Unit 3: Fuels

FUEL
Definition:
Whenever a substance is burnt in air or oxygen with the evolution of heat, the process is called
combustion and the substance which is burnt is called combustible substance. In the process of
combustion, the chemical energy of fuel is converted into heat energy and light energy.
The heat evolved during combustion can be used for household purposes or economically for
industrial purposes. All combustible substances which contain carbon as the main constituent are
called fuels. Thus fuel can be defined as any combustible substance, containing carbon as the
main constituent which on proper burning produces heat that can be used economically for
domestic and industrial purposes and in the generation of power.
Fuel + O2 Products + CO2 + Heat
Classification:
The fuels are broadly classified in two ways, depending on the state of matter
1. Primary Fuels: These include the naturally occurring fuels that are found free on the
earth’s crust. These are classified as
i. Solid fuels for eg wood, peat, lignite, coal etc
ii. Liquid Fuels for eg. Petroleum, crude oil etc.
iii. Gaseous Fuels like natural gas etc.
2. Secondary or Derived Fuels: These are artificially derived or manufactured from primary
fuels. These are further classified into
i. Solid fuels for eg coke, charcoal, petroleum coke, pulverized coal etc.
ii. Liquid Fuels for eg. Gasoline, diesel oil, kerosene, coal tar, LPG, alcohol
etc.
iii. Gaseous Fuels like coal gas, water gas, biogas, blast furnace gas etc.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 1

 Unit 3: Fuels

Characteristics of a good fuel

While selecting an ideal fuel for domestic or industrial purpose we should keep in mind that the
fuel selected must possess the following characteristic properties.
1. It should possess high calorific value.
2. It should have low moisture content as moisture reduces the heating value of fuel
3. It should have low non-combustible substance as its presence reduces heating value and
produces more ash
4. It should have proper ignition temperature. The ignition temperature of the fuel should
neither be too low nor too high. Very low ignition temperature is harmful for storage and
transport while high ignition temperature causes difficulty in igniting the fuel.
5. It should be easy to handle, store and transport.
6. It should not produce poisonous products during combustion. In other words, it should
not cause pollution.
7. It should burn with more efficiency and less smoke.
8. It should be easily available in plenty.
9. It should be cheap.
10. It should have moderate rate of combustion.
11. Combustion should be easily controllable i.e., combustion of fuel should be easy to start
or stop as and when required.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 2

 Unit 3: Fuels

Calorific Value of a Fuel

It is defined as the amount of heat produced by the complete combustion of a given mass of a
fuel, usually expressed in joules per kilogram. It is expressed in two forms:
Gross Calorific Value (GCV) or High Calorific Value (HCV):
It is the total amount of heat generated when a unit mass of fuel is completely burnt and the
products of combustion are allowed to cool down to room temperature.
When a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt, the hydrogen present in fuel produces steam. If the
products of combustion are allowed to cool to room temperature, the latent heat of condensation
of steam gets included in the measured heat. This is called the gross calorific value (GCV)
Net Calorific Value (NCV) or Low Calorific value (LCV)
It is the net amount of heat produced when unit mass of fuel is completely burnt and the products
are allowed to escape.
Net Calorific Value = Gross Calorific Value – Latent heat of condensation of steam
= Gross Calorific Value – Latent heat of vaporization of water vapor
= Gross Calorific Value – (Mass of hydrogen per unit weight of fuel burnt x
9/100 x Latent heat of vaporization of water
vapor)

1
For the reaction; H2 + O2 H2O
2
2g 18g
1g 9g

One part by weight of hydrogen gives nine parts by weight of H2O.

Let H% be the hydrogen content in a fuel.
Thus 1 g of fuel contains H/100 g of H2
H/100 g of H2 will produce 9*H/100 g of H2O (because 1g of H2 produces 9g of H2O)
=0.09H*(latent heat of steam) =0.09H*587 cal/g
Latent heat of steam = 587cal/g of water vapor produced.

Thus, NCV = HCV – 0.09 x H x 587

where H = mass of hydrogen in fuel

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 3

 Unit 3: Fuels

Units of calorific value of fuel:

Calorific values of solid and liquid are expressed in Calories/g (cal/g) or kilocalories/kg (kcal/kg)
or British Thermal unit/pound (BTU/lb)
Calorific values of gaseous fuels are expressed in kilocalories/m 3 kg (kcal/m3) or British Thermal
unit/ft3 (BTU/ ft3)
Determination of Calorific Value (Bomb calorimeter)
The gross calorific value of solid and liquid fuels is determined by Bomb Calorimeter.
Principle: A known unit mass of fuel is burnt completely and the quantity of heat produced is
absorbed in water and measured. Then the quantity of heat produced by burning unit mass of fuel
is calculated. According to principle of calorimetry, heat liberated by fuel = heat absorbed by
water, apparatus.
Construction: It consists of the following parts:
1. A strong cylindrical bomb made of stainless steel, resistant to corrosion and capable of
withstanding high pressure up to 50 atmospheres. It is provided with a lid which can be
screwed firmly to the bomb. The lid is provided with two electrodes and an oxygen inlet
valve. A small ring is attached to one of the electrodes which act as a support for the
crucible.
2. A copper calorimeter vessel is used which contains a known weight of water and in
which the bomb is placed.
3. The calorimeter is surrounded by an air jacket and a air jacket to prevent loss of heat due
to radiation.
4. The calorimeter is provided with an electrical stirrer for stirring water and a Beckman
Thermometer to measure temperature.
5. The crucible in which the sample is kept is made of stainless steel or fused silica.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 4

 Unit 3: Fuels

Design of Bomb Calorimeter:

The design of a typical bomb calorimeter is shown in the picture below:

A Bomb Calorimeter

Working:
A weighed amount of sample (fuel) is placed in the silica crucible supported over the ring. A fine
magnesium wire touching the sample of the fuel is stretched across the electrodes. About 10mL
of distilled water is introduced into the bomb to absorb vapors of sulphuric acid and nitric caid
formed during the combustion. Oxygen supply is forced into the bomb to a pressure of 25-30
atmosphere. The bomb is then carefully placed in the calorimetric vessel containing a known
amount of water. Water is stirred with the stirrer and temperature is recorded. The electrodes are
connected to a battery and the circuit is completed. The combustion of fuel takes place with the
evolution of heat. The heat produced by burning is transferred to water which is stirred
throughout the experiment with the stirrer. Maximum temperature is recorded and the gross
calorific value is calculated as follows;
Let x = mass of fuel sample taken in crucible (g)
W = mass of water in the calorimeter (g)
w = water equivalent of calorimeter, stirrer, bomb, thermometer etc (g)
= mass x specific heat of apparatus = W’ x S
T1 = initial temperature of water in calorimeter (°C)

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 5

 Unit 3: Fuels

T2 = final temperature of water in calorimeter (°C)

L = Gross Calorific Value of fuel (cal/g)
S = specific heat
Heat liberated by burning of fuel = xL cal
Heat absorbed by water = [W x S x (T2-T1)] cal
Heat absorbed by apparatus = [W’ x S x (T2-T1)] cal = w(T2-T1) cal
Specific heat of water = 1 cal/g°C and 1 cal = 4.2J
Therefore, total heat absorbed by water, apparatus =
[W x 1 x (T2-T1) + w x 1 x (T2-T1)] = [(W+w) x 1 x (T2-T1)] cal
According to principle of calorimetry, heat liberated by fuel = heat absorbed by water, apparatus
xL = [(W+w)(T2-T1)]

( W +w ) (T 2−T 1)
L = Gross calorific value of fuel = HCV = GCV = cal/g
x

LCV = Low calorific value = (HCV – 0.09 H x 587) cal/g

Corrections
Accurate reading of calorific value requires the following corrections:
1. Fuse wire Correction: The heat liberated as GCV includes the heat given out by ignition
of the fuse wire used. Hence it must be subtracted from total value.
2. Acid Correction: Fuels containing S and n are oxidized during combustion producing
H2SO4 and HNO3 respectively. Such reactions are exothermic and hence the measured
heat includes the heat given out during the acid formation. Such heat is subtracted from
total value.
3. Cooling correction: Time is required to cool the water in the calorimeter from maximum
temperature to room temperature is noted. This time is recorded and the cooling
correction is calculated by multiplying it by rate of cooling. The cooling correction is
then added to rise in temperature.
4. Cotton Thread correction: As the cotton thread is used for igniting the fuel, its burning
thus liberates heat which is then subtracted from total heat.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 6

 Unit 3: Fuels

Gross calorific Value = GCV =

( W +w )( ΔT +cooling corection ) −(acid correction+ fuse wire correction+cotton¿ thread correction)

weight of fuel

Advantage of liquid Fuels:

1. They have higher calorific value than solid fuels.
2. They burn without ash, smoke
3. They are easy to transport, store and handle.
4. They can be easily used in internal combustion engines.
5. Liquid fuels can be easily kindled. Combustion can be started and stopped at once.

Biomass and Bioenergy

Biomass may be defined as the waste material and dead parts of living beings like plants, trees,
animals. it includes cattle dung, wood, sewage, agricultural wastes, crop residues like bagasse
and rice husk. Biomass contains carbon compounds and works as a source of heat for domestic
purposes. Since biomass is obtained through a process of photosynthesis, the biomass energy can
be regarded as another form of indirect use of solar energy.
Over 90% of biomass energy contribution comes from the combustion of wood and wood
wastes. Biogas or methane can be generated by anaerobic digesters which in turn are used for
generation of electricity.
Molasses, corn, and other biomass can be fermented to yield acetone and butanol by using fungi.
Various crops like sugar and starch crops like banana, maize and paddy etc can be used as raw
materials for the production of ethanol.
Cellulosic and lignocellulosic materials are abundant all over the world and can be used for
production of cheap fuels. Cellulose can be enzymatically hydrolyzed to produce fermentable
sugars which in turn are used for production of ethanol etc.
Woody biomass is also used for diesel production which is gaining popularity over petroleum
commodities in the developing countries. Woody biomass is also the source of turpentine;
oilseeds and water hyacinth are also the source of fuels.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 7

 Unit 3: Fuels

Biogas
Biogas is produced by the degradation of biological matter by the action of bacteria or fungi in
the absence of oxygen. For example natural gas is a biogas which results after a long period of
decay of animal and vegetable matter with appropriate temperature conditions. The cheapest and
easily obtainable biogas is gobar gas which is produced by anaerobic fermentation of cattle dung.
Biogas is also produced from sewage and other organic waste.
The raw material for the biogas is cow dung, which is subjected to anaerobic fermentation
brought about by anaerobic bacteria. The process is carried out in steel chambers placed above or
below the ground into which a slurry made by mixing equal parts of fresh cattle dung and water
is poured. Anaerobic bacteria present in the dung digests this sludge generating carbon dioxide
and methane. The optimum temperature for fermentation is 34-48°C. The gas generated is
collected in a steel gas holder placed on top of the digestion tank.
The average composition of the gobar gas is
CH4 = 55%, H2 = 7.4%, CO2 = 35%, N2 = 2.6% and traces of H2S
Its gross calorific value = 1200kcal/m3.
Advantages of Gobar Gas:
1. It has been found that 4.25kg of fresh cow dung (1 kg of dry cow dung) gives 160L of gobar
gas which can supply 188kcal of heat. On the other hand 1kg of dry dung on direct heating
gives 23.4kcal of effective heat. Thus gobar gas production is very economical.
2. The gas has all advantages of gaseous fuel like flexibility, optimum utilization, of waste,
cleanliness, absence of dust, smoke, dirt etc.
3. It does not emit poisonous gas like CO.
4. It provides flame temperature of 540°C
5. Gobar gas simultaneously produces excellent yield of manure (N 2 content is 2% as farm
manure which is 0.75%)
Limitation of Gobar gas: The gas stove or burner needs to be placed around 10m of the plant.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 8

 Unit 3: Fuels

Analysis of Coal
Coal Analysis techniques are specific analytical methods designed to measure the particular
physical and chemical properties of coals. There are two methods to analyze coal which are
called proximate analysis and ultimate analysis.
The proximate analysis determines only the fixed carbon, volatile matter, moisture and ash
percentages and it can be determined with a simple apparatus.
The ultimate analysis determines all coal component elements like C, H, N, S, O and ash. It
needs properly equipped laboratory with skilled chemists.
The proximate analysis of coal determines the following aspects:
1. Measurement of moisture
The moisture content is determined by placing a known weight of sample of powdered raw coal
of size 200- micron (A gms) in an uncovered crucible which is placed in the oven kept at
105±2°C along with the lid for 1 hr. After that sample is cooled to room temperature and
weighed again (B gms). The loss in weight represents moisture.
¿
% moisture = Loss∈ weight due ¿ removal of moisture weight of coal sample taken x 100 =

[ A−B]
x100
A
High Moisture content in coal is undesirable because it decreases the calorific value and hence
quality of coal. It increases the cost of coal as well as transportation charges
2. Measurement of volatile matter
B gms of moisture free coal is taken in a silica crucible and covered with a lid. It is then heated in
a furnace at 925±20oC for 7 mins. After that sample is cooled and weighed (C gms). Loss of
weight represents the volatile matter on a percentage basis.
¿
% volatile matter = Loss∈ weight due ¿ removal of volatile matter weight of coal sample taken x

[B−C ]
100 = x100
A
Volatile matter present in coal may be combustible gases (H 2, CO, CH4 and other lower
hydrocarbons) or non-combustible gases (CO2 and N2). Presence of volatile matter does not add
to heat/calorific value and hence is undesirable. Coal having high volatile matter burns with a
long flame, emits smoke and has less calorific value. A large proportion of coal distills over as
gas or vapor while a significant proportion of it escapes unburnt.

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 9

 Unit 3: Fuels

3. Measurement of carbon and ash

A weighed amount of dry coal (A gms) is burnt in an open crucible in the presence of air or
oxygen at 700-750˚C for 30 mins in a muffle furnace. The residue after cooling is weighed,
which is the incombustible ash (D gms).
weight of ash formed [ D]
% ash = x 100 = x100
weight of dry coal sample taken A
Ash is the non-combustible, useless matter in the coal. It is undesirable because its presence in
coal decreases its calorific value. Ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air or heat and thereby,
decreases the efficiency of burning of coal. It also increases the cost of transportation, handling
and storage. There is additional cost of disposal of ash.
4. Fixed Carbon
After the determination of moisture, volatile matter and ash content, the remaining matter is
known as fixed carbon. Higher the % of fixed carbon, higher is the calorific value of coal. It is
determined indirectly by deducting the sum total of moisture, ash and volatile matter from 100
% fixed Carbon = 100 - %of (moisture+Volatile matter+ash)

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 10

 Unit 3: Fuels

Numericals on Calorific Value

1. On burning 0.83g of a solid fuel in a Bomb Calorimeter, the temperature of water

(3500g) inside the calorimeter increased from 25.5˚C to 29.2˚C. Water equivalent of
calorimeter and latent heat of steam are 385g and 587cal/g respectively. If the fuel
contains 0.7% H, calculate the GCV and NCV of the fuel?
ans:
GCV= (3500+385)(29.2-25.5°C)/0.83 = 17,318.6 cal/g
NCV = 17318.6-(0.09*587*0.7) = 17318.6-36.981 = 17,281.6 cal/g
2. A sample of coal containing 89%C, 8%H and 3% ash. When this coal was tested in the
laboratory for its Calorific value in the Bomb Calorimeter, the following data was
obtained.
Weight of coal burnt = 0.85g
Weight of water = 650g
Water equivalent of bomb calorimeter = 2500g
Rise in temp= 2.5˚C
Cooling Correction = 0.03˚C
Fuse wire Correction = 10 calories
Acid Correction = 50 Calories
Assuming the latent heat of condensation of steam = 580 cal/g
Calculate the GCV and LCV of coal in cal/g
ans:
GCV = [(650+2500)(2.5+0.03) –(10+50)]/0.85 = 9305.29 cal/g
LCV = 9305.29 – (0.09*8*580) = 9305.29-417.6 = 8887.69 cal/g
3. Calculate LCV of a fuel which has 8.9% hydrogen and its HCV is 6500 cal/g (given
latent heat of steam =580 cal/g).
ans:
LCV = 6500 – (0.09*8.9*580) = 6500 – (464.58) = 6035.42 cal/g
4. A 0.80g of sample of solid fuel was completely combusted in excess of oxygen using
bomb calorimeter. The rise in temperature of water in calorimeter was 2.5°C. Calculate
the High Calorific value of the fuel, if water taken in calorimeter is 2000g and water
equivalent of calorimeter is 2200g. Also calculate Low calorific value (given % hydrogen
in fuel = 2.2)
ans:
HCV = (2000+2200)(2.5)/0.80 = 13,125 cal/g
LCV = 13125- (0.09*2.2*580) = 13125 – 114.84 = 13010.16 cal/g

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 11

 Unit 3: Fuels

5. 0.72 g of fuel containing 80% carbon when burnt in a bomb calorimeter increased the
temperature of water from 27.3°C to 29.1°C. If the calorimeter contains 250g of water
and if its water equivalent is 150g, Calculate the HCV of fuel.
Ans: HCV = (250+150)(1.8)/0.72 = 1000 cal/g

Coal:
Coal is formed from the fossilized remains of animals and plants; hence it is known as a fossil
fuel.
The factors responsible for usage of coal as a fuel are:
High calorific value; Low cost; least risk of fire hazards and easy storage
Classification of coal:
 Soft coals: have low % of C. example-peat (57% C), lignite (67% C)
 Hard coal: have very high % of C. example- bituminous coal (83%), anthracite (93% C)
Analysis of coal:
Generally coal is not analyzed by measuring well define physico-chemical properties since its
composition varies according to the source and age of coal. Mostly consumer oriented empirical
tests are performed for the sake of comparison and for getting meaningful insights.
Inorder to ascertain the quality of coal, it is subjected to two types of analysis: proximate and
ultimate analysis.
Proximate analysis: it is called because the data collected varies with the procedure adopted. The
analysis involves the determination of moisture, volatility, ash and fixed carbon. This analysis
gives valuable information on the quality of coal.
Ultimate analysis: this analysis is useful for combustion calculations. It includes the
determination of C, N2, H2, S, ash and O2

Proximate Analysis:
1. Moisture content determination- It is the loss of weight of coal when heated at about 105 C in
a crucible for 1 hr inside an electric oven.
% of moisture = (loss in weight due to removal of moisture)/weight of coal sample
taken*100 = (A-B)/A*100
(where A is the weight of coal sample; B is the weight of coal sample after heating to
105C)

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 12

 Unit 3: Fuels

2. Volatile matter content determination: It is the loss of weight of moisture free coal when
heated at 925C for 7 mins in a crucible inside a muffle furnace.
% of volatile matter = (loss in weight due to removal of volatile matter)/weight of coal
sample taken*100 = (B-C)/A*100
(where C is the weight of coal sample after heating to 925C; B is the weight of moisture
free coal sample; A is the weight of initial coal sample)

3. Ash content determination: It is the weight of residue left after burning a weighed amount of
moisture free coal in an open crucible (in the presence of air) at 700-750C for 30 mins in a
muffle furnace.
% of Ash = (weight of ash formed)/weight of dry coal sample taken*100 = (D)/B*100
(where D is the weight of ash formed; B is the weight of moisture free coal sample)
4. Fixed Carbon determination: It is determined indirectly by deducting the sum total of
moisture, ash and volatile matter from 100.
% of Fixed Carbon = 100- %(moisture + volatile matter + ash)

Compiled by Dr Arunima Nayak & Dr Brij Bhushan Page 13