing the water content
compaction → beyond OMC, water replaces the solids
1) Water content particles and dry density starts decreasing.
2) Degree of compaction
3) Methods of compaction ❖ At OMC, thickness of DDL is fully developed
4) Types of soils hence, Dry density of soil is maximum.

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 Soil Mechanics | 33

2) Compactive efforts or degree of ❖ These are used in confined area like-

compaction or amount of compaction → backfill soil, trench, basement etc.
❖ The effect of Compactive effort on
compaction is as follow → 2. By Rollers →
❖ These are following types of rollers →
❖ Higher the Compactive effort (applied 1) Smooth wheel roller
energy), higher is the max. dry density and 2) Sheep foot roller
lower is the OMC. 3) Pneumatic tyred roller
❖ At higher energy, we need less amount of 4) Vibratory roller
water to compact and achieve max. dry
density. 1) Smooth wheel roller →
❖ It compacts the soil through Pressure action
❖ It is mainly used in road construction for
compacting the stone, sand & gravels.

2) Sheep foot roller →

❖ It compacts the soil through Kneading
action.
❖ It is used for clayey soil & core of earthen
Dry density →

dam.

E3
3) Pneumatic tyred roller →
E1
❖ It compacts the soil through Pressure and
E2
Kneading action.
❖ It is not suitable for uniformly graded soil.
Water content → ❖ It is used in highways or earthen dam for
sand, gravel, silty gravel & clayey soil.
❖ Here E1 > E2 > E3 and OMC1 < OMC2 OMC3.
❖ With increasing in Compactive effort at a 4) Vibratory roller →
certain limit, at dry side max. dry density ❖ It compacts the soil through vibratory
increases at same water content. But at wet action.
side its affect is negligible. Hence, we ca say ❖ It is used for foundation of oil tank &
that max. dry density doesn’t keep embankment using sand.
increasing with increasing in Compactive
effort at a certain limit.
3. By Vibrofloatation →
❖ Hence, we need to find out optimum effort ❖ It is used for compacting sandy deposit soil
or energy to compact the soil. up to a depth of 30m.
❖ In this, a float is inserted into the ground
➢ Line of Optimus or optimum → using water jack.
❖ The line joining the max. dry density at ❖ It compacts the soil through vibratory
different effort & OMC, called Line of action.
Optimus or optimum.
❖ This line is nearly parallel to zero air voids
line. 4. By Pounding →
❖ In this, Compaction is done by falling heavy
3) Methods of compaction → mass from a certain height.
1. By Rammers or Tempers →
❖ These are used for all types of soil.
❖ They compact the soil through Impact
5. By Compaction piles →
action.

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 Soil Mechanics | 34

6. By Explosives → 2) Subgrade of pavement →

❖ In this method, Compaction is done by ❖ For construction of a pavement low
vibratory action produced by explosives. permeability & compressibility is required.

4) Types of soils → ❖ Hence, soil should have properly compacted

❖ The effect of Types of soils on compaction is on wet side of optimum.
as follow →
3) Homogeneous earthen dam →
❖ With increase in gradation, dry density is ❖ For construction of a homogeneous earthen
found to be increased. dam, high strength & low pore water
a) In case of well graded → Max. dry density pressure is required.
obtained.
b) In case of poorly graded → Min. dry density ❖ Hence, soil should have properly compacted
obtained. on dry side of optimum.
❖ With increases in plasticity or
compressibility, dry density is found to be
decreased. 8. Field identification test on soil →
❖ There are following tests which are used to
identify the soil at field →
➢ Effects of compaction on engineering 1) Visual examination test
properties → 2) Dilatancy test
3) Toughness test
Property Dry side of Wet side
4) Dry strength test
optimum of
5) Organic content & colour test
optimum
Soil structure flocculent dispersed
Permeability more less 1) Visual examination test →
Swelling more less ❖ In this test, texture, size & shape of the soil
Shrinkage less more particles are exanimated visually in the
Pore water less more field.
pressure
Stress strain brittle ductile 2) Dilatancy test →
behaviour ❖ In this, Reaction of soil to shaking is
Compressibility → observed.
a) At low stress less more
b) At high stress more less ➢ Procedure →
❖ 5 cc soil sample is taken and sufficient
➢ Note → amount of water is added just to saturated.
❖ At the same moisture content, on increasing ❖ Now, sample is shaken vigorously and the
the Compactive effort, the structure on dry appearance & dis appearance of water on
side of optimum will be better (Dispersed). the surface is observed.

➢ Results →
➢ Applications of compaction → A. If appearance & dis appearance of soil is
1) Core of earthen dam → present, it is known as positive reaction of
❖ For construction the core of an earthen soil.
dam, low permeability & compressibility is
required. B. If appearance & dis appearance of soil is
❖ Therefore, soil used in core of dam should rapid, it is known as quick reaction of soil.
have less swelling & properly compacted on (ex- Cohesionless soil)
wet side of optimum.

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 Soil Mechanics | 35

C. If appearance & dis appearance of soil is

slow, it is known as slow reaction of soil.
(ex- Clayey soil)

3) Toughness test →
❖ It is performed to determine the strength of
soil at plastic limit.

4) Dry strength of soil →

❖ It is performed to determine the dry
strength of soil.

➢ Procedure →
❖ Soil sample is oven dried and after dry load
is applied.
❖ Stronger soil can handle more loads.

5) Organic content & colour test →

❖ Colour of organic soil is usually slightly
dark.
❖ Specific gravity of organic soil is generally
less than inorganic.

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 36

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 06: Capillarity & Stresses in

soil

1. Types of water present in soil mass → ➢ Capillary effect & Capillary water →
❖ When rainfall occurs on the soil surface, the ❖ The voids present in the soil mass are
rain water percolates through the voids and interconnected and form a channel of tube-
flows down through the soil under the like structure that behaves similar as
influence of gravity. capillary tube.
❖ Sometimes water molecules of free water
❖ This water under the ground surface exists travel in upward direction in the soil even
in two forms → against the gravitational forces because of a
1) Free water or gravitational water phenomenon called capillarity or
2) Held water capillary effect.

❖ Capillarity effect is the ability of a liquid to

➢ Ground water table → flow in narrow spaces without the
❖ The level up to which the underground assistance of external forces.
water rises is called ground water table. ❖ Capillary effect is due to molecular
❖ To measure the level of ground water attraction forces (cohesion or adhesion)
table, we make observation wells into the and -ve (below than atm.) pore water
ground. pressure in soil.

❖ The ground water table experiences ❖ The water that rises above the ground
atmospheric pressure in the case of water table due to capillarity effect is called
unconfined aquifer. Capillary water.
❖ Below the ground water table, pressure on
the water increase with increase in depth.
Or all the water presents below ground ➢ Capillary rise of water →
water table is in compression it means pore ❖
water pressure is +ve. o hC → Height of capillary rise
d o ⍬ → angle of contact
❖ Pore water pressure above the ground o γw → Unit weight of water
o T → surface tension
water table is -ve due to which effects of
o d → dia of the tube (in cm)
capillarity occurs.

➢ Held water → [Link]⍬

o hC =
❖ The retained water in the pores which can’t γw.d

move under the influences of gravitational

forces is called held water. hC

❖ In clayey soil, this water is also called Ground water table

adsorb water or hygroscopic water that
is held by electric charges possessed by the
minerals of clay.

❖ For coarse grained soils in which clay is not

present, the amount of adsorb/held/ 1) If d = 0.2D10, so capillary rise →
hygroscopic water is negligible or zero. 𝟐𝟎𝐓
• hC =
𝛄𝐰.𝐃𝟏𝟎

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 Soil Mechanics | 37

2) Capillary rise by allen-hozen equation → ❖ Height of capillary rise is inversely

• hC = 𝐞.𝐃
𝐂 proportional to diameter of the capillary
𝟏𝟎
tube.
❖ In soils, generally, size of voids or pores is
➢ If 2 soil mass A & B are there →
𝐡𝐂𝐀 𝐃
directly proportional to the grain size.
• = 𝐃𝟏𝟎 𝐀 Lesser the grain size, lesser will be the
𝐡𝐂𝐁 𝟏𝟎 𝐁
size of voids or pores and vice versa.
• C = 0.1 – 0.5 cm2
• e = void ratio ❖ In fine grained soils has lesser size of
• D10 = effective size voids/ pores. The small size of voids/pores
develop narrow tube-like structure that
result in high rise of capillary water.
3) Max. capillary rise at 20⁰C →
• Max. capillary rise occurs when angle of ❖ In coarse grained soils has larger size of
contact is 0⁰ or cosϴ = 1 voids/ pores. That result in small rise of
• At 20⁰C, T = 0.073N/m & γw = 9.81 x 103 capillary water.
N/m3
𝟑 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 ❖ But the capillary rise is dependent on the
• hC max = (in m) size of voids/pores not on grain size. And
𝐝
a soil mass can have different pore size
distributions in different deposits of a same
➢ Max. capillary rise in different types of soil.
soils →

Types of soil Max. capillary rise (in m) 2. Different zones of ground water →
Fine gravel 0.02 – 0.10 ❖ As we know that voids in soils are not
Coarse sand 0.10 – 0.15 exactly same as capillary tube, they are
Fine sand 0.30 – 1 irregular shape & size. So due to capillary
Silt 1 – 10 rise, it is not necessary that soils are fully
Clay 10 – 30 saturated.
Colloids > 30

➢ Note → ➢ Based on the capillary rise of water in

❖ Capillary tension is zero when soil mass is soils, the ground is divided into
fully saturated. Because meniscus brakes. following zones →

❖ Capillary rise in tube is due to capillary

tension that pulls the water upwards. So,
there are following factors that affects the
capillary tension →
Factors Effects on capillary
tension
Particle’s size↑ Decreases
Water content↑ Decreases
Plasticity index↑ Increases
Temperature ↑ Decreases
Dry density↑ Increases 1) Fully saturated zone →
Angle of contact↑ Decreases ❖ It is the bottom most part of the soil that is
fully saturated and is submerged under the
ground water.

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 Soil Mechanics | 38

❖ This lies below the ground water table. And a) Frost heave →
all the voids are completely filled with ❖ When surrounding temperature reduces
water. below the freezing point of the water, water
present inside the soil mass begins to
freeze. And it increases the volume of soil
2) Capillary saturated zone → mass, this phenomenon is called ‘frost
❖ When water rises due to capillary effects in heave’.
a soil from ground water table, the lower
part of the soil that is close to the water
table may become fully saturated that zone b) Frost boil →
is called capillary saturated zone. ❖ After frost heave, when temperature rises
water starts melting and volume of soil
❖ This zone lies above the ground water table mass decreases, this phenomenon is called
up to which capillary water completely ‘frost boil’.
saturates the soil.
3) Capillary siphoning →
3) Partially saturated zone → ❖ In an earthen dam when water rises due to
❖ This zone lies above the capillary saturated capillarity beyond the distance between
zone. HFL & top of core, pressure gradient is
❖ In this zone water will rise only in the small observed due to which water starts flowing
and narrow voids and large voids may not towards downstream in the form of siphon.
allow the water to rise This phenomenon is called ‘capillary
❖ This way water may go up to the maximum siphoning’.
height of capillary rise ‘hC’.
❖ Due to capillary siphoning overall stability
of the dam is decreased.
4) Root zone →
❖ This zone lies above the partially saturated
zone. 4. Stresses in soils →
❖ Water may reach into this zone because of 1) Total stress →
surface infiltration or because of water ❖ Total stress is the force acting on the soil
table fluctuation. And water molecules elements per unit area. This force may be
trapped in the voids such water is called weight of any overlying structure, self-
contact water. weight of soil mass or weight of anything.

❖ As we know that soil consists of three

3. Introduction to Some important terms → components air, water & soil solids. When
1) Slaking of clay → we applied an external load, air removes
❖ When water content of the soil mass is from the soil that is called compaction and
decreased beyond shrinkage limit and then external load is taken/opposed by only two
suddenly immersed into the water, water components. Partially taken by water
will form a meniscus at the interface. But molecules (pore water pressure) & partially
due to large pore water pressure meniscus taken by soil solids (effective stress).
breaks and disintegration of soil is ❖ The total stress is partially shared/opposed
observed. by effective stress & partially by pore water
❖ This phenomenon is called ‘slaking of clay’. pressure.

❖ It is denoted by ‘σ’.
2) Frost action in soils → ❖ So, from equilibrium condition →
𝐅 ∑𝐍 𝐔.𝐀𝐮
❖ It may be occurring in two types → (σ) = + = σ̅ + u
𝐀 𝐀 𝐀

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 Soil Mechanics | 39

2) Pore water pressure → ❖ Or effective stress is the pressure

❖ The water filled in the voids of the soil transmitted through soil solid particles
exerts pressure on the soil solids (soil ‘contact with each other due to self-weight.
grains) in all directions as pascal’s law due
to self-weight of water molecules, and this
pressure is called pore water pressure. ❖ Effective stress increases with dissipation
of water. Because initially all the external
❖ As we known that in soil has two loads are taken up by water.
components water & soil solid that takes
external loading. So, partially load is taken ❖ It is denoted by σ̅ .
by pore water pressure & partially by soil ❖ Effective stress is calculated indirectly
solid (effective stresses). using pore water pressure & total stress.

❖ But when external loading is applied, ❖ As we known that σ = σ̅ + u, So σ̅ = σ – u.

initially all the loads are taken/opposed by this relationship was proposed by the
water molecules & excess pore water Terzaghi in 1936.
pressure induced. And with the passage of ❖ In the calculation of effective stress, we
time, transient flow of water occurs due to assume that soil is Homogeneous &
pressure gradients that is called isotropic.
dissipation of water. Dissipation will ❖ Effective stress increases with capillary
continue till the excess pore water pressure rise.
becomes zero.
❖ Pore water pressure also known as neutral ➢ Note →
stress. ❖ Total stress & pore water pressure can be
❖ It is denoted by ‘u’. determined directly (practically) but
❖ Pore water pressure is directly calculated effective stresses can’t determine directly.
by using piezometer tube. So, it is calculated by subtracting pore
❖ u = γw.h water pressure to total stress.

❖ When we calculate total stress, it means

3) Effective stress → here effective stress & pore water pressure
❖ As we known that a soil mass is huge is already included. And no need to
collection of small particles (soil grains), calculate effective stress & pore water
and soil grains have some mass that exerts pressure individually and sum them. (keep
force as weight downwards to each other. always in mind).
And soil grains get pushed by all the ❖ Dissipation of water occurs because water
surrounding particles. molecules are incompressible.
❖ Due to self-weight of soil grains, they exert
Normal & Shear forces on each other and
generates Normal & Shear stresses. And ➢ Factors affecting effective stress →
this total normal force transmitted over 1) Water table
total area that includes the area of voids 2) Surcharge loads/external loads
that are occupied by water also is known as 3) Capillary rise
Effective stress. And the total normal
stress transmitted over actual contact area
is called Actual contact stress or 1) Effect of water table on Effective stress →
intergranular stress. ➢ Case – 01 →
∑𝑁 (𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠)
❖ Effective stress → ❖ When water table is H1 depth below the
𝐴 (𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐/𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
∑𝑁 (𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠) ground surface.
❖ Intergranular stress → 𝐴𝑐 (𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑐𝑡)

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 40

Soil may or may not be dry

& bulk unit wt. = γ

Fully saturated soil &

saturated unit wt. = γsat

X X X X

❖ Soil below the ground water table is fully ➢ Effective stress at a X-X plane →
saturated and has unit weight γsat, while soil ❖ σ = γ. (H1 + H2)
above the water table may not be ❖ u=0
completely dry hence its unit weight is ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γ. (H1 + H2)
considered bulk unit weight γ.

➢ Effective stress at a X-X plane → ➢ Case – 04 →

❖ σ = γ.H1 + γsat.H2 ❖ When soil mass consists of two different
❖ u = γ wH 2 soil deposits and the water table is above
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γH1 + γsub.H2 the soil mass.

X X
➢ Case -02 →
❖ When water table rises to the ground

❖ Height of water above soil mass → H0

❖ And These soils become saturated and their
X X bulk unit weights become γsat1 and γsat2.
Thickness of top layer is H1 and bottom
layer is H2.
❖ Here, the whole soil deposit becomes
completely saturated
➢ Effective stress at surface of soil (x-x plane)
→
❖ σ = γ w. H 0
❖ u = γ w. H 0
➢ Effective stress at a X-X plane → ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = 0
❖ σ = γsat.(H1 + H2)
❖ u = γw.(H1 + H2)
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsub. (H1 + H2)

➢ Case – 03 →
❖ water table falls below our X-X plane

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 Soil Mechanics | 41

❖ σ=0
❖ u=0
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = 0
Y Y

Y Y

➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane →

❖ σ = γw.H0 + γsat1.H1’
❖ u = γw.(H0+ H1’) Z Z
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsub.H1’

➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane →

❖ σ = γsat1.H1
❖ u = γw.H1
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsub.H1

➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane →

❖ σ = γsat1.H1 + γsat2.H2
Z Z ❖ u = γw. (H1 + H2)
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsub. (H1 + H2)
➢ Effective stress at Z-Z plane →
❖ σ = γw.H0 + γsat1.H1 + γsat2. H2’
❖ u = γw.(H0+ H1 + H2’) ➢ Case -06 →
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsub1.H1- γsub2.H2’ ❖ When soil mass consists of two different
soil deposits and water level in the soil has
dropped and water table is now somewhere
➢ Case -05 → within the top layer of the soil mass
❖ When soil mass consists of two different
soil deposits and water level has dropped to
the soil surface. H1’
H1
X X

X X

H2

Y Y
➢ Effective stress at X-X plane →
❖ σ = γ1H1’ + γsat. (H1 - H1’)
❖ u = γw. (H1 - H1’)
➢ Effective stress at surface of soil (x-x plane) ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γ1H1’ + γsub. (H1 - H1’)
→

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 Soil Mechanics | 42

➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane → 2) Effect of surcharge /external loads on

❖ σ = γ1H1’ + γsat. (H1 - H1’) + γsat. H2 effective stress →
❖ u = γw. [H2 + (H1 - H1’)] ➢ Case -01 →
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u ❖ When soil mass consists of two different
soil deposits and water table is now
somewhere within the bottom layer of the
➢ Case -06 → soil mass. and soil is subjected to a
❖ When soil mass consists of two different surcharge of intensity q per unit area.
soil deposits and water level in the soil has
dropped and water table is now somewhere ❖ Surcharge → Surcharge is the additional
within the bottom layer of the soil mass load on the soil which may be created due
to any overlying structure or any moving
object.

X X

H2’

X X

H2’
➢ Effective stress at X-X plane →
❖ σ = γ1H1
❖ u=0
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γ1H1
Y Y

➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane → ➢ Effective stress at the surface of soil →

❖ σ = γ1H1 + γ2.H2’ + γsat. (H2 - H2’) ❖ σ=q
❖ u = γw. (H2 – H2’) ❖ u=0
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γ1H1 + γ2.H2’ + γsub. (H2 ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = q
– H2’).

➢ Effective stress at X-X plane →

➢ Conclusion → ❖ σ = q + γ1H1
1) Here, γ > γsat ❖ u=0
2) If the water table rises within the soil mass ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = q + γ1H1
below the ground level, effective stress
decreases.
3) If water table falls within the soil mass, ➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane →
effective stress increases. ❖ σ = q + γ1H1 + γ2 H2’ + γsat. (H2 - H2’)
❖ u = γw. (H2 - H2’)
4) When soil is submerged, effective stresses ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = q + γ1H1 + γ2 H2’ + γsub.
do not affect due to fluctuation of water (H2 - H2’)
above bed level/soil surface or soil mass. ➢ Conclusion →
Only get affected when water fluctuate ❖ Effective stress at different depth increases
within the soil mass. Ex- lakes, ponds, because of the surcharge/external loads
reservoirs etc.

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 Soil Mechanics | 43

3) Effect of capillary rise of water on ➢ Effective stress at X-X plane →

effective stress → ❖ σ = γsat.H1’
❖ u = - γw .(H1 - H1’)
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γw.H1 + γsub.H1’

➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane →

❖ σ = γsat.H1
❖ u=0
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsat.H1

➢ Effective stress at Z-Z plane →

❖ σ = γsat.(H1 + H2)
❖ The water below the water table is in ❖ u = γw .H2
compression because of the weight of water ❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γsat.H1 + γsub.H2
itself and the pore water pressure is
positive that is above atmospheric pressure.
➢ Case- 02→
❖ Soil above the water table becomes
❖ When capillary rise saturates the soil only
saturated because of capillary rise of water.
up to some height above the water table
But water above the water table is in tension
and soil saturation does not reach up to the
because it is pulled up by inter-molecular
surface.
forces and the pore water pressure in this
region is negative that is below atmospheric
pressure.

X X
➢ Effective stress in the following cases →
➢ Case- 01→
❖ When water has risen up to the surface
from water table (Y-Y plane) and the soil
becomes fully saturated up to the surface. H2

H1’ Y Y
X X
➢ Effective stress at the surface of soil →
❖ σ=0
Y Y
❖ u=0
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = 0
H2

Z Z ➢ Effective stress at X-X plane →

❖ σ = γ.H1’
❖ u = - γw .(H1 - H1’)
➢ Effective stress at the surface of soil →
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γ.H1 + γw .(H1 - H1’)
❖ σ=0
➢ Effective stress at Y-Y plane →
❖ u = - γwH1
❖ σ = γ.H1’ + γsat .[(H1 - H1’) + H2]
❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γwH1
❖ u = γw .H2

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 Soil Mechanics | 44

❖ So, σ̅ = σ – u or σ̅ = γ.H1’ + γsat .[(H1 - H1’) +

γsub .H2

➢ Conclusion →
❖ Capillary effect increases the effective
stress in soils until soil is fully saturated.
Because when water table increases and
saturates the soil, the meniscus formed by
capillary action of water is removed and
decreases effective stress.

❖ Ex- When we enter into a beach first thing,

we encounter is the dry sand, we may
notice that it is difficult to walk on the dry
sand. When we walk on wet sand (not fully
saturated) because of the capillary rise of
the water into the soil. We may notice that
this soil patch is relatively stiff and it is
easier to walk on. But when we move inside
the water, we may feel the sinking of
ground again. because sea water completely
saturates the soil and breaks the capillarity
that causes to lose the acquired strength.

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 Soil Mechanics | 45

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 07: Permeability of soil

1. Permeability of soil → ❖ Hydraulic gradient → It is defined as the

❖ The property of soil which permits the change in hydraulic head per unit distance
water or any liquid to flow through its Δh
( L ).
voids, called permeability.
❖ In the soil mass water flows from high
❖ It is the ease with which water can flow
hydraulic head to lower hydraulic head. or
through the soil.
due to having hydraulic gradient.
❖ A soil has different value of permeability for
different liquids but here we will focus only
❖ It means, V ∝ i or V =ki
on water.
 k = Coefficient of permeability
Δh
➢ Significance of permeability →  i = Hydraulic gradient ( L )
❖ The quantity of leakage water from earthen  V = Velocity of liquid flowing through
dam can be determined using permeability soil. (Discharge or Superficial velocity)
property.
❖ The rate of settlement of a foundation or ➢ Coefficient of permeability (k) → It is
building can be determined. defined as the velocity of flow of liquid
through soil over unit hydraulic gradient. or
2. Permeability of different types of soil → k = 𝐢.
𝐕

Soil types Permeability

(cm/sec) ➢ Discharge through soil →
Gravel >1 ❖ Q = A.V = A.k.i = A.k.
Δh

Sand 1 – 10-3 L
❖ The flow of liquid takes place actually
Silt 10-3 – 10-7
Clay < 10-7 through the soil pores not through whole
cross-sectional area So, If
❖ Gravel has larger soil grains, larger will be  n = Porosity of soil
the volume of void and better is their  Vs = Avg. area of voids
connectivity, hence, large amount of water  Vs = velocity of water in the soil voids.
may flow through it. So, gravel is higher (Seepage velocity)
permeable.  So, Discharge = A.V = [Link] from here,
𝐕
Vs = 𝐧
❖ Clay soils have high void ratio but because  As we know that ‘n ≯ 1’. Hence, ‘Vs > V’
of having small particles, these voids are (always).
poorly connectivity to each other. Hence,
even after having large no. of voids clay soil ➢ Assumptions and Limitations of Darcy
is very less permeable or Impervious ‘law →
soil. ❖ Soil is full saturated (all voids are
completely filled with water)

3. Darcy’s law → ❖ The flow is laminar inside the voids. (But

❖ According to a French engineer Henry for gravel because of having higher
Darcy, the velocity of flow of liquid in the hydraulic gradient, flow may become
soil is directly proportional to hydraulic turbulent)
gradient. that is also known as Darcy’s law.

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 46

➢ Methods to determine the permeability ❖ And the outlet is connected to a graduated

of soil → jar to collect the water.
❖ There are followings methods to determine
the permeability of soils. ❖ Water flow through the soil because of head
different or due to hydraulic gradient and
A. Labs' method → that can be easily measured by
 Constant head method manometers.
 Falling or variable head method
❖ Now, water is released to flow through the
B. Field method → soil for a certain time interval (t) and is
 Pumping out test collect in graduated jar.
 Pumping in test

C. Indirect methods → ❖ Now if,

 Kozney carman method  Q = Discharge of water in ‘t’ time.
𝚫𝐡
 Allen Hazen method  i= = Hydraulic gradient
𝐋
 Terzaghi’s method  A = Cross-sectional area of the mould
 Louden’s method
 Jaky’s method ❖ So, using Darcy’s equation we can calculate
coefficient of permeability →
Δh Q. L
Q = A.V = A.k.i = A.k. or k = t .
4. Labs' method to determine the L A Δh

permeability of soil →
❖ These methods are used to determine the
coefficient of permeability (k) of different
soils using Darcy’s law in the labs. 2) Falling or variable head method →
❖ It is suitable for fine grained soils. And we
❖ There are two labs’ methods → can perform this test for both Disturbed &
1) Constant head method Undisturbed soil sample.
2) Falling or variable head method ❖ This method is similar to constant head
method but here head od water is not kept
constant.
1) Constant head method →
➢ Procedures →
❖ It is suitable for coarse-grained soils like
❖ First fill & compact the soil sample into the
sand etc. And we can perform this test for
mould and make sure that sample is fully
both Disturbed & Undisturbed soil sample.
saturated.
❖ Here the inlet of mould is connected with
➢ Instrument used → Constant head
the standpipe not constant head water
permeameter.
reservoir.
 Cylindrical mould connected with two
❖ And the outlet is connected to a graduated
manometers.
jar to collect the water.
❖ Water flow through the soil because of head
➢ Procedures →
different or due to hydraulic gradient and
❖ First fill & compact the soil sample into the
that can be easily measured by
mould and make sure that sample is fully
manometers.
saturated.
❖ The inlet of the mould is then connected
❖ Now, water is released to flow through the
with the constant head water reservoir and
soil for a certain time interval (t) and is
water is released. And make sure that the
collect in graduated jar.
flow of water through soil is steady.

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 47

❖ Now if, a) Unconfined aquifer →

 Q = Discharge of water in ‘t’ time. ❖ It is defined as an aquifer that does not have
 i=
𝚫𝐡
= Hydraulic gradient a confining layer between it and ground
𝐋
surface.
 a = cross section area of standpipe
❖ And water can flow directly from the
 A = Cross-sectional area of the mould
surface.
 h1 = Initial head different ❖ The water level in unconfined aquifer
 h2 = Final head different remains at the atmospheric pressure.

❖ The energy head of the water in aquifer is
❖ So, using Darcy’s equation we can calculate only due to depth of water.
coefficient of permeability →
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝐚𝐋 𝐡
K= . 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝐡𝟏 ) ➢ Pumping out test for unconfined aquifer
𝐀𝐭 𝟐
→
❖ In this, a tube well is drilled in an
➢ Note → unconfined aquifer. And water is pumped
❖ As per Indian standard temperature should out of the test tube till a steady state of flow
be 27⁰C is reached.
❖ But we can also determine at any
temperature (T⁰C) using this equation → ❖ At that state, the discharge become constant
and the water level in the well does not
(𝐊 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂 ) (𝛍𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂 )
change and drawdown curve becomes
KT⁰C = constant.
𝛍𝐓𝟎 𝐂

❖ The water table which was originally

 Where, KT⁰C = Coefficient of permeability at
horizontal before the pumping, is depressed
T⁰C
near the well and forms an inverted cone
 𝐊 𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂 = Coefficient of permeability at 27⁰C
profile, known as cone depression. And
 𝛍𝐓𝟎 𝐂 = Viscosity of water at T⁰C
the max depression of the water table is
 𝛍𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝐂 = Viscosity of water at 27⁰C known as the drawdown.

❖ We determine the hydraulic gradient by

5. Field methods to determine the drilling two observation wells at some
permeability of soil → distance from test well.
❖ When it is not possible to take out the soil ❖ Now, using Darcy’s equation, we can
sample due to natural some factors, we determine the coefficient of permeability of
perform field test. soil →
❖ Field test are performed in larger projects
because these are very expansive.  K=
𝐪 𝒓
. 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝒓𝟐 (Theim’s equation)
𝟐 𝟐
❖ Usually, pumping out test is performed in 𝛑 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 ) 𝟏

field method.
𝐪 𝐑
❖ For both confined & unconfined aquifers  K = 𝛑 (𝐇𝟐 − . 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐫 (called Dupit’s
𝐡𝟐 )
permeability calculation will be different.
equation)
➢ Aquifer →
b) Confined aquifer →
❖ It is defined as the underground layer of
❖ It is defined as an aquifer that is
permeable rock or unconsolidated
sandwiched between two or more than two
materials through which water can easily
impervious layer.
flow or which stores the water.
❖ And the water from the surface can’t
❖ There are two kinds of aquifer →
percolate easily.

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 Soil Mechanics | 48

❖ The water level in confined aquifer remains

under pressure because of impervious  r1 = Radial distance of 1st observation well
layers. from test well in which depth of water is
‘h1’.
❖ The energy head of the water in aquifer will
be sum of elevated head & pressure head  r2 = Radial distance of 2nd observation well
that can be measure by inserting a from test well in which depth of water is
piezometer or making observation wells. ‘h2’.

❖ When a well is drilled into such aquifer, the  h = Depth of water in the test well, during
internal pressure pushes the water up and pumping.
water can come up to the surface and this
types of well is called Artesian well.  H = Height of initial water table or
piezometric head.

➢ Pumping out test for confined aquifer →  r = Radius of test well.

❖ In this, a tube well is drilled in a confined  R = Radius of zero drawdown (Max radius
aquifer. And water is pumped out of the test of influence).
tube till a steady state of flow is reached.

❖ At that state, the discharge become constant ➢ Assumptions in ‘pumping out’ test (for
and the water level in the well does not both confined & unconfined aquifer) →
change and drawdown curve becomes ❖ It includes all the assumptions of Darcy’s
constant. law and some others which are →

❖ The piezometric level which was originally  Flow of water is laminar & steady inside the
horizontal before the pumping, is depressed soil.
near the well and forms an inverted cone  Soil mass is homogeneous & isotropic.
profile, known as cone depression. And  Test well should be penetrating the entire
the max depression of the piezometric level thickness of aquifer.
is known as the drawdown.
 Flow of water toward the test well is only
radial & horizontal and water does not
❖ We determine the hydraulic gradient by
enter the well from the bottom.
drilling two observation wells at some
distance from test well.
6. Indirect methods to determine the
❖ Now, using Darcy’s equation, we can
permeability of soil →
determine the coefficient of permeability of
1) Kozney carman method →
soil → 𝟏 𝛄𝐰 𝐞𝟑
❖ K=𝐊 . . 𝟏 +𝐞 𝐃𝟐 or
𝐤 𝛍
𝐪 𝒓
 K= . 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝒓𝟐 or
𝟐𝛑𝐃 (𝒉𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 ) 𝟏
𝟏 𝛄𝐰 𝐞𝟑 𝟏
❖ K=𝐊 . . 𝟏 +𝐞 . (𝐒𝐒𝐀)𝟐
𝐪 𝐑 𝐤 𝛍
 K = 𝟐𝛑𝐃 (𝐇 − . 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝐞 𝐫
𝐡)

 Where, K = Coefficient of permeability of 2) Allen Hazen method →

soil. ❖ K = 𝐂. 𝐃𝟏𝟎 𝟐 or K = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝐃𝟏𝟎 𝟐
 q = Rate at which water is pumped out of
well. 3) Terzaghi’s method →
 D = Thickness of confined aquifer. ❖ K = 𝟐𝟎𝟎. 𝐞𝟐 . 𝐃𝐞 𝟐

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 49

4) Louden’s method → ❖ Permeability of soils also depends upon the

❖ 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 (𝐊. 𝐒𝐒𝐀𝟐 ) = 𝐚 + 𝛈. 𝐛 adsorbed ions. Increasing order of
permeability according to ions, are →
 k < Na < H < Ca
5) Jaky’s method →
❖ K = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝐃𝐦 𝟐 f) Degree of compaction →
❖ With increase in degree of compaction, size
of voids decreases that causes lower
7. Factors affecting the permeability of soil permeability.
1
❖ There are following factors that affect the ❖ K ∝ Degree of compaction
permeability →

a) Size of the particles (D) → g) Void ratio →

❖ Greater is the size of particles, greater will ❖ With increase in void ratio, resistance to
be the size of interconnecting voids and flow of water decreases that causes higher
permeability. permeability.
❖ K ∝ D10 2 𝛄𝐰 𝐞𝟑
❖ K∝ ∝ ∝ 𝐃𝟏𝟎 𝟐
𝛍 𝟏 +𝐞

b) Specific surface area (SSA) →

❖ Specific surface area is inversely h) Entrapped airs →
proportional to the size of particles (D). ❖ With increase in entrapped airs, the water
❖ Higher the SSA, lower will be the size of channel will be decreased and due to air
interconnecting voids and permeability. friction, the resistance to flow will be
1
❖ SSA ∝ D2 &
1
K ∝ SSA increased that causes lower permeability.
1
❖ K∝
Entrapped airs

c) Degree of saturation (s) →

❖ With increase in degree of saturation, the i) Adsorbed water →
volume of water inside the voids will also ❖ With increase in adsorbed layer of water,
be increased & form water channel that the resistance to flow will be increased that
causes lower resistance to flow of water or causes lower permeability.
increases permeability. 1
❖ K ∝ Adsorbed water.
❖ K∝s

d) Soil structure →
j) Impurities →
❖ Soil in loosest state has max. void ratio that
❖ With increase in impurities, the size of
cause more permeability than densest state.
voids will be decreased that cause lower
permeability.
❖ Flocculent structure of soil has larger size of 1
voids that cause more permeability than ❖ K ∝ Impurities.
dispersed structure.

e) Types of soils →
❖ Coarse grained soils have larger size of
particles & voids that cause more
permeability than fine grained soils.

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 Soil Mechanics | 50

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 08: Seepage Analysis

1. Seepage → ❖ First, keep the bottom valve closed and

❖ Seepage is defined as the phenomenon of completely fill the container with water so
flowing water through the voids of soil as to submerge the soil.
mass under the influence of gravity. ❖ As the bottom valve is closed no seepage
occurs. When water does not flow and
❖ As we know that water flows from high remains stagnant in the soil the condition is
head (energy) to low head. So, seepage known as No flow (Hydrostatic)
always will occur when there is hydraulic condition.
gradient. ❖ Now, we can determine the pore water
pressure by inserting the piezometer at
❖ Total energy head = Datum head + Pressure different depth. Here pore water pressure is
head (pore water pressure) + Velocity head. different at different depths. But Total
But as we know that flow of water through head is equal for all the depths in the soil
the soil is considered as laminar that in hydrostatic condition.
consists of low velocity due to which we
neglect the velocity head. So, Total energy ❖ Now effective stress can be calculated at
head = Datum head + Pressure head different depths.
(pore water pressure).

2. Seepage force & Seepage pressure→

❖ When water flows through the soil mass, it
applies a force on the soil particles in the
direction of flow that is called Seepage
force. Due to seepage force, pressure is
developed in the soil that is called seepage
pressure.

3. Seepage in vertical direction & its effects ➢ Effective stress at the surface of soil →
on effective stress → ❖ Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1
❖ Here, we will discuss the effects of seepage ❖ Pore water pressure (u) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1
on effective stress in the following ❖ Effective stress = 𝜎 ⎯ u = 0
conditions →
A. In No flow condition
B. In Downward flow condition ➢ Effective stress at the bottom of soil →
C. In Upward flow condition ❖ Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑆𝑎𝑡 . 𝐿
D. In Quicksand condition ❖ Pore water pressure (u) = 𝛾𝑤 . (𝐿 + 𝐻1 )
❖ Effective stress = 𝜎 ⎯ u = 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 . 𝐿

A. Effects of seepage on effective stress in

No flow condition →
❖ To analysis the effect of seepage on
effective stress, a soil sample of definite
length & cross-sectional area is taken and
placed in a tank type container.
❖ This container has valves at its top and
bottom.

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 Soil Mechanics | 51

B. Effects of seepage on effective stress in than the No flow condition because of

Downward flow condition → seepage pressure.
❖ Now, open the valve at the bottom and let
the water flow through the soil. And the ❖ We can also say that when water flow down
valve at the top is attached with a water the soil mass, water tends to push the soil
source so as to maintain a constant level of particles downwards. Consequently, soil
water in the soil tank. particles push each other that causes to
❖ This condition, when water is not stagnant increase in effective stress.
and flowing downward in the soil, is called
Downward flow condition.
C. Effects of seepage on effective stress in
❖ Now, we can determine the pore water Upward flow condition →
pressure by inserting the piezometer at ❖ Now, open the valve at the top and let the
different depth. Here pore water pressure water flow through the soil. And the valve
as well Total head is different at different at the bottom is attached with a water
depth in the flowing condition. source so as to maintain a constant level of
❖ There is high energy head at the top & low water in the soil tank.
head at the bottom or hydraulic gradient.
❖ This condition, when water is not stagnant
❖ Now effective stress can be calculated at and flowing upward in the soil, is called
different depths. Upward flow condition.

❖ Now, we can determine the pore water

pressure by inserting the piezometer at
different depth. Here pore water pressure
as well Total head is different at different
depth in the flowing condition.
❖ There is high energy head at the bottom &
low head at the top or hydraulic gradient.

❖ Now effective stress can be calculated at

different depths.

➢ Effective stress at the surface of soil →

❖ Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1
❖ Pore water pressure (u) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1
❖ Effective stress = 𝜎 ⎯ u = 0

➢ Effective stress at the bottom of soil →

❖ Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑆𝑎𝑡 . 𝐿
❖ Pore water pressure (u) = 𝛾𝑤 . (𝐿 + 𝐻1 − ℎ)
❖ Effective stress = 𝜎 ⎯ u = 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 . 𝐿 + 𝛾𝑤 . ℎ

➢ Effective stress at the surface of soil →

➢ Conclusion → ❖ Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1
❖ Here effective stress at the bottom of soil ❖ Pore water pressure (u) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1
in Downward flow condition is greater ❖ Effective stress = 𝜎 ⎯ u = 0

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 Soil Mechanics | 52

➢ Effective stress at the bottom of soil → 4. Flow net →

❖ Total stress (𝜎) = 𝛾𝑤 . 𝐻1 + 𝛾𝑆𝑎𝑡 . 𝐿 ❖ A flow net is a graphical representation of
❖ Pore water pressure (u) = 𝛾𝑤 . (𝐿 + 𝐻1 + ℎ) how the hydraulic energy is dissipated as
❖ Effective stress = 𝜎 ⎯ u = 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 . 𝐿 ⎯ 𝛾𝑤 . ℎ water flow through the soil.
❖ It is also defined as the kind of net formed
by Stream lines & Equipotential lines
➢ Conclusion → crossing each other at right angle.
❖ Here effective stress at the bottom of soil ❖ As we have studied the seepage, that is
in Upward flow condition is smaller than same flow of water through the soil but in
the No flow condition because of seepage unidimensional. Here, flow net is used to
pressure. analyse the flow of water in multi-
❖ We can also say that when water flow dimensional.
upwards in the soil mass, water tends to
push the soil particles in upwards direction. ➢ Properties of flow net →
Consequently, soil particles are lifted ❖ In the flow net, Stream (flow) lines &
against gravity that causes to decrease in Equipotential lines cross each other at right
effective stress. angle or orthogonally.

❖ The space between two adjacent flow lines

D. Effects of seepage on effective stress in is called the flow path or flow channel.
Quicksand (Boiling) condition → And discharge through each flow channel is
❖ Now, if hydraulic gradient keeps on always constant.
increasing it may reach a condition when
seepage pressure becomes equal to ‘𝜸𝑺𝒖𝒃 . 𝑳’. ❖ The area enclosed between two adjacent
At that point effective stress in the soil will flow lines and adjacent equipotential lines
be zero. is called flow field.

❖ The hydraulic gradient at which effective ❖ The ratio of the length and width of each
stress in the soil becomes zero is called flow filed should be constant. or in the case
Critical hydraulic gradient & this of homogeneous & isotropic, flow field are
condition is called Quicksand condition. square that is called elementary square.

❖ Here, effective stress = 𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 . 𝐿 ⎯ 𝛾𝑤 . ℎ = 0, So ❖ To make the flow net, we also need
𝛾𝑆𝑢𝑏 . 𝐿 = 𝛾𝑤 . ℎ or
𝜸
𝒊𝒄𝒓 = 𝜸𝑺𝒖𝒃 or boundary conditions for the flow. And flow
𝑮⎯𝟏
𝒘
net is a unique function of boundary
𝒊𝒄𝒓 = . conditions. That means if boundary
𝟏+𝒆
conditions will change, flow net will also be
changed but if we change the soil or its
➢ Conclusion → properties and upstream & downstream,
❖ In quicksand condition when water flows in flow net will not be changed.
the soil in upward direction at the critical
hydraulic gradient, the seepage force
exerted by the water completely balance ➢ Preparation of flow net →
the weight of soil particles due to which ❖ Generally, the flow of water in soil is three
they seem to be suspended in the water. dimensional but the analysis of such flow is
too complex & difficult. So, we simplify the
❖ Soil in this state losses all its shear flow situations to two dimensional.
strength and is no longer able to support ❖ There are following methods to obtain the
any load. flow net →
A. Analytical method

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 53

B. Graphical method
C. Electrical flow method
➢ Application of flow net →
D. Capillary flow method
❖ There are following applications of a flow
E. Sand model
net →
➢ Analytical method →
1) Seepage discharge calculation
❖ In this method, mathematical equations are
2) Uplift pressure calculation
used to determine the flow net.
3) Exit gradient and piping
❖ There are following assumptions of this
4) Condition adjacent to sheet pile
methods →
5) Effective stress calculation
 Soil mass is homogeneous and isotropic.
 It involves all the assumptions of Darcy’s
law.
1) Seepage discharge calculation →
 Flow of water within the soil mass is
❖ Total discharge from flow net = discharge x
laminar.
No. of flow channels.
𝑵
❖ Let’s consider a small soil element in soil ❖ Or, Q = 𝑲𝒉. 𝑵 𝒇 where,
𝑫
mass which is completely saturated by  Q = Total discharge.
water flowing through it.  K = Coefficient of permeability of soils.
❖ Here, we have assumed flow of water is  Nf = No. of flow channels.
only in two direction ‘x’ & ‘z’.  ND = No. of equipotential drops.

❖ Shape factor → It is defined as the ratio of

No. of flow channels to the No. of
𝑵
equipotential drops or (𝑵 𝒇 ).
𝑫

❖ Now, after applying continuity equation,

Darcy’s law & all the assumptions, we get
any equation called Laplace’s equation →
𝜹𝟐 𝒉 𝜹𝟐 𝒉
❖ 𝟐
+ =𝟎
𝜹𝒙 𝜹𝒚𝟐

❖ This equation describes the loss of

hydraulic head when we solve this
equation, we receive two families of curve.
One is stream line and other is
equipotential line.
❖ Once we get these lines, we get our flow net.

By :- Rahul Kumar
 Soil Mechanics | 54

Soil Mechanics full Note – Chapter 08: Vertical stress

distribution in soils

1. Vertical stress → ❖ Soil is weightless and unstressed before the

❖ It is defined as the stresses induced in a soil application of load.
mass due to weight of overlying soils and 𝟑𝑸
❖ 𝜎Z = 𝟐𝝅𝒁𝟐 .
𝟏
𝟓/𝟐 or
𝒓 𝟐
applied loads. Further these stresses are (𝟏 + ( ) )
𝒁
transmitted to the soil layer below the 𝑸
❖ 𝜎Z = 𝑲𝒃 . (𝒁𝟐 ) where,
foundation that will lead to vertical
deformation, causing foundation  Q = Concentrated load.
settlement.  𝜎Z = Vertical stress in soil at ‘z’ depth.
❖ Hence, these stresses are required to design  r = Radial distance.
a foundation such that the shear stress in  Kb = Boussinesq coefficient.
any stratum of soil below it does not
exceed, after providing factor of safety for ❖ Boussinesq coefficient (Kb) depends upon
𝑟
bearing capacity of soil. the value of ‘𝑍’.
𝒓 Value of ‘Kb’
❖ The stresses induced in the soil due to
applied loads depends upon its stress strain 𝒁
0 0.4775 (Max)
characteristics. And the stress strain
1 0.0844
behaviour of soil depends upon many
2 0.0085
factors like drainage condition, water 3 0.0015
content, void ratio, rate of loading, load 10 0.0000
level and stress path etc. which is very
complex but for convenient ‘stress-strain
relationship is generally assumed to be
linear.’ And theory of elasticity is used to
determine the stresses in soil mass.

2. Vertical stresses due to concentrated

load →
❖ Vertical stresses induced in the soil mass
due to concentrated load can be determined
by two method or equations →
A. By Boussinesq equation
B. By Westergaard’s equation

A. Boussinesq equation →
❖ In year 1885, Boussinesq gave the
theoretical solutions for the stress
distribution in an elastic medium subjected
to concentrated loads.

➢ Assumptions of Boussinesq equation →

❖ Soil is elastic, homogeneous & isotropic.
❖ Soil is semi-infinite.

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 Soil Mechanics | 55

By :- Rahul Kumar