What is Cohesion? What are some techniques to create Cohesion in text?
Cohesion refers to how sentences or parts of a text are connected to each other, creating a unified whole.
This is achieved through linguistic devices such as references, substitution, ellipsis, conjunctions, and lexical
cohesion. Each device plays a role in making the text flow smoothly and logically.
TYPES OF COHESION:
There are mainly two types of cohesion, Grammatical Cohesion and Lexical Cohesion.
1. GRAMMATICAL COHESION:
This involves the structural aspects of a text and includes use of grammatical elements (such as reference,
substitution, ellipsis, and conjunctions) to link sentences and create a connected, structured text.
Texture as an Essential Property of Text
Texture gives a text its unity. It’s the quality that makes multiple sentences function together as a single
piece of communication.
Example:
"Anna bought a new book. She loves reading."
The word "She" provides cohesion between the two sentences by referring to "Anna."
Components of Texture: Coherence and Cohesion
Coherence: Refers to the logical structure of ideas. Even if all the sentences are well-formed, a text may
not be coherent if the ideas don't logically follow each other. Coherence is more about meaning than form.
Example:
"John missed the train. He had to wait for the next one."
These sentences are coherent because the ideas logically follow each other.
Cohesion: The use of linguistic elements to link different parts of a text. Cohesion operates at the
grammatical and lexical levels, using specific language devices to create smooth transitions.
Example:
"The sun was setting. It painted the sky orange."
The pronoun "It" connects the two sentences, making them cohesive.
Analytical Linguistic Features of Coherence
Endophoric and Exophoric Reference
Endophoric Reference: Refers to something within the text. This can be Anaphoric (pointing back to
something previously mentioned) or Cataphoric (pointing forward to something that will be mentioned).
Example (Anaphoric):
"Eliza saw a movie. It was exciting."
The word "It" refers back to "a movie."
Example (Cataphoric):
"When he arrived, John was tired."
The pronoun "he" refers forward to "John."
Exophoric Reference: Refers to something outside the text, often relying on the context in which the text is
being read.
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Example:
"Look at that!"
The word "that" refers to something outside the text (e.g., a gesture or object in the surrounding
environment).
Substitution
Substitution: A process in which one word or phrase is replaced by another, avoiding repetition and
creating variety. It helps in maintaining cohesion.
1. Nominal Substitution
This involves replacing a noun with another term, like "one" or "ones."
Example:
"I need a pen. Do you have one?"
"One" substitutes for the noun "pen."
2. Verbal Substitution
Substituting a verb phrase with a simpler word, like "do."
Example:
"I could study more, but I don’t want to do that."
"Do" substitutes for the verb phrase "study more."
3. Clausal Substitution
Substituting a whole clause with a word like "so" or "not."
Example:
"Will you go to the party? I hope so."
"So" substitutes for the clause "I hope you will go to the party."
Ellipsis
Ellipsis: Leaving out part of a sentence or phrase that is understood from the context.
1. Nominal Ellipsis
Omitting a noun that can be inferred from context.
Example:
"Three cats were sitting on the roof. Two (cats) were black, and one (cat) was white."
The noun "cats" is omitted in the second clause.
2. Verbal Ellipsis
Omitting a verb phrase that can be inferred from context.
Example:
"He can play the guitar, and she can (play the guitar) too."
The verb "play the guitar" is omitted in the second clause.
3. Clausal Ellipsis
Omitting an entire clause that is clear from context.
Example:
"If you can’t go, I will (go in your place)."
- The clause "go in your place" is omitted but implied.
Conjunction
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Conjunctions connect sentences, clauses, or phrases to indicate relationships between ideas.
Types of Conjunction and Continuatives:
I. Additive: Adds information (and, also, furthermore).
"She’s reading a book, and he’s watching TV."
II. Adversative: Shows contrast (but, however).
"She’s tired, but she’s still going to the gym."
III. Causal: Shows cause and effect (because, so).
"He didn’t study, so he failed the test."
IV. Temporal: Refers to time (then, after that).
"We ate lunch, and then we went for a walk."
V. Continuatives: Words like "well," "now," or "of course" that continue the flow of a conversation or text.
"Well, I guess it’s time to go."
2. LEXICAL COHESION:
This involves the meaning and vocabulary of a text and focuses on how the words are used in a text to
create cohesion through meaning, including the use of repetition, synonyms, antonyms, and related
vocabulary.
Taxonomic Lexical Relations
Taxonomic Lexical Relations refer to how words are related based on their classification or hierarchy. This
includes:
Synonyms: Words with similar meanings (e.g., happy and joyful).
Antonyms: Words with opposite meanings (e.g., hot and cold).
Hyponyms: Specific terms within a broader category (e.g., dog is a hyponym of animal).
Superordinates: More general terms (e.g., animal is a superordinate of dog).
Meronyms: Words that are parts of something (e.g., wheel is a meronym of car).
Example:
"The teacher explained the topic. The instructor gave a clear lesson."
(Teacher and instructor are synonyms, creating lexical cohesion).
Expectancy Relation
Expectancy Relation refers to the natural pairing of words that typically occur together based on our
understanding of the world or context. These are predictable word combinations.
Example:
"Ask a question" and "give an answer" are typical combinations where one word creates an expectancy for
the other.
Expectancy relations are often based on collocations, where certain words frequently occur together. These
patterns create a flow and familiarity within the text, ensuring cohesion.
Example of Collocations:
"Make a decision," "take a break," or "cause a problem" are all phrases that naturally occur together,
creating cohesion through expected word combinations.
Expectancy relations help create cohesion by fulfilling the reader's expectations based on the semantic
relationships between words.