How is it known that atoms are made up of protons, neutrons and electrons?
Existence and Properties of the Electron
The Nature of Cathode Rays
Cathode rays are electron beams that travel from a cathode to an anode in a
vacuum. Cathode ray tubes possess low gas pressure to resemble a vacuum. This
reduces collisions between electrons and air molecules. Additionally, high voltage
provides enough kinetic energy for electrons to leave the cathode and progress to
the anode. Thus, early experiments demonstrated that cathode rays travel in straight
lines and can fluoresce, which is proven with a Maltese cross. They could be
deflected by electric and magnetic fields and possessed momentum as shown by a
paddle wheel. All cathode rays were identical regardless of the cathode material.
Figure 1 to the left below shows a Maltese Cross, and Figure 2 to the right below
shows a paddle wheel.
Thomson’s Charge-to-Mass Experiment
J. J. Thomson devised the
charge-to-mass experiment in 1897
because the specific charge and mass
of the particle in the cathode ray could
not be measured. Thomson’s
experiment had two stages, with the
first involving activating electric and
magnetic fields simultaneously when a
cathode ray was fired, as seen in the
right figure 3. They were then adjusted
to balance their respective forces so the
cathode ray could travel undeflected towards the anode, resulting in velocity
calculations. The second stage involved switching off the electric field and leaving
the magnetic field on. It was thus deflected in a circular direction, so Thomson
equated centripetal and magnetic force to derive the charge-to-mass ratio, proving
that the cathode ray particles were negatively charged and had a specific mass. His
approximation was the same for various cathodes he tested. He concluded that
these particles were subatomic and different from protons as they possessed a
larger charge and smaller mass.
Millikan’s Oil-Drop Experiment
Robert Millikan conducted his oil-drop
experiment in 1907, which provided a numerical
figure for an electron charge. The experiment
involved a chamber equipped with a microscope
where oil droplets were squirted inside between
two charged plates, as seen in the right figure 4.
The charged plates created an electric field, so electrical potential energy suspended
the droplets between the plates and opposed gravity. They were negatively charged
by friction from the atomiser and hence remained suspended while others fell to the
bottom plate or accelerated to the top plate. For each experiment, Millikan found the
charge of an electron to be approximately -1.59 x 10^-19, which was fairly accurate.
Knowing the charge led to the calculation of its mass and explained Thomson’s
results. He thus proved that charge is quantised because it is a packet of energy in a
negatively charged particle.
Nuclear Model of the Atom
The Geiger-Marsden Experiment
An experiment conducted by Ernest Rutherford’s
assistants, Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden,
proved that the atom possessed a nucleus, which
differed from Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model. Their
experiment involved emitting alpha particles from a
radioactive isotope at a piece of thin gold foil to
observe their degree of deflection, seen in figure 5 to
the right. This is because Rutherford hypothesised that if the atom had a low density
as Thomson’s model suggested, then there would be minimal particle deflections.
Although when the experiment was conducted, there were some particles that were
deflected at angles greater than 90°, which suggested that the particles must
possess some positive mass of significant density for them to be rebounded.
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
From the above findings, Rutherford proposed a new atomic model where the
positive charge was condensed into a central mass, which he called the nucleus.
The electrons orbited the nucleus in a circular pathway, hence why it was known as
the Planetary Model. Between the nucleus and electron was empty space, which
could explain why some alpha particles remained undeflected. For the deflected
particles, however, slight contact with the electrons and nucleus would result in a
slight deflection and direct contact with the nucleus would result in significant
deflection because the two positive charges would repel each other. His atomic
model defied classical physics with its exploration of the structure of small particles,
and his findings were the foundation for the quantum atomic model.
Chadwick’s Discovery of the Neutron
Scientists believed that another particle was
inside the nucleus with the protons. James
Chadwick confirmed this in 1932 by firing
alpha particles at beryllium, as shown in
figure 6 to the right. Neutrons were then
emitted and directed towards a paraffin
block, which contained hydrogen atoms and
hence many protons. Protons were ejected
from the paraffin wax, resulting in velocity
and energy measurements. Using the Law
of Conservation of Momentum and the Law of Conservation of Energy, Chadwick
determined that the neutron had almost the same mass as a proton because it could
dislodge it upon collision. Energy was thus conserved, which disproved that the
interaction between alpha particles and beryllium induced gamma radiation. The
neutron had no charge since electric or magnetic fields did not deflect it.
How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the atom’s properties?
Limitations of Atomic Models
Protons and neutrons had not been named as yet, so Rutherford could not
determine the specific contents of the nucleus. The specific positions of electrons
were also unknown, and why the oppositely charged electrons and the nucleus did
not collapse into each other was unexplainable. The electrons would emit energy
thus causing them to shrink towards the nucleus, meaning that atoms had unstable
orbits which was incorrect. However, Niels Bohr
proposed a new atomic model with four postulates. The
first was that electrons orbited the nucleus like
Rutherford’s model, although the second stated that the
angular momentum of electrons was quantised. Thus
atoms possessed discrete orbits, so electrons could not
exist in between orbits of 𝑛 = 1 etc. The third postulate
was that electrons did not radiate energy in their orbits.
The fourth postulate stated that electrons absorb energy
when moving to higher orbits and emit energy when
returning to their original orbit, as seen in figure 7 to the
right. They radiated energy as these transitions occured.
However, his model also had limitations, mainly that
electron jumps in other atoms besides hydrogen were
unexplainable. Consequently, the spectra for other
atoms were unexplainable and the intensity of
hydrogen’s spectral lines was unexplainable. The Zeeman Effect was also
unexplainable, whereby a magnetic field would split the spectral lines.
Line Emission Spectra
Hydrogen is the simplest element, so its properties were examined to explain why
spectra existed. They placed it in a glass tube with hydrogen gas, which was excited
by high voltages. Heating the gas emitted specific colours, resulting in the emission
spectra for hydrogen, containing four emission lines shown above. Thus Johannes
Balmer created a mathematical relationship between the wavelengths and emission
lines of hydrogen in 1885. He determined the specific wavelength of the visible
spectrum lines when electrons moved from a higher orbit to the second energy shell.
Quantised Energy Levels of the Hydrogen Atom
The transition from higher to lower orbits constitutes a change in energy, whereby E
= Ei - Ef = hf. This was Bohr’s explanation for the line emission spectra, where the
lowest energy level, 𝑛 = 1, was dubbed the ground state. The absorbed and emitted
energies of hydrogen atoms were thus quantised because they could only absorb
specific energy values. Additionally, they could only emit the same discrete amounts
of energy that had already been absorbed. The energy differences between all levels
were the same, so another mathematical relationship between energy and the
emission spectra wavelengths was determined. By applying f=h/c, where c is the
speed of light, E=hc/λ can be observed. The emission spectrum of hydrogen was
then extended beyond the visible spectrum by Johannes Rydberg, who derived the
following relationship: 1/λ = R(1/𝑛^2f - 1/𝑛^2i). This quantisation of the hydrogen
atom supported the Law of Conservartion of Energy as the electrons always returned
to their original state and maintained a stable orbit with no loss or gain in energy.
The Matter Waves of de Broglie
In 1924, Louis de Broglie proposed that wave-particle duality could be applied to
other particles as particles with momentum have wavelengths. These are called
matter waves, and the mathematical relationship λ = h/mv could determine the
wavelength of any form of matter. This relationship could be applied to electrons,
which was proven by Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer in 1929 with their
experiment where electrons were fired at nickel crystals. A detector picked up
interference patterns caused by electrons as the crystals scattered them. Because
these electrons were diffracted, maxima and minima were observed and their
calculated wavelength corresponded with de Broglie’s equation. Additionally, G.P.
Thomson conducted an experiment where a cathode ray was passed through a gold
foil, which created an interference pattern on a photographic film. This also proved
that electrons behave like waves. Bohr’s postulate that atoms maintained stable
orbits was thus explained because the orbits were a series of standing waves with
specific, quantised wavelengths, which meant that they did not propagate energy.
Schrodinger’s Contribution
Erwin Schrodinger proposed that the particular position of an electron can be found
with mathematical probabilities. This led to the development of the electron cloud,
where different cloud shapes were observed for each orbit. The density of the
electron cloud affects the aforementioned probability since it can be in multiple states
at once, much like the cat in Schrodinger's thought experiment being alive or dead.
How is it known that human understanding of matter is still incomplete?
Fundamental Particles
It was found through experimental evidence that protons and neutrons were not
fundamental particles. For the neutron, this is because it possesses a magnetic field
regardless of its neutral charge, which would infer that there is a changing electric
field and hence smaller particles within them. For the proton, this is because
observations from radioactive decay indicated that protons could transition to
neutrons and vice versa. If this was the case, protons also had an internal structure.
Subatomic Particles and Particle Accelerators
Electrons are fundamental particles because they are a specific point charge,
meaning they have no internal contents. However, they were not the only
fundamental particle inside the nucleus. The positron, a positively charged electron,
was the first antimatter, discovered by Carl Anderson with his cloud chamber
experiments, where a magnetic field distinguished positive and negative charges in
vapour. The particle accelerator was developed years later, which could uncover
smaller particles at extremely high velocities. The particles are accelerated by an
electric field and a magnetic field influences their direction, which scientists use to
create collisions between particles that will tear them apart. Types of particle
accelerators include electrostatic, linear and circular accelerators with cyclotrons and
synchotrons being the specific designs. In particular, the Large Hadron Collider
(LHC), which is the most powerful particle accelerator constructed thus far, aided
scientists in discovering the Higgs boson, which gives particles their mass.
Standard Model of Matter
Quarks and Quark Composition Hadrons
Quarks are fundamental particles that form protons
and neutrons when combined. Quarks cannot exist
on their own, so a group of quarks is known as a
hadron. There are also antiparticles called
antiquarks, and these two types of quarks have six
flavours respectively. The flavours indicate the
properties of each quark, which include: up, down,
charm, strange, top and bottom, which are
summarised to the right in figure 8. Quarks have
three generations, which refers to how closely they
relate to matter. Quarks with a larger generation
possess a greater mass, yet they have shorter
lifespans as they decay to form the next lowest generation. Baryons are hadrons
with three quarks, and mesons are hadrons with two quarks, a quark and an
anti-quark. Protons have two up quarks and one down quark whilst neutrons have
two down quarks and one up quark.
Leptons
Leptons are also fundamental particles, although they are point charges with a tiny
mass. Electrons are leptons, and like the quarks, there are six flavours spanning
over three generations. These are also applied to anti-leptons, with the other leptons
including the electron-neutrino, muon, muon-neutrino, tau and tau-neutrino.
Fundamental Forces
There are four fundamental forces that hold quarks and leptons, collectively known
as fermions, together. They are: gravitational, strong nuclear, weak nuclear and
electromagnetic. Bosons are the particles responsible for carrying these forces, and
it is through exchanging these particles in different scenarios that the forces can act.
Strong nuclear is the strongest force and is transmitted through gluons, which
change the colour of the quarks which affects their strength. Photons transmit the
electromagnetic force between electrically charged particles and W and Z bosons
transmit the weak nuclear force. Gravitational force is the weakest force since the
existence of the particle it is transmitted through, the graviton, is unknown.
Accuracy, Validity and Reliability of Sources
The two textbooks, Pearson Physics and Physics in Focus, were published at
roughly the same time. They were written by authors with specified qualifications in
Physics, therefore these textbooks are reputable sources. ThoughtCo is a website
where one of their principle authors, Andrew Zimmerman Jones, has a B.A in
Physics. This means that he can discuss concepts in Physics properly. Owlcation is
concerned with distributing relevant information about various intellectual topics,
including Humanities and Social Sciences. Encyclopedia Brittanica has always been
a reliable source since their articles are current, and they offer people with the
opportunity to cite their articles. This means that they are confident in themselves
and the work they produce. Physics High is a reliable Youtube channel because Paul
Looyen has been teaching Physics for 26 years, so the information he provides can
be trusted. Thus my sources are all valid since they distribute the same information,
meaning they are also accurate.
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