Chapter-3
Hydrological Losses
3.1 Initial Losses (Interception and depression storage)
A. Interception Loss:
• Process by which water is captured on vegetation (leaves, barks, grasses, crops
• ,etc.) during a precipitation event.
• It is not available for runoff or infiltration
• Returned to atmosphere through evaporation.
• generally, occur during the first part of a precipitation event and the interception
loss rate trends toward zero rather than quickly.
Factors affecting Interception:
1. Storm character
2. Plants character
3. Season of the year
Fig: Interception Loss Curve
B. Depression Storage:
• Volume of water trapped in depression
• Precipitation stored in depression is either removed
through infiltration into ground or by evaporation.
Depression storage depends on:
• Type of soil
• Condition of surface reflecting amount & nature of
depression
• Slope of catchment
3.2 Evaporation Process
• Evaporation is the process in which liquid changes to gaseous state at
the free surface, below boiling point through transfer of heat energy.
• The branch of science which deals with the study of weather is known as
meteorology.
• The study of hydrology necessitates the collection of data on
humidity, temperature, precipitation, radiation, evapotranspiration and
wind velocity for the collection of these meteorological data’s
• meteorological station are fixed all over the world,
• at present time, about 282 meteorological stations are established
in different parts of Nepal
3.2.1 Meteorological Parameters (Radiation, Temperature, Vapor
Pressure, Humidity, Wind)
a) Radiation:
• Directly influences temperature of evaporating surface.
• It is direct transfer of energy by means of electromagnetic waves.
• Radiation from sun is solar radiation which provides fuel for hydrological cycle.
• Solar radiation determines weather and climate of earth.
b) Temperature:
• Rate of evaporation increases with an increase in water temperature
• Although there is an increase in the rate of evaporation with increase in air
temperature, a high correlation does not exist between.
• For the same mean monthly temperature, evaporation form a lake may be different
in different months.
C) Vapor Pressure:
• The rate of evaporation is proportional to difference between the saturation
vapor pressure (SVP) at the water temperature (ew ) and the actual pressure in
the air (ea)
EL = C (ew-ea)
EL = rate of evaporation C = constant
ew and ea are in mm of mercury.
• This equation is called Dalton's law of evaporation.
• Evaporation occurs till ew-ea.
• If ew>ea condensation takes place.
D) Humidity:
• Humidity is general term used to indicate the moisture in the
atmosphere.
• Vapor pressure and humidity are intertwined.
a) Absolute humidity: (vapor concentration)
• It is actual amount of water vapor present in a certain quantity of air.
• Its unit is gm/m3.
Dew point: It is the point at which air becomes saturated when cooled under constant pressure and with constant water
vapor content. It is thus the temperature having a saturation vapor pressure (es) equal to the existing or actual vapor
pressure (ea).
E) Wind:
• Wind helps to remove the evaporated water vapor from the zone of
evaporation, thereby creating greater scope for evaporation.
• The rate of evaporation increases with increase in wind velocity up
to some limit (critical wind speed) and thereafter further increase in
wind velocity does not have any effect on evaporation rate.
3.2.2 Analytical method of Evaporation Estimation
[Link] Budget Method
[Link] Budget Method
[Link] transfer method (Dalton’s law)
2. Energy Budget Method:
• It involves application of the law of
conservation of energy.
• Energy availability for evaporation is
determined by considering the
incoming energy, outgoing energy and
the energy stored in the water body
over a known time interval.
Energy balance to evaporating surface in a
period of one day is given by
Hn = Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi………………………1
Hn = Ha + He + Hg + Hs + Hi……..1
st1
Hn= net heat energy received by water surface = Hc (1-r)- Hb
Hc = incoming radiation r Hc = emitted radiation
r = albedo = reflection coefficient
Slide 12
st1 sasi thapa, 09/06/2025
This is the energy balance in the period of 1 day. All energy terms are
in calories/[Link]/day.
Estimation of evaporation from lake by this method has been found to give satisfactory
results with errors of order of 5% when applied to periods less than a week
3. Mass - Transfer Method:
This method is based on theories of turbulent mass transfer in the boundary layer to calculate
the mass of water transfer from the surface to the surrounding atmosphere.
3.2.3 Evaporimeters (Evaporation Pan Methods)
• Evaporation pan, also called evaporimeter, is shallow vessels
containing water.
• These are placed in open to measure the loss of water by
evaporation.
• Lake or reservoir evaporation = Pan Coefficient x Pan
Evaporation
• Pan coefficient: 0.6 to 0.8
a) Class A evaporation pan
Step-by-Step Practical Example:
Situation:
•Pan diameter = 1.21 m (standard Class A pan)
•Duration = 1 day
•Initial water depth = 200 mm
•Final water depth = 195 mm
•Precipitation (P) = 2 mm (rainfall measured)
•No water added (R = 0 mm)
•Pan Coefficient (Kp) = 0.8 (typical for grassy surroundings)
Step 1: Calculate the drop in water level (Δh):
Δh = Initial depth - Final depth = 200 mm - 195 mm = 5
mm
Step 2: Apply the formula for pan evaporation:
E_pan = (Δh + R - P) × Kp
= (5 + 0 - 2) × 0.8
= 3 × 0.8
= 2.4 mm/day
b) Sunken Pan (Colorado Sunken Pan)
• The pan is buried into
the ground such that the water
level is at the ground level.
• The pan is painted with
black tar.
Fig: Sunken Pan
3.3 Evapotranspiration(ET)
• Process of evaporation from land surface and the transpiration
from vegetation collectively
Factors affecting ET:
• Supply of energy (solar radiation)
• Ability to transport vapor away (wind speed and humidity gradient)
• Supply of moisture at evaporating surface.
• Loss of water by ET is also termed as consumptive use (amount of
water used in ET from area under vegetation, plus water used by
plants in their metabolic process for building plant tissues).
3.3.1 Actual Evapotranspiration and Lysimeter
Actual Evapotranspiration(AET):
• Real ET occurring in a specific situation.
• Depends on type of soil and plants.
Lysimeters:
• Special water tight tank containing a block of soil and set in a field
of growing plants.
• ET is estimated in terms of amount of water required to maintain
constant moisture conditions within the tank measured
volumetrically through an arrangement made in lysimeter.
3.3.2 Potential Evapotranspiration(PET)
Penman’s Equation
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET):
• Sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the
needs of vegetation fully covering area.
• Depends on climatic factors
Field Capacity:
• Maximum quantity of water that the soil can retain against the
force of gravity.
• Any higher moisture input to a soil at field capacity simply drains
away.
Permanent Wilting Point (PWP):
• It is moisture content of a soil at which the moisture is no longer
available in sufficient quantity to sustain the plants.
• At this stage, even though the soil contains some moisture, it will be so
held by the soil grains that roots of plants are not able to extract it in
sufficient quantities to sustain the plants and consequently plants wilt.
• Depends upon climatic factors and soil characteristics.
Available water:
• Difference between Field Capacity and Permanent Wilting Point (PWP)
• The moisture available foe plant growth.
Penman’s Equation
Penman’s Equation
Penman’s Equation
3.4 Infiltration
• Flow of water into ground through soil surface
• When water applied at surface of soil, 4 moisture
zones in soil can be identified.
Infiltration Capacity( fc ):
• Maximum rate at which water can enter the soil at a particular point
• Expressed in cm/hr.
Infiltration Rate (f):
• Actual rate of infiltration
• Smaller than or equal to infiltration capacity
Relation between fc, fi and intensity of rainfall (i)
• f = fc when i ≥ fc
• f = i when i < fc
The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of a storm and
has an exponential decay as the time elapses.
3.4.1 Horton’s Equation
Horton’s Equation states that the infiltration begins at some rate
f0 (initial rate at t = 0) and exponentially decreases until it reaches
a constant rate fc .
Horton’s equation is expressed as
k*t
f (t) fc ( f0 fc )e for 0 ≤ t ≥ td
Where,
K = decay constant depending upon soil characteristics and vegetation cover
known as Horton Coefficient
f(t) = infiltration capacity or infiltration rate at any time t from start of rainfall
fc = final steady rate or infiltration rate at the final steady stage(t = tc )when soil
profile becomes fully saturated (constant rate or ultimate infiltration capacity) fo =
initial infiltration capacity t = 0
Infiltration
rate (cm/hr)
t(hrs) = x f (cm/h) Y = ln(f-fc) xy x^2
0.0417 0.781 -0.54 -0.02264 0.001739
0.125 0.747 -0.60 -0.07541 0.015625
0.333 0.662 -0.77 -0.25714 0.110889
0.75 0.535 -1.09 -0.82022 0.5625
1.5 0.37 -1.77 -2.65794 2.25
2.5 0.255 -2.90 -7.25106 6.25
3.5 0.224 -3.73 -13.05396 12.25
4.5 0.218 -4.02 -18.07823 20.25
5.5 0.207 -4.96 -27.29015 30.25
18.7497 -20.39 -69.51 71.94
3.4.2 Infiltration indices ( ø and W)
• Avergae rate of infiltration
• Two types:
• Ø index
• W- Index
Ø Index:
• Average rainfall above which
rainfall volume = runoff volume
• Derived from rainfall hyetograph.
If i < ø , Infiltration rate = Rainfall intensity
If i > ø, Rainfall – Infiltration = Runoff volume Fig: Ø- index
• Runoff volume= rainfall excess = effective rainfall
3.4.2 Infiltration indices ( ø and W)
Ø Index:
If i < ø , Infiltration rate = Rainfall intensity
If i > ø, Rainfall – Infiltration = Runoff volume
Determination of Ø index:
Pe R
Ø
te
Fig: Ø- index
P =Total Precipitation = Rainfall intensity *
time R = excess rainfall= runoff
t = duration of effective rainfall
3.4.2 Infiltration indices ( ø and W)
W- Index:
Determination of W index:
Pe R Ia
W index
te
P =Total Precipitation = Rainfall intensity *
time R = excess rainfall= runoff
Fig: w- index
t = duration of effective rainfall I = initial
losses
3.4.3 Infiltrometers
Experimental Method
•Experimental set-up to know information about the infiltration
characteristics of the soil is infiltrometer.
•Two types of infiltrometers
A. Flooding type infiltrometer
B. Rainfall simulator type infiltrometer.
A. Flooding type infiltrometer:
•Experimental devices used to obtain data relating to variation of infiltration
capacity with time.
•Two types of flooding type infiltrometers
a. Tube-type (or Simple) infiltrometer
b. Double-ring infiltrometer.
a. Tube-type (or Simple) infiltrometer:
• Hollow metal cylinder of 60 cm long and 30 cm in dia.
• Water is poured to depth of 5 cm
• Pointer is set to mark water level
• As infiltration proceeds, volume is made up by adding water from burette to
keep water level at tip of pointer.
• Knowing the volume of water added at different time interval, graph is plotted
between infiltration capacity versus time.
• Experiment is continued till a uniform rate of “f” is obtained.
Fig: Single Ring Infiltrometer
b) Double- ring infiltrometer:
• Consists of two concentric hollow
cylinders of same length.
• Water is added to both rings to
maintain the same height.
•Infiltration data from inner
cylinder is taken as
infiltration capacity of the soil.
•Outer cylinder is maintained to
• Outer
preventring
spreading of water
provides waterfrom the to
jacket
inner one. water.
infiltrating
• Process is similar to single ring Fig: Double Ring Infiltrometer
infiltrometer.
1.
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. Sujan Pudasaini (Kathford International College
6.
Note: If your class Roll No. is 50 then
Rainfall for station A = 100 + 5*50 =
350