CHAPTER 2
Review of Related Literature
This section presents the related literature and studies both from local and foreign sources
relevant to the present study, with a particular focus on the technology acceptance of farm
machinery and Filipino farmers.
Influencing Factors on Adoption of Modern Agricultural Technology
The adoption of advanced agricultural technologies is crucial in reducing poverty and
improving food security in many developing economy countries. Despite the recognition of
its importance, smallholder farmers in developing nations often face obstacles in adopting
new technologies, leading to slow uptake. Despite the potential benefits of agricultural
machinery, traditional farmers can face a number of barriers to its [Link] example,
traditional farmers may be unable to access credit or loans to purchase new machinery, or
they may lack the skills and knowledge required to operate and maintain the equipment
(Hertel & Rosch, 2010).
Additionally, traditional farmers may be resistant to change, and may not see the value
in investing in new machinery, especially if they have been practicing traditional farming
methods for generations (Dos Santos et al., 2021). However, recent research suggests that
traditional farmers can be motivated to adopt agricultural machinery if the benefits are
clearly demonstrated and if they receive the necessary support and training. One of the
key determinants of technology adoption is trialability, which refers to the willingness of
potential users to engage in a limited test of the technology before making a full
commitment. Studies have shown that the attributes of the technology play a significant
role in shaping the decision-making process for adoption. For example, Doss, 2003; D.
B. Mignouna et al., 2011, found that when analyzing the adoption of Imazapyr-Resistant
Maize (IRM) technology in Western Kenya, farmers' perceptions of the technology's
compatibility and efficacy were major drivers of their adoption decision. (Adesina &
Zinnah, 1993), also found that farmers' perceptions of the contemporary rice variety and
fish aquaculture technology, respectively, greatly impacted their adoption decisions.
The adoption of a new technology requires not only the availability of resources, but also
the farmer's perception and understanding of the technology. Many factors come into play
when evaluating the adoption of a new technology in agriculture, including human
factors, economic considerations, technology-specific factors, and institutional issues. It
is important to note that the influence of these factors on technology adoption can vary
depending on the specific technology in question.
Farmer’s Perception on Farm Mechanization in the Philippines
The Philippine government has been striving to develop and promote appropriate agricultural
machinery and other mechanization technologies. However, the Philippines is classified at
low-mechanization level(Suministrado, 2013). Several reasons are the low buying power of
farmers, abundance of rural labor, very small landholdings per farmer, high cost of machines,
and government policies not favorable to mechanizing agriculture.
In order to identify Philippine farmers’ perception of farm mechanization and farm land
reformation, farmers were interviewed with structured questionnaires. To analyze farmers’
willingness to adopt land reformation, the data were analyzed using the Probit Regression
model. The Probit model constraints the estimated probabilities to be between 0 and 1, and
relaxes the constraints that the effect of independent variables is con-stant across different
predicted values of the dependent variable.
Philippine farmers seem to recognize the many advantages of using farm machines over
manual labor,even if these are costly and will certainly displace laborers. Philippine farmers’
awareness of farm mechanization appears to be very low and they also have financial
problems when they consider adopting farm mechanization and land reformation. Therefore,
it is very essential to raise farmer’s awareness and also provide financial subsidies to farmers
who have willingness to adopt mechanization. .
Technological Innovations in the Philippines
Technological innovations have been prominent in rice production in the Philippines
over recent decades. The establishment of two rice research and development (R&D)
institutions, the Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) and the International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI), paved the way for the extensive development of modern rice
technologies in the Philippines. The adoption of such technologies provided opportunities for
farmers to increase rice production as well as to improve the incomes and food security of
rice farming households. But the adoption of different packages of technologies by farmers
has been only partially successful in terms of implementing research and development
outputs.
In the agricultural sector, it is rare that all farmers are able and willing to adopt new
technologies because of the deterrents to adoption imposed by various socioeconomic,
institutional and environmental factors. The most common approach to investigate the
adoption of a technology is through the use of dichotomous choice data models (adopt or not
adopt). Logit and probit models are widely used to assess the functional relationship between
the probability of adoption and its determinants such as socioeconomic variables, institutional
arrangements and biophysical factors. Understanding farmer-specific characteristics and
behavior as well as the production environment where farmers operate is an essential
requirement before the dissemination of any rice technologies at the farm level. Baseline
surveys are encouraged to characterize farmers so that the proper matching of rice
technologies with farmer characteristics and agro-economic conditions on farms will reduce
the cost of technology diffusion and mitigate the drawbacks of technology adoption.
Integrating Solar Energy with Agriculture
Large-scale development of solar-generated electricity is hindered in some regions of the
U.S. by land use competition and localized social resistance. One approach to alleviate these
coupled challenges is agrivoltaic which is the strategic co-location of solar photovoltaics and
agriculture. Despite the mature and promising potential for solar photovoltaic (PV)
technology to retrench global reliance on fossil fuels, large-scale PV development is
experiencing complex challenges, including land use conflict. Social acceptance of renewable
energy (RE) infrastructure plays a critical role in the furtherance of the RE transition and
social science research helps to better understand the factors that impact acceptance and
expansion of such technologies.
In-depth, semi-structured interviews with U.S. solar industry professionals were
selected as the most suitable methodology to explore perceptions regarding the opportunities
and barriers to agrivoltaics. Interview methods establish validity of measurement by soliciting
credible responses from participants and providing a means to gather nuanced descriptions
surrounding the phenomenon under study. Interviews with agricultural professionals suggest
that the effective diffusion of the agrivoltaic innovation is strongly related to the acceptance
of farmers, which further emphasizes the need to study the technology within a social context
to identify and address relevant barriers.
The results of the said study further revealed the interconnections among the various
dimensions of social acceptance and suggest that the growth of agrivoltaics is contingent on
market adoption of the technology through community acceptance and supportive local
regulatory environments. As solar photovoltaic systems transcend niche applications to
become larger and more prevalent, the dimensions of social acceptance, including the
opportunities and barriers associated with each dimension, can help inform decision making
to enhance the growth of agrivoltaics and thus photovoltaic development.
Advancements of solar energy in Animal Feed Production
Solar energy, one of the most promising renewable sources of energy generated into
heat, electricity, or solar fuels, significantly cuts down greenhouse gas emissions. It has
agricultural applications such as irrigation, water treatment, and powering beyond other
machinery. In construction, on site electricity generation from solar panels eliminates reliance
on the grid, hence reducing utility and improving energy independence. There is longstanding
evidence that technological innovation is the primary driver of productivity and economic
growth (Griliches, 1979; Solow, 1957). Technological innovation and economies of scale
bring long term cost effectiveness of solar energy systems. It is in this context where solar
power is an integral part of sustainable feed production as it concerns the energy used for
powering feed pelletizers. Technological advances—for example, from hand milking to
robotic milking—have significantly shaped the agri-food industry and economic growth and
improved living standards throughout history. A look at the lead article of the first issue (and
the first volume, (Hardin, 1952) and two other articles on economies of scale in Eastern
(Boucher, 1952) and Western (Haase, 1952).
The renewable energy source of solar thus becomes an important pillar when it comes to
producing sustainable feed to the effects of power consumption on feed pelletizers. The
carbon footprint of feed production is reduced by solar energy making it an environmentally
friendly and economically viable agricultural practice. However, there is an urgent need to
conduct comparative researches on energy efficiency and cost-effectiveness of solar-powered
pelletizers to conventional methods, along with examination of their economic and social
impacts for furthering the production technologies of sustainable feed. It is part of campaign
measures for climate change mitigation in addition to being cost and efficiency improvements
in other economic sectors including the construction sector.
Determinants of mechanized technology adoption in smallholder agriculture:
Implications for agricultural policy
Agricultural Mechanization is viewed as a tool for transforming agriculture in the Global
South. Despite gaining traction among governments across sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), with
many countries now having dedicated agricultural mechanization subsidy programs, recent
evidence shows that adoption is not universal among farmers. The use of modern agricultural
technology has received policy attention in SSA in the past two decades, with most
governments now leveraging global partnerships to provide subsidized mechanized
agricultural services to smallholder farmers. Despite some progress made under AMSEC and
other related mechanization agendas over the years (Akramov and Malek, 2012, Diao et al.,
2018, Ngeleza et al., 2011), there are concerns a significant proportion of farmers have yet to
adopt mechanized technologies. Several factors influence the adoption of mechanization in
Africa, including government and private sector policies and programs as well socioeconomic
characteristics (Daum et al., 2020).
For instance, market failures limit access to machinery and spare parts supplies. The absence
of institutions with adequate technicians/skilled personnel to operate and repair farm
machinery, corruption in government and private sector’s involvement in machinery
importation, as well as elite capture are among other factors that influence the adoption of
mechanization at the macro-level (Kirui, 2019). Likewise, while the focus of mechanization
schemes in Africa have largely been on big machinery (tractors) and the accompanying
equipment like tillers, seeders, harvesters, and driers, the majority of smallholder farmers
have limited access to credit, insurance, and infrastructure among others.
Technology adoption behaviors of farmers during crises: What are the key factors to
consider?
In recent times, there have been reports of soaring food prices across the world with serious
negative implications for food and nutrition security. The hikes in food prices will most likely
result in social unrest, political upheavals, malnutrition and increased poverty among others.
Smallholder farmers faced several barriers to the adoption and use of digital technologies
prior to the Covid-19 pandemic. Some of these are a lack of digital infrastructure in farming
areas, problems with electricity infrastructure for the dissemination of agricultural
information in rural areas, and socio-economic factors such as low education, poverty and
scarcity of relevant content in local languages.
Institutional voids, in the context of operations of smallholder farmers, refer to the absence or
failure or deficiencies in formal or informal institutions [40], such as rules and regulations,
infrastructure, specialized intermediaries, and support systems – like mechanism for contract
enforcement, property rights, and governance structure, which can impede the adoption and
effective use of agricultural technologies. This is so because the presence of such voids will
greatly hinder the efficient functioning of the institutions required for the development of
such technologies. As such, their presence affects the choices and actions of smallholder
farmers.
A key finding emerging from this study is that the factors that influence the adoption of
digital technologies/services (i.e., age, gender, education, household size, farm size, savings,
access to credit and investment) in this study are similar to factors that influence the adoption
of agricultural management technologies as shown by Akudugu et al.. Attempts to bolster the
use of the digital technologies in agriculture might therefore not present a huge cost outlay
since ongoing efforts at promoting management practices will already have some
complementary effects. Also, the factors identified here can be related to those identified by
Yadav et al. [77] as relative advantage, trialability, compatibility, observability, complexity,
aversion to change, technological anxiety, personal and social values.
Financial Factors in Technology Adoption
Feeding pellets to livestock offers significant advantages by supplying essential nutrients and
being cost-effective for farmers (Orisaleye et al., n.d.). However, livestock feed pelleting
equipment is often expensive and unaffordable, particularly for local farmers. Governments
globally aim to boost productivity and enhance farmers’ livelihoods while addressing
challenges like climate change, food security, and labor shortages through digital
technologies. Despite these efforts, adoption rates in developing countries remain low due to
uncertainties about returns and various subjective and objective obstacles (Geng et al., n.d.).
Factors such as perceived benefits, perceived compatibility, and government incentives
significantly impact the intention to adopt technologies like solar-powered pumps. However,
high investment costs and lack of awareness regarding government subsidies remain major
barriers to adoption (Kumar, 2019). Similarly, Ahmed et al. (2023) emphasized that high
initial costs and limited access to credit make modern machinery unaffordable for many
smallholder farmers. Mignouna et al. (2011) reported comparable findings, noting that small-
scale farmers often lack the financial resources to invest in innovative tools despite their
long-term benefits.
Ani et al. (2023) emphasize the importance of cost-effectiveness in their study on the design
and performance evaluation of a poultry feed pelleting machine. Farmers are more likely to
adopt technologies that minimize operational costs and provide tangible benefits, such as
improved feed quality and production efficiency. Integrating solar power into pelletizer
designs reduces long-term energy costs, making the technology more accessible to resource-
limited farmers.
Farmer Perceptions and Technology Adoption
The adoption of new technologies in agriculture is influenced by several factors, including
economic, technical, and sociocultural aspects. Farmer perceptions play a crucial role in
determining whether a technology will be accepted or rejected. In the case of solar-powered
feed pelletizers, the perceived usefulness and ease of use of the technology are likely to
influence its adoption. Studies have shown that farmers are more inclined to adopt
technologies that they perceive as enhancing productivity and providing tangible benefits
(Rola et al., 2020). However, factors such as limited access to credit, lack of technical
knowledge, and resistance to change often hinder the adoption of new technologies among
smallholder farmers in developing countries (Singh et al., 2021).
Research on the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has highlighted the importance of
perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness as predictors of technology adoption. For
instance, in a study on the acceptance of new agricultural technologies in South Africa, the
researchers found that farmers' willingness to use solar-powered irrigation systems was
positively correlated with their perceptions of the technology’s utility and ease of operation
(Ssewanyana & Kasirye, 2010). This suggests that similar factors could influence the
adoption of solar-powered animal feed pelletizers in the Philippines.
Barriers to Technology Adoption
Despite the benefits of solar-powered technologies, the adoption rate among Filipino farmers
remains low. One major barrier is the high initial investment required to purchase and install
solar-powered equipment. Many smallholder farmers face financial constraints, limiting their
ability to invest in such technologies. This financial barrier is often compounded by limited
access to credit and insufficient government support for renewable energy adoption (Rola et
al., 2020). In addition to economic barriers, farmers may also face challenges related to the
lack of technical knowledge and skills required to operate and maintain solar-powered
equipment.
A study conducted by Jha et al. (2022) found that in rural areas of India, the adoption of
solar-powered agricultural equipment was significantly hindered by a lack of technical
expertise and the absence of training programs. Similar challenges are likely to be present in
the Philippines, where farmers may lack the necessary knowledge to effectively integrate
solar-powered technologies into their operations (Singh et al., 2021).
Acceptance of new agricultural technology among small rural farmers
In 2023, the Chinese government launched a policy aimed at advancing rural development
and construction. This initiative reflects a collective effort across the party and society to
comprehensively promote rural revitalization. The policy seeks to accelerate the
modernization of agriculture and rural areas in China by fostering the growth of modern,
facility-based agriculture, enhancing support for agricultural science, technology, and
equipment, and strengthening agricultural infrastructure development (Zhang & Guo, 2023).
This study investigates factors influencing the adoption of new agricultural technologies
among small rural farmers in China, aligning with the country’s 2023 policy focus on rural
revitalization and agricultural modernization. Using the Unified Theory of Acceptance and
Use of Technology (UTAUT) framework, data were gathered from 326 rural farmers via a
cross-sectional survey and analyzed with structural equation modeling using SmartPLS 4
software.
Potential of solar-powered animal feed pelletizers for Filipino farmers, focusing on
productivity and cost
Traditional feed preparation is often laborious and inefficient, making this technology a
potentially valuable solution (Asumini et al., 2024). Regarding productivity, pelleted feed
generally improves feed conversion ratio (FCR) due to reduced waste, better digestibility, and
increased intake (van der Poel et al., 2020). This principle likely applies to solar-powered
pelletizers as well. Furthermore, pelleted feed can improve animal growth, production (milk
and eggs), and potentially reduce mortality (Baragunov et al., 2020; Thornton, 2010; Okoliea
et al., 2019). From a cost perspective, the initial investment in the pelletizer system (machine,
solar panels, installation) is a key factor (Asumini et al., 2023). However, solar power offers
long-term savings by reducing or eliminating energy costs compared to traditional methods.
Improved FCR and productivity can also lower overall feed costs (Ebadian et al., 2021).
Additionally, the automated nature of pelletizers increases labor efficiency.
Despite these potential benefits, further research is needed to assess the specific impact on
Filipino small-scale farms, considering local feed ingredients and long-term operational costs.
In conclusion, solar-powered pelletizers offer promising improvements in productivity and
potential cost savings for Filipino farmers, but further investigation is warranted.
Campaign for Modern Technology Promotion
Hybrid rice technology has been recognized as a new approach for increasing rice
production and attaining rice self-sufficiency in the Philippines (Redona, et al, 2001). The
assessment of the current promotional program and activities of the hybrid rice is also
significant because it will provide information as to which strategies and activities in
promoting hybrid rice.
The campaign to use modern and certified varieties has been proven effective in
increasing rice yields. Almost all of the statements on the current promotional program and
activities under the Hybrid Rice Program has a mean score greater than three indicating that
farmers generally have a positive perception (somewhat agree to strongly agree) on the
current promotional program and activities under the Hybrid Rice Program. This indicated
that farmers “agreed” to the current promotion efforts undertaken by the hybrid rice program.
However, farmers agreed that the financial assistance provided to hybrid rice farmers was
inadequate.
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