MGG 005

CLIMATOLOGY
Indira Gandhi National Open University
School of Sciences

BLOCK

4
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION

UNIT 12
APPROACHES TO CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
UNIT 13
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF KOPPEN

UNIT 14
CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION OF THORTHWAITE
UNIT 15
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE WORLD

GLOSSARY
MGG 005 CLIMATOLIGY

BLOCK 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF CLIMATOLOGY

Unit 1 Introduction to Climatology
Unit 2 Weather and Climate
Unit 3 Introduction to Atmosphere

BLOCK 2 ATMOSPHERIC PROCESSES

Unit 4 Insolation and Heat Balance
Unit 5 Temperature
Unit 6 Pressure Systems
Unit 7 General Atmospheric Circulations

BLOCK 3 ATMOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES

Unit 8 Humidity and Precipitation
Unit 9 Monsoon
Unit 10 Air Masses
Unit 11 Fronts and Cyclones

BLOCK 4 CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION

Unit 12 Approaches to Climatic Classification
Unit 13 Climatic Classification of Koppen
Unit 14 Climatic Classification of Thorthwaite
Unit 15 Climatic Regions of the World

BLOCK 5 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES

Unit 16 Climate Change and Variability
Unit 17 Human Induced Climate Change
Unit 18 Weather Forecasting
Unit 19 Applied Climatology
 BLOCK 4: CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
Understanding climatic classification systems is essential for comprehending the diverse climates
across the globe. This block explores various approaches to classifying climates and the
significance of these classifications in understanding regional climate patterns and their impacts
on natural and human systems.

Unit 12 on Approaches to Climatic Classification delves into the different approaches used in
climatic classification, including empirical, generic, and genetic methods. Learners will
understand the principles underlying each approach and how they contribute to our
understanding of climate variability and change.

Unit 13 on Climatic Classification of Köppen focuses on the Köppen’s climate classification

system, examining its bases, classification criteria, and methods for evaluating climate types.
Learners will gain insight into how Köppen's classification system helps categorise climates
based on temperature and precipitation patterns.

Unit 14 on Climatic Classification of Thornthwaite explores Thornthwaite's climatic classification

system, including its bases, methods for assessing thermal efficiency and precipitation
effectiveness. Learners will understand how Thornthwaite's system provides insights into the
water balance of different climates.

Unit 15 on Climatic Regions of the World examines the major climatic regions of the world,
including tropical, temperate, and polar climates. Learners will explore the characteristics,
distribution, and significance of each climatic region in shaping global climate patterns and
influencing ecosystems and human societies.

After studying this Block, you should be able to:

 analyse the differences between empirical, generic, and genetic approaches to climatic
classification;
 describe the bases and classification criteria of the Köppen climate classification system;
 evaluate the effectiveness of Köppen's classification system in representing global climate
diversity;
 explain the bases and principles of Thornthwaite's climatic classification system;
 assess the applicability of Thornthwaite's classification system in understanding climate-
water interactions; and
 differentiate between tropical, temperate, and polar climatic regions based on their
characteristics and climate parameters.

Our best wishes are with you in this endeavour.

We suggest for any assistance regarding this course, you can contact satyaraj@[Link]
 UNIT 12

APPROACHES TO CLIMATIC
CLASSIFICATION
Structure
12.1 Introduction 12.4 Approaches to Climatic
Expected Learning Outcomes Classification
12.2 Definition and Significance of 12.5 Summary
Climatic Classification 12.6 Terminal Questions
12.3 Bases of Climatic 12.7 Answers
Classification 12.8 References and Suggested
Further Readings

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units (Block I, II and III) of this course, you have studied about
the seasonal and spatial variations of the basic elements of climate, such as -
insolation, temperature, atmospheric pressure and winds, air masses and
cyclones, humidity, condensation and precipitation. During the study, you must
have noted that latitude, altitude, nature of surface, uneven distribution of land
and sea and atmospheric circulations and oceanic circulations play a significant
role as factors controlling weather and climate. In this chapter, you will study
how these complex elements and controlling factors of climate can be
generalised, simplified, and represented in the form of broad climatic classes.

The basic goal of climatic classification is to bring a systematic order to large

and diverse information by organising similar entities together into groups that
are different from other groups by specific attributes. In this way, an order is
generated out of complexity. Climatic classification helps in comprehending the
multiplicity of atmospheric conditions in meaningfully organised simple and
general terms. It also helps in establishing an association of climate with other
aspects of physical environment and human activities.

In this chapter, you will understand the bases, approaches and their
comparative advantages and disadvantages in developing climatic classification
system.

Jitendra Saroha 5
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In the next unit, that is unit 13, you will study in detail the Koppen’s climatic
classification and in unit 14will focus on a detailed description and analysis of
Thornthwaite’s climatic classification.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 define climatic classification;
 describe significance of climatic classification;
 explain different bases of climatic classification; and
 differentiate between different types of approaches of climatic;
classification and their merits and demerits

12.2 DEFINITION AND SIGNIFICACNE OF

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
12.2.1 Definition of Climatic Classification
The elements of climate such as temperature, pressure, winds, cloudiness
and precipitation show variations and complexities in distribution patterns.
The climate controls such as intensity of sunshine and its variations with
latitude, uneven distribution of land and water, geographic position and
prevailing winds, nature of surface and topographic barriers, atmospheric and
oceanic circulations, air masses, fronts and cyclones determine these
diversities and complexities. The interactions of these climatic controls give
every location on the earth surface a distinctive and unique nature of climate.
Even the places in proximity have distinct or different climatic conditions.

The distinct climatic character of numerous sites shows variations from place
to place and time to time. Thus, the number of distinct climates is extremely
large. To address this great diversity and complexity of vast array of global
climatic data, scholars have devised climatic classifications. In these
classifications, the climatic items are grouped, based on principle of internal
homogeneity and external heterogeneity. The internal homogeneity is not in
absolute sense rather it is in relative terms, as per the criterion or criteria. The
similarities of climatic conditions within a specific area, provides the base for
identification of broad climatic classes or climatic regions. Thus, climatic
classification is a system or a process that categorises a great variety of
climatic conditions in a limited number of classes.

Climatic classification is a mechanism through which diversity and complexity

of atmospheric conditions over earth surface are transformed into
manageable classes which are meaningfully organised in order for
simplification and generalisation. The objectives of climatic classification are –
(i) to identify distinct types of major climates over earth surface; (ii) to
establish relationships among these major classes; (iii) to provide a
framework or hierarchical order of classes and sub-classes to cover macro,
meso and micro level variations and specialities of climates; and (iv) to devise
a classification which establishes links of the climatic elements and their
determinants. These classifications identify, interpret, and streamline climatic

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similarities and differences between areas in order to strengthen the scientific
understanding of world climates.

Applied climatologists and geographers have devised many classification

systems based on various approaches to group the climates of individual
places or sites into distinctive climate types. These climatic classifications are
not exact replicas of the real-world climates they represent, but they help in
simplification and generalisation about the complex real world. They
contribute as a useful mechanism to summarise, communicate, and
exchange information about them.

12.2.2 Significance of Climatic Classification

The objective of Climatic classification is to replace the multiplicity of
atmospheric conditions over the globe in a meaningfully organised,
manageable units or classes. As mentioned, it helps in comprehending the
variety and complexities of distribution patterns of climatic elements and their
relationships with climate controls. Bringing order to huge quantities of
information and data base, not only helps in comprehension and
understanding of climatic complexities in a simplified and generalised manner
but also facilitates description, analysis, and explanation.

There is a spatial resemblance between climate and biomes. Biome

classifications are based on vegetation structure, which is determined
predominantly by climate. Thus, climatic classifications aid in description,
explanation and understanding of biomes. They help in understanding the
diversity and distribution of the basic elements of climate over globe and
reflect their relationships with other aspects such as soils, landforms, plants
and animals. This way climatic classifications have significance not only for
geographers but also for scientists and planners having research interests in
physical environment, soils, plants and animals. They also enable the
scholars to predict the climatic conditions of an area by correlating vegetation,
soil, landform and animal life of the area with climatic elements.

Climatic classifications deal not only in the descriptions of the natural

environment but also in assessing land use patterns. This role is particularly
crucial in guiding the progress of developing nations as they seek to augment
inadequate food resources and to achieve the goal of sustainable
development. For instance, in India, the Planning Commission introduced the
concept of Agro-climatic zonation to achieve the goals of food security and
sustainable development.

SAQ 1
Define climatic classification and describe its significance?

12.3 BASES OF CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION

The major problem in the process of climatic classification is that climate is
composed of many elements such as insolation, temperature, atmospheric
pressure, winds, air masses, precipitation, cyclones, fronts etc. and any
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classification based on a single climatic element would be macro-level
generalisation only and it will have limited utility. Whereas climatic
classification based on numerous elements would be so complex that it would
lose simplicity, clarity, and practical utility.

The most common elements which have been used for climatic classification
are temperature, precipitation, and vegetation. The ancient Greeks
recognised three climate zones in each hemisphere, Those are, torrid,
temperate and frigid which was derived on the basis of angle of sun’s rays or
latitude and temperature.

Based on the temperature, world can be delineated into ‘hot’, ‘warm’, ‘cool’,
‘cold’ and ‘frigid’ or ‘permafrost’ climates. The availability of data of daily
minimum and maximum temperatures and monthly and annual means for
many decades at thousands of observing stations located all over the world
has been an important factor in favouring the use of temperature as criterion
for climatic classification. A comparison of annual temperature cycles for
different parts of the globe helps in the identification of several distinctive
types, which can be called as ‘thermal regimes.’ Thermal regimes can be
used to classify the climates. For instance, in the equatorial regime,
temperature remains around 27 0C throughout the year but in the tropical
continental regime it ranges from very hot in summer season to mild in winter
season. The thermal regimes easily distinguish ‘continental climate’ from
‘marine climate.’

Like temperature, precipitation data are abundantly available for a long period
for thousands of observing stations widely distributed over the globe. That is
why the monthly and annual precipitation data make the basis of most of the
widely used climatic classifications. Climates based on rainfall can be defined
as ‘wet’, ‘humid’, ‘sub-humid’, ‘semi-arid’ and ‘arid’ climates. The annual
precipitation is a useful variable in highlighting the characteristics of a climate
type but it can be a misleading statistic because there are well established
seasonal cycles of precipitation. The presence of dry and wet seasons
instead of a uniform distribution of precipitation throughout the year has great
impact on natural vegetation and crops. Further, it also matters whether the
wet season coincides with a season of high temperature or with a season of
lower temperature because vegetation needs both heat and moisture.

Thornthwaite in his climatic classification (1931) used the criteria of thermal

efficiency and precipitation effectiveness. Keeping in view the significance of
temperature in vegetation growth, Thornthwaite introduced an index of
thermal efficiency. It is expressed by the positive departure of monthly mean
temperature from the freezing point. Precipitation Effectiveness is the amount
of precipitation which is available for the growth of natural vegetation. It is
also known as precipitation efficiency. It is a function of precipitation and
evaporation. In 1948, Thornthwaite proposed a new classification of climates
with several modifications in criteria. In this classification he developed and
introduced the concept of potential evapotranspiration. Potential
evapotranspiration is an index of thermal efficiency and water loss. It
represents the amount of moisture that would be transferred to the
atmosphere by evaporation of liquid or solid water plus transpiration from

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plants. In unit 14 detailed description of these criteria is provided for in-depth
understanding.

Two main elements of climate viz. temperature and precipitation affect

vegetation of a particular region. So vegetation is a true reflection of climate.
Therefore, by determining and identifying a particular vegetation the type of
climate can be inferred. In genetic climate classification winds and air masses
have also been used as bases of classification. Global patterns of
precipitation are related to air mass source regions and prevailing movements
of air masses.

SAQ 2
Describe the most used bases of climatic classifications?

12.4 APPROACHES TO CLIMATIC

CLASSIFICATION
Taking into consideration the objectives, different approaches have been
adopted by geographers for climatic classification. There are, however, four
broad approaches for the delineation of climatic regions of the world. These
approaches are as follows:

(i) Empirical Approach of Climatic Classification

(ii) Generic Approach of Climatic Classification
(iii) Genetic Approach of Climatic Classification
(iv) Applied Approach of Climatic Classification

(i) Empirical Approach of Climatic Classification

An empirical classification is based on the observable elements of climate

which may be considered singly or in combination to frame criteria for climatic
types. As mentioned in the basis of climate classification, based on
temperature criteria classes can be identified as – hot, warm, cool, cold, and
permafrost climates. Likewise based on precipitation, climate classes can be
recognised as – wet, humid, sub-humid, semi-arid and arid climates. As this
type of classifications are based on statistics or data, they have well defined
boundaries which brings more objectivity in the classification as compared to
qualitative criteria. In general, temperature and precipitation have been taken
into consideration in most of the empirical classifications of climate. The
variants of temperature and precipitation such as precipitation effectiveness,
thermal efficiency and evapotranspiration have also been frequently used.
This approach helps in summarising enormous amount of information.
Another advantage is this that quantitative criteria produce distinct boundaries
for climatic classes. Koppen’s climatic classification and Thornthwaite (1933)
climatic classification (1884) are based on empirical approach.

This approach as limitation, with additional criteria the number of possible

combinations swiftly increases and soon the classification system becomes
impractical. It is, therefore, mandatory to prefer the criteria that are most
important in view of the set goal. Scholars have preferred thermal and
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moisture criteria for empirical classifications of climates but over dependence
on these two factors side-lines other essential elements of climate having
significance for other purposes.

(ii) Generic Approach of Climatic Classification

Generic classifications of climate are generally based on temperature and

precipitation criteria. The levels of temperature and the amount of
precipitation determine the rate of evaporation and aridity. Thermal
effectiveness and aridity which is usually expressed as precipitation
effectiveness with vegetation boundaries. Koppen identified climate classes
on the basis of temperature and precipitation characteristics of a region.
Because of strong resemblance between vegetation type and climate, his
climate categories were originally based on the type of natural vegetation
found in an area. He concluded that the distribution of natural vegetation was
the best representation of overall climate. Therefore, the boundaries he
demarcated were predominantly based on the limits of specific plant
associations. He identified five principal climate groups at global level. In
generic classification, types are recognised based on the response of flora to
climate. The Koppen system of climatic classification, original and its
modifications, applied the generic approach. To overcome some of the
Koppen system deficiencies, the American Climatologist C.W. Thornthwaite
devised a new classification system (1931). Both these systems were based
on temperature and precipitation measurements and both established
correspondence of natural vegetation with climate. However, to emphasise
the significance of precipitation and evaporation on plant growth,
Thornthwaite applied precipitation-effectiveness ratio, which is basically
monthly precipitation divided by monthly evaporation. On the basis of twelve
months ratios, he developed precipitation effectiveness index and identified
five major humidity provinces and their characteristic vegetations types
namely rainforest, forest, grassland, steppe and desert. Thus, the approach of
Koppen system of climatic classification and the approach of the first climatic
classification of Thornthwaite (1931, 1933) were empirical as well as generic.

(iii) Genetic Approach of Climatic Classification

A classification based on genetic or causative factors of climate is known as a

genetic classification. It attempts to organise climates according to their
causes. The bases of this type of classification includes- latitude or angle of
sun’s rays, winds, pressure belts, air masses, topography and distribution of
land and sea. The explanations of genetic classification are, however,
theoretical, incomplete, and difficult to quantify. Genetic classifications can be
grouped into three types, based on their criteria – (i) pertaining to the
geographic determinants of climate; (ii) pertaining to the surface energy
budget, and (iii) pertaining to air mass and fronts analysis.

The ancient Greeks identified three climate zones in each hemisphere,

namely torrid, temperate and frigid on the basis of earth-sun relationships i.e.,
simply on the basis of angle of sun’s rays, latitude and temperature. In this
simple scheme of climate classification four important parallels of latitude:
Tropic of Cancer, the Tropic of Capricorn, the Arctic Circle and the Antarctic
Circle were used for climate zones delimitation. Thus, the earth surface was

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divided into winterless climates and summerless climates and an intermediate
or transitional type that had seasona characteristics of both. This
classification is still popular as a broad generalised classification of world
climates. It is based on the basic determinant of climate that is amount of
insolation, which depends of geographic position or latitude or angle of sun’s
rays.

In addition to categorisation of climates based on latitudinal control of

temperature, nature of surface and distance from sea were also used by the
scholars to differentiate between maritime and continental climates. Donald,
R. Currey (1974) identified and mapped climatic classes of North America
based on criteria of relative continentality. He derived relative continentality
by analysing the data of temperature ranges and latitude. According to him,
continentality can be incorporated into traditional climatic classifications on a
basis that is comprehensive, sensitive, consistent in its criteria, and
orthogonal with respect to other classificatory criteria. In his classification, two
oceanic (ultraoceanic and oceanic) and three continental (subcontinental,
continental, and ultra continental) subdivisions provided effective, yet efficient,
resolution of the continentality spectrum. However, this concept of
continentality-oceanity is effective within the mid latitudes and tropics where
annual temperature ranges are generally very light and in Polar Regions long
polar nights and ice covers introduce complexities.

Another classification based on wind regimes was proposed in 1950 by H.

Flohn. Wind regimes generally depend on geographical positions of pressure
belts and atmospheric circulations. Topographical barriers were used to
classify climates into – windward and leeward climates. All these
classifications were qualitative in nature and they were identified in a
subjective manner and did not involve application of quantitative techniques
and differentiating formula or equations.

In 1970, American geographer W.H. Terjung used net insolation, energy

available for evaporation and heat available for heating the air and subsurface
as criteria. Based on analysis of data of more than 1,000 locations distributed
worldwide, he generated the annual patterns based on the maximum energy
input, the annual range in input, the shape of annual curve, and the durations
with negative magnitudes or energy deficits. Finally, based on homogeneity of
net radiation, climatic regions were delineated and mapped.

Another simple but extremely effective and the most extensively used genetic
classification of world climates based on air masses has been proposed by
Strahler. In 1951 he presented a qualitative classification of world climates
based on the combination of air masses and front zones existing at a
particular location throughout the year. Air masses have internal homogeneity
of characteristics especially, temperature, humidity and density. Therefore,
nature of air masses and convergence zones of contrasting air masses at
fronts determine the weather conditions. As the source regions of air masses,
their paths and front zones maintain almost same positions year after year,
they provide useful base for classification of climates.

According to Strahler the latitude determines the temperature of the air mass
and type of surface (land or ocean) controls the moisture content of the air

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mass. As the air-mass characteristics control the two most important climate
variables – temperature and precipitation, they provide potential base for
climatic classification. Contrasting air masses come in contact at frontal
zones. The position of frontal zones changes with seasons. Seasonal
movements of frontal zones also influence annual cycles of temperature and
precipitation. Thus, air masses and frontal zones can be used to identity the
climatic classes. He first divided the world climates into three broad groups of
climates: low-latitude climate (Group I), mid latitude (Group II) and high-
latitude (Group III). Within these three climatic groups, he identified a total of
13 climate types at global level: four in Group I, six in Group II and three in
Group III.

J.E. Oliver (1968 and 1970) used a quantitative outline to assign a particular
air mass and air mass combinations as “dominant,” “subdominant,” or
“seasonal”, in location specific manner. He used “thermohyet diagram” based
on average monthly temperatures and precipitation for classification of
climates. This avoided dependence on the less common upper-air data for
the classification.

(iv) Applied Approach of Climatic Classification

In applied climatic classifications, the climatic regions are delineated in terms

of impacts of climate on other phenomena. These classifications help in
addressing technical problems that involve one or more climatic elements.
They are, therefore, also known as technical or functional classifications of
climate. Several scholars have tried to identify the climatic factors which have
deep impact on vegetation and various parallels between vegetation and heat
and moisture have been established. The vegetation terms like rainforest,
forest, savanna, steppe, desert and tundra have climatic connotations.
Natural vegetation is basically in an index of mosaic of atmospheric
conditions and far more efficiently represents climatic differences in a
cumulative manner than data recorded by different instruments individually.

Thornthwaite in his second climatic classification (1948)and in his slightly

revised (1955) classification used applied approach based on the concept of
potential evapotranspiration. He applied the criteria of the moisture budget
and potential evapotranspiration (i.e., the maximum moisture that will be
transferred from surface to the atmosphere, provided that enough water is
present in). This new scheme focused on the concept of potential
evapotranspiration, which is the amount of moisture that would be lost from
the soil and vegetation if the moisture were available. Water balance or soil-
moisture budget studies based on potential evapotranspiration help in
assessing water availability and water demands In agriculture science, soil-
moisture analysis provide scientific base for assessing cropping patterns and
to suggest changes in cropping patterns based of climatic conditions.
Mapping of moisture availability, deficiency and surplus conditions provide
clues for irrigation, urban and regional planning. In view of climate change
and sustainability concern, the applied aspects of potential evapotranspiration
and moisture budget have gained significance.

Climatic classification can be based on criteria of human health and comfort.

This type of classification has potential applications in the fields of cloth

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designing, housing, physiology, and medicine. They establish relationship of
climate to health, clothing, food and nutrition, and human perceptions of the
physical setting. Werner H. Terjung (1966) applied the concept of
“physiologic climates” based on human responses to temperature, relative
humidity, wind chill and solar radiation. He identified and mapped annual
physioclimatic extremes in the United States. Some other scholars have
generated applied climatic classifications based on different socio-economic
adjustments to climate or based on the impact of human activities on the
physical environment. Such classifications have utility in studies concerned
with climate change.

SAQ 3
a. Briefly describe the major approaches of climatic classification?
b. Describe the applied approach of climatic classification?

12.5 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied so far:
 A climatic class or region represents a homogenous set of climatic
conditions. Climatic classification is essential for identification, mapping
and description of climatic classes or regions.
 Classification of climates helps in generalisation and simplification of
diverse atmospheric conditions prevailing in different parts of the earth
surface. It helps in understanding relations of climate with vegetation,
climate and biomes, climate and soils etc.
 The fundamental criteria used for climatic classification are temperature,
precipitation and vegetation. In addition to these thermal efficiency and
potential evapotranspiration are same, precipitation effectiveness,
potential evapotranspiration, latitudinal position, nature of surface, uneven
distribution of land and sea, air masses and front zones, and prevailing
winds and pressure systems have also been used by climatologists.
 The approaches of climatic classification are – empirical, generic, genetic
and applied.
 Empirical approach uses observed data of climatic elements generally of
temperature and precipitation.
 Generic approach uses the relationship of climate with vegetation
structure as criteria for classification. Koppen’s climatic classification is
both empirical and generic classification.
 Genetic classification is based climatic controls such as – Earth-Sun
relationship or latitude, uneven distribution of land and sea and nature of
surface, winds and pressure systems, air masses and frontal zones as
criteria. These causative factors determine the type of climates.
 Applied classifications are based on impact of climate on vegetation,
impact on housing impact as clothing human health and comfort housing

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and clothing and impact of climate on other socio-economic conditions
and impact of human activities on climate.

12.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the bases of climatic classifications?
2. Describe the merits and demerits of empirical and generic approaches of
climatic classification?
3. Explain genetic approach of climatic classification and highlight its merits
and demerits?

12.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. Every place of earth surface is unique or distinct in terms of climatic
conditions. Therefore, real world situation is varied and complex. To
address this great variety and complexity of climatic conditions scholars
have used relative homogeneity of some climatic elements and controls to
identity broad climatic groups or classes. The similarities of climatic
conditions within a specific area provides the base for identification of
broad climatic classes or climatic regions. Thus, climatic classification is a
mean to replace the multiplicity and complexity of atmospheric conditions
by some meaningfully organised manageable number of classes. It is
basically a system or a process that categorises a great variety of climatic
conditions in a limited number of classes.
The goal of climatic classification is to bring order to large and diverse
information. By organising similar entities together into groups that are
different from other groups by specific attributes an order is generated out
of complexity. Climatic classifications help in simplification and
generalisation. They contribute as a useful mechanism to summarise,
communicate, and exchange information about them. They facilitate
description, analysis, and explanation. For instance, they help in
description, explanation and understanding of biomes. They are
significant not only for geographers but also for scientists and planners
having research interests in physical environment, soils, plants and
animals. They have applications in urban, land use and regional planning.
2. a) The most used bases for climate classification are temperature,
precipitation and vegetation. The ancient Greeks classified world climate
into three zones – tropical or torrid, temperate and frigid or polar on the
basis of angle of sun’s rays or latitude and temperature. Based on
temperature world can be delineated into ‘hot’, ‘warm’, ‘cool’, ‘cold’ and
‘frigid’ or ‘permafrost’ climates. The annual precipitation is a useful
quantity in highlighting the characteristics of a climate type. Climates
based on rainfall can be defined as ‘wet’, ‘humid’, ‘sub-humid’, ‘semi-arid’
and ‘arid’ climates.
These two elements of climate viz. temperature and precipitation affect
vegetation of a particular region. The vegetation is a true reflection of
climate. Therefore, by determining and identifying particular vegetation
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Unit - 12 Approaches to Climatic Classification
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the type of climate can be inferred. In genetic climate classification
latitude, winds, air masses, front zones and nature of surface have also
been used as bases of classification. Global patterns of precipitation are
related to air mass source regions and prevailing movements of air
masses and front zones.
3. The different approaches for climatic classification are – empirical,
generic, genetic and applied. The empirical approach of climatic
classification is based on observed data of climatic elements like
temperature, precipitation, humidity and vegetation structure etc.
Generic classifications of climate are generally based on temperature and
precipitation criteria. The levels of temperature and amount of
precipitation determine rate of evaporation and aridity. Thermal
effectiveness and aridity, which is usually expressed as precipitation
effectiveness, are associated with vegetation boundaries. In generic
approach classification is predominantly based on the limits of specific
plant associations.
Genetic approach uses the climatic controls like – angle of sunrays, winds
and pressure systems, nature of surface, air masses and frontal zones to
classify world climates.
Applied approach is also known as technical or functional approach. It is
based on the functional impact of climate on other phenomena for
instance, the correlation of vegetation has been established with
temperature, precipitation and moisture. The criteria of potential
evapotranspiration have multiple applications in the field of hydrology, soil
science and agriculture science.
b) In applied or technical or functional climatic classifications, the climatic
regions are delineated in terms of effects of climate on other phenomena.
There is strong spatial resemblance between climate and vegetation.
Natural vegetation is basically in an index of mosaic of atmospheric
conditions and far more efficiently represents climatic differences in
cumulative manner than data recorded by different instruments
individually. The vegetation terms like rainforest, forest, savanna, steppe,
desert and tundra have climatic connotations.
Thornthwaite in his modified climatic classification used applied approach
based on the concept of potential evapotranspiration. He applied the
indices of the moisture budget . Water balance studies have applications
in hydrology, soil and agricultural sciences and in regional planning.
Applied climatic classification have also been developed based on
associations of climate with human health and comfort, and climate and
socio-economic adjustments and impact of climate on man and impact of
human activities on physical environment.

Terminal Questions
1. In this answer you must highlight in detail application of the empirical,
general, genetic climatic classification in various studies. You should also
mention name of scholars who applied these bases in their classifications.
To answer this question, refer Sec. 12.3.

15
Block - 4 Climatic Classification
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2. In this answer you must highlight the advantages and disadvantages of
empirical and generic approaches of climatic classification. To answer this
question, refer Sec 12.4 sub sections (i) and (ii).
3. In this answer your focus should be exclusively on genetic approach of
climatic classification. Mention the climate controls and name of the
scholars who used these controls for climatic classification. To answer this
question, refer Sec 12.4 sub section (iii).

12.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
1. Lal D.S., (2011), Climatology, Sharda Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.
2. Critchfield,H.(2015), General Climatology, Fourth Edition, Pearson India
Education Services, Noida.
3. Singh, Savindra., (2009), Climatology, Pravalika Publications, Allahabad.
4. Trewartha, G.T. and L.H. Horn (1980), An Introduction to Climate,
McGraw Hill, Tokyo.
5. Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1995), Atmosphere, Weather and Climate,
Routledge, London and New York.
6. Strahler, Alan (2013), Introducing Physical Geography, Sixth Edition,John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
7. Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J. and Dennis Tasa (2015) The Atmosphere: An
Introduction to Meteorology, Twelfth Edition, Pearson India Education
Services, Noida.
8. Ahrens, Donald, C. and Robert Henson (2019) Meteorology Today: An
Introduction to Weather, Climate and the Environment, Twelfth Edition,
Cengage, Boston.
9. Saroha, J and Singh, S. (2023) Physical Geography, Pearson India
Education Services, Noida.

16
 UNIT 13

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
OF KOPPEN
Structure
13.1 Introduction Humid Microthermal Climate (D)
Expected Learning Outcomes E-Polar Climates
13.2 History and Bases of 13.4 Evaluation of Koppen’s
Koppen’s Climatic Climatic Classification
Classification 13.5 Summary
13.3 Koppen’s System of Climatic 13.6 Terminal Questions
Classification 13.7 Answers
Tropical Rainy Climates (A) 13.8 References and Further
Dry Climates (B) Reading
Humid Mesothermal Climate (C)

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit you have studied definition, significance, bases and
approaches to climatic classification. In this unit, you will study one of the
most popular empirical and generic climatic classification devised by Koppen.
You will understand how based on mean monthly and mean annual
temperature and precipitation data Koppen represented complexities of world
climates in a simple and generalises manner. He also applied the concept of
precipitation effectiveness in determining dry climates and levels of aridity. He
recognised spatial correspondence of climate and vegetation. In this
hierarchical order of world climates, he described distinct features of
temperate climates in detail based on some other specific atmospheric
conditions. Finally, he presented his macro and meso climatic classes by the
most important tool of geographers that is map. Sec. 13.2 will acquaint you
with the history and bases of Koppen’s climatic classification. In Sec.13.3, you
will get a detailed description of Koppen’s climatic classification. Finally in
Sec. 13.4, you will get familiar with the advantages and also limitations of
koppen’s climatic classification.

In the next unit, you will study another significant climatic classification of
Thornthwaite based on empirical, generic and applied approaches of climatic
classification.

Jitendra Saroha 17
 Climatic Classification
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Block - 4

Expected Learning Outcomes

After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 describe the bases of climatic classification of Koppen;
 understand marco level climatic classes and their sub-classes;
 distinguish between different types of global climates; and
 evaluate Koppen’s classification of climates.

13.2 HISTORY AND BASES OF KOPPEN’S

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
In 1900, German botanist and climatologist Wladimir Koppen (1846-1940)
presented his first scheme of climatic classification which was based on the
vegetation classification of a French plant physiologist A. de Candolle (1874).
Koppen revised his scheme in 1918 by giving more weightage to the monthly
and annual averages of temperature and precipitation and their seasonal
distribution. In 1931 Koppen represented the world map of climatic
classification. In 1936 Koppen and his student Geiger published updated
maps of world climate at continental levels. However, a further modified
version of the classification was published in 1953 known as Koppen-Geiger-
Pohl classification of world climate.

Koppen believed that vegetation type of an area is the best expression of

totality of climate. His climatic classification was based on annual and monthly
means of temperature and precipitation and also seasonal distribution of
precipitation. He gave weightage to the ratio of precipitation and temperature
in a single formation i.e. application of the concept of precipitation
effectiveness. It is quantitative as well as empirical classification of climate.

13.3 KOPPEN’S SYSTEM OF CLIMATIC

CLASSIFICATION
The Koppen system recognised five major categories of climate and each
category is designated by a capital letter as listed below in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1: Broad Climatic Types of Koppen

Letter ClimateType Associated
Symbol Vegetation
A Tropical RainyClimates Megatherms
B Dry Climates Xerophytes
C Humid Mesothermal Climates or Warm Mesotherms
Temperate Rainy Climates
D Humid Microthermal Climates or Cold Forest Microtherms
Climates
E Polar Climates Hekistotherms
It is worth mentioning that four (A, C, D and E) of the above mentioned five
groups are based on mean monthly temperature of warmest and coldest
months, whereas B is based on precipitation-evaporation ratio. Koppen has
further divided these 5 major climatic types into sub-types based on seasonal

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Unit - 13 Climatic Classification of Koppen
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distribution of precipitation, level of aridity and seasonal characteristics of
temperature. Now let us get acquainted with these types and subtypes.

13.3.1 TROPICAL RAINY CLIMATES (A)

In tropical rainy climates the temperature of the coldest month is above 18° C
which means that the temperature remains above 18°C throughout the year.
This climate type is associated with tropical rainforest or megatherms.
Megatherms are plants which depend on high temperature and humidity
throughout the year.

The climate is humid because rainfall is always in excess of evaporation.

Based on precipitation regime or seasonal distribution of precipitation this
climate type has been further sub-divided into the following four types:

i) Af- This is the tropical wet or rainforest climate or tropical humid climate
where precipitation in the driest month is 6 cm or more. The seasonal
distribution of precipitation is almost uniform throughout the year. The
annual and diurnal range of temperature is very low. There is no dry
season.

ii) Aw- This is the tropical wet and dry climate also known as tropical
savanna. It is characterised by wet summer and dry winter. Here the
precipitation of at least one month is less than 6 cm. High temperature
conditions prevail throughout the year.

iii) Am- This is the tropical monsoon climate and is supposed to be the
intermediate between Af and Aw. It resembles Af in annual amount of
precipitation and resembles Aw in seasonal distribution of precipitation.
Like Aw the precipitation of at least one month is less than 6 cm. This
climate has short dry season but the total amount of precipitation is
sufficient to support dense forests. The boundary between Aw and Am
climates is demarcated on the basis of annual precipitation and
precipitation of the driest month on the basis of the following formula:

a= 10-R/25

Where, a = precipitation of the driest month R = annual precipitation in cm

If the precipitation of the driest month is less than the value of a, it will be
Aw climate, if it is equal or more than the value of a, it will be Am climate.
For example, when the annual rainfall is 200 cm, then according to the
above formula "a" is 2 cm. So if the precipitation of the driest month is less
than 2 cm then it is Aw and equal or more than 2 cm it is Am climate.
However, the precipitation of driest month should be less than 6 cm,
otherwise it would be Af climate.

iv) As- This is the tropical dry summer climate, which is rarely found.
However, in India it is present in coastal Tamil Nadu, where summers are
dry and rainfall takes place mainly in winter.

Koppen has further identified finer details in A climates by using the

following lower case (small) letters with their meanings:

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Block - 4

w' - maximum precipitation in autumn.

w" - two seasons of maximum precipitation separated by two dry seasons.

s - dry summers.

i - range of temperature of coldest and warmest months less than 5°C.

g - Ganga type, where hottest month is preceding the summer rainy

season.

13.3.2 DRY CLIMATES (B)

Dry climates are characterised by excess of evaporation over precipitation. In
these climates precipitation is not sufficient to maintain permanent stable
groundwater table. The boundary between the dry and humid climates is
delineated based on the following formulas:

a) R < 2T + 28, when 70 per cent or more of precipitation occurs in 6 warmer

months.
b) R < 2T, when 70 per cent or more of precipitation occurs in 6 cooler
months.
c) R < 2T + 14, when neither half year has 70 per cent or more of
precipitation.

Where, R is average annual precipitation in cm and T is average annual

temperature in °C.

This way, for dry climates Koppen applied the criterion of precipitation
effectiveness. The effectiveness of precipitation in providing moisture to the
ground for plants depends not only on amount of precipitation but also on the
rate of evaporation, which in turn varies directly with temperature. For
instance, if 30 cm rainfall takes place in three summer months at one place
and same amount in three winter months at another place, as evaporation will
be higher in summer season the effectiveness of precipitation (availability of
moisture for plant growth) will be higher at second location. To determine this,
Koppen used average annual precipitation, average annual temperature and
seasonal distribution of precipitation as variables. For example, if a place X
has average annual precipitation (R) 40 cm, average annual temperature (T)
15°C and 80 per cent of precipitation takes place in warmer six months, in this
situation applying the formula R < 2T + 28, we get the value as 40 < 58.

This means that precipitation is less than evaporation, that is the place X has
B or Dry Climate.

Based on levels of aridity, Koppen further sub-divided B climates into BW and

BS. BW is arid climate and BS is semi-arid climate. When R (in the above
equations) is less than half of upper limit for B, the climate is BW and when R
is more than half of upper limit for B, the climate is BS. Let us understand this
with the help of an example.

In the above example, the place X has B climate and it is B type till the
precipitation is less than 58 cm. Therefore, in this example the upper limit for
B is 58 and half of it is 29. As R (40) is more than half (29) of upper limit (58)
20
Unit - 13 Climatic Classification of Koppen
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for B, the climate of place X is BS i.e. semi-arid. If the R at this place would
have been say 25 cm then it would have been BW or arid climate because R
(25) in that case would be less than half (29) of upper limit for B which is 58.

For identifying further details in B climates Koppen used following letters:

h (hiess or hot) = average annual temperature over 18°C.

k (kalt or cold) = average annual temperature below 18°C.

k' = temperature of the warmest month below 18°C.

s = summer drought, that is, at least three times as much rain in wettest
winter month as in driest summer month.

w = winter drought, at least ten times as much rain in the wettest summer
months as in the driest winter month.

n (nebel) = frequent fog.

Koppen identified the following sub-divisions of B climates based on criteria

suggested above as:

i) BWh - Tropical Desert Climate.

ii) BSh - Tropical Steppe Climate.
iii) BWk - Mid-latitude Cold Desert Climate.
iv) BSk - Mid-latitude Cold Steppe Climate.
v) BWn and (vi) BSn climates are usually found along coastal lands
associated with cold ocean currents.

13.3.3 Humid Mesothermal or Warm Temperate Rainy

Climates (C)
Here the average temperature of the coldest month is above - 3°C but below
18°C and average temperature of the warmest month is above 10°C. On the
basis of seasonal distribution of rainfall, these climates are divided into three
major climate types with the help of the following three letters:

 f = no dry season
 w = dry season in winter; and
 s = dry season in summer

Hence, the climate types for C are as follows:

i) Cf- This climate is characterised by precipitation throughout the year and

driest month of summer season receives more than 3 cm rainfall. This
climate represents the Western European type of climate. It is further
divided into two second order sub-divisions as Cfa (Humid Subtropical)
and Cfb (Marine West Coast type).

These minor details in C - climate were identified by Koppen by using the

following small explanatory letters:

a = Warm summer; average temperature of the warmest month > 22°C; at

least four months above 10°C.
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 Climatic Classification
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Block - 4

b = Cool summer, average temperature of the warmest month is < 22°C; at

least four months above 10°C.

c = Cool short summer; average temperature of the warmest month< 22°C; at

least one to three months above 10°C.

x = rainfall maximum in late spring or early summer, drier in late summer. i, n,

g = same meaning as in A and B climates.

ii) Cw- This climate is characterised by dry winter. The wettest month of
summer season receives at least ten times as much rain as the driest
month of winter season. Seventy per cent or more of the average annual
precipitation is received in the six warmer months. This type of climate
prevails in southern China.

iii) Cs- This is the warm temperate climate characterised by dry summer. It
has three times more precipitation in the wettest month of winter season
than the driest month of summer season. The driest month of summer
season receives less than 3 cm rainfall. It represents Mediterranean type
of climate.

13.3.4 Humid Microthermal or Cold Snow Forest or

Humid Cold Climates (D)
Here the average temperature of coldest month is below - 3°C and the
warmest month average temperature is above 10°C. The ground surface
remains covered with snow for several months of a year. This climate is
divided into following two categories:

i) Df- This is the humid cold climate where there is no dry season. It is
further divided in (a) Dfa - long warm summers, continental, (b) Dfb - short
cool summer, subarctic.

ii) Dw- This is the humid cold climate with dry winters. It is further divided
into

(a) Dwa- continental climate with long cool summer, (b) Dwb- cool short
summer (sub-arctic type), (c) Dwc- cold winters, and (d) Dwd- average
temperature of the coldest month is below -38°C.

13.3.5 Polar Climates (E)

The average temperature of the warmest month is less than 10°C. It is further
divided into ET and EF:

i) ET - This is the tundra climate, where average temperature of the

warmest month is below 10°C but above 0°C. The length of growing
season is very short and vegetative cover is limited and scattered,
ii) EF - Perpetual Frost or Permafrost: the average temperature of the
warmest month is below 0°C. It is represented by permanent ice caps
without vegetation.

Now let us have a quick recap of Koppen's classification of climates with the
help of Table 13.2.
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 Unit - 13 Climatic Classification of Koppen
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
Letter Symbol Precipitation and temperature
1st 2nd 3rd
Order Order Order
A Average temperature of the coldest month is 18°C or
above.
f Moist; Every month has 6 cm of precipitation or more; no
dry season
m Short dry season in monsoon type of precipitation; driest
month < than 6 cm but equal to or more than 10-R/25 (R
is annual precipitation in cm)
w Well-defined winter dry season; precipitation in driest
month <than 10-R/25.
s Well-defined summer dry season(rare distribution)
B Potential evaporation exceeds precipitation. It is identified
on the basis of average annual precipitation (R), average
annual temperature (T) and seasonal distribution of
precipitation in following manner:(i) R<2T+28, when 70 %
or more of precipitation occurs in 6 warmer months.(ii)
R<2T, when 70 % or more of precipitation occurs in 6
cooler months.(iii) R<2T+14, when neither half year has
70 % or more of precipitation.
s When R is more than ½ of the upper limit for B.
w When R is less than ½ of the upper limit for B.
h Average annual temperature is 18°C or above.
k Average annual temperature is less than 18°C.
C Average temperature of the coldest month is < than 18°C
and above -3°C; average temperature of the warmest
month is greater than 10°C.
w At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month as in
the driest winter month; precipitation in driest summer
month < than 4 cm.
s At least three times as much rain in wettest winter month
as in the driest summer months; precipitation in driest
summer month < than 3 cm.
f Precipitation throughout the year and no dry season.
Difference between the rainiest and driest months is less
than that for w and s and the driest month of summer
receives > 3 cm rainfall.

Letter Symbol Precipitation and temperature

1st Order 2nd 3rd
Order Order
a Hot summer; average temperature of the
warmest month > 22°C; at least four
months above 10°C.
b Cool summer; average temperature of the
warmest month < 22°C; at least four
months above 10°C.

23
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Block - 4

Cool short summer; average temperature of

C the warmest month < 22°c; at least one to
three months above 10°C.
D Average temperature of coldest month is -
3°C or below; average temperature of
warmest month is greater than 10°C.
s, w, f Same as under C.
a, b, c, d Same as under C.
Average temperature of the coldest month
is - 38°C or below.
Average temperature of warmest month is
E below 10°c.
T Average temperature of warmest month is
between 0°C and 10°C.
F Average temperature of warmest month is
0°C or below.

SAQ 1
a) Discuss the bases of Koppen’s climatic classification for dry climates?
b) Describe Koppen’s classification of the warm temperate climates?

13.4 EVALUATION OF KOPPEN’S CLIMATIC

CLASSIFICATION
Koppen's classification of climates is most widely and frequently used
classification system. It is based on temperature and precipitation statistics
which are measurable and most effective in determining climate. As it is
based on statistical parameters the climatic regions have precise boundaries.
In determining the B or dry climates Koppen applied the concept of
precipitation effectiveness by establishing relationship between heat and
moisture. It is more appealing to geographers because due consideration has
been given to interrelationship that exists between vegetation and climate.

As Koppen’s climatic classification is based on vegetation classification of A.

de Candolle, the climatic boundaries match with vegetation boundaries. For
instance, 18°C average temperature of the coldest month separates A-
Climates from C-Climates. This value is selected because certain sensitive
tropical plants do not survive when the monthly temperature is below 18°C.
Themegatherms realm of plants is associated with high temperature and high
precipitation. Likewise, the 10°C isotherm for the warmest month not only
shows the southern boundary of the Tundra region but it also represents the
northward or poleward limit of the growth. As this classification shows well
established association of vegetation with climate it becomes more appealing
to geographers.

The Koppen's classification of climates is very useful for geographers

because it is descriptive and generalised. As it is based on shorthand code of
letters for the climate types, the repetition of descriptive terms can be easily
24
Unit - 13 Climatic Classification of Koppen
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
avoided. The use of symbols and representation of climatic types on map
further increases its utility for geographers. This classification is so simple and
detailed that it is most frequently used at all levels of education i.e., from
school to research levels.

Despite many revisions and modifications, there are certain limitations of this
classification. As it is based on mean monthly temperature and precipitation
values it fails to highlight the variations over time in one locality or region and
makes comparison of one locality with another difficult. Further, Koppen
ignored the role of weather elements such as winds, atmospheric pressure,
cloudiness, air masses and cyclones etc. This way it is empirical but not
genetic classification as causative factors were ignored totally.

Koppen applied the same formula for highlands and lowlands. As a result,
many errors surfaced in his classification of climates. Though he believed that
vegetation is the true reflection of climate but in his scheme, it is difficult to
analyse and explain the presence of different types of vegetation in the same
climatic region and same type of vegetation in different climatic regions.

However, in-spite of drawbacks and limitations of classification of climates

propounded by Koppen, this scheme is still held in high esteem and widely
used.

SAQ 2
Highlight the merits of Koppen’s climatic classification?

13.5 SUMMARY
A climatic class or region represents a homogenous set of climatic conditions.
Climatic classification is essential for identification, mapping and description
of climatic classes or regions. Climatic classification helps in generalisation
and simplification of diverse atmospheric conditions prevailing in different
parts of the earth surface. The major challenge in the process of climatic
classification is that climate is a complex of elements such as insolation,
temperature, precipitation, winds and pressure belts, cloud cover, fronts and
cyclones etc. Therefore, any classification based on limited elements would
fail to represent the reality. Also, the inclusion of a large number of dynamic
elements would make it too complex. The most used criteria for climatic
classification are temperature, precipitation and vegetation.

Koppen used mean monthly temperature of the warmest and coldest months,
mean annual temperature, mean annual precipitation, seasonal distribution of
precipitation and precipitation-evaporation ratio for climatic classification.
Koppen's climatic classification is quantitative and generalised. It is very
popular in geography due to its simplicity, clarity and practical utility.

Koppen's climatic classification is preferred for macro level understanding and

comparisons. His classification system tries to identify the major types of
climates prevailing on the earth's surface. It establishes relationships among

25
 Climatic Classification
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Block - 4

the various climate types present in the classification. It provides a

hierarchical framework from marco to micro levels.

13.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Discuss Koppen's climatic classification?

2. Critically evaluate the Koppen's classification of climates?

3. Discuss the diversity of climates in midlatitudes as compared to

tropical and polar areas in Koppen’s climatic classification?

13.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions
1. a) According to Koppen, dry climates are characterised by excess of
evaporation over precipitation. The criteria he adopted for dry climates
was of precipitation effectiveness which depends not only on precipitation
but also on the rate of evaporation which is directly associated with
temperature. He used the criteria of average annual precipitation, average
annual temperature and seasonal distribution of precipitation to identify
dry climates. Based on levels of aridity, Koppen further sub-divided B
climates into BW and BS. BW is arid climate and BS is semi-arid climate.
The B or dry climates were further subdivided based on average annual
temperature into hot (h) and cold (k) climates.

b) Koppen identified the warm temperate group of climates based on the

average temperature of the coldest month (above - 3°C but below 18°C)
and average temperature of the warmest month (above 10°C). Based on
seasonal distribution of rainfall, this marco group was classified at meso
level into three major climate types based on precipitation and used the
following three letters: f = no dry season; w = dry season in winter; ands =
dry season in summer. Further micro level variations were recognised
mainly on the basis of length and intensity of summer season in
midlatitudes. For instance, symbol a was used for Warm summer
(average temperature of the warmest month > 22°C; at least four months
above 10°C); symbol ‘b’ represents Cool summer (average temperature of
the warmest month is < 22°C; at least four months above 10°C); and
symbol ‘c’ shows cool short summer (average temperature of the warmest
month< 22°C; at least one to three months above 10°C). Hence, the
climate types for C are as: Cf (further subdivided into Cfa – Humid
Subtropical and Cfb – Marine West Coast Type and Cw – characterised
by dry winter and this climate prevails in southern China; and Cs
represents dry summer situation of Mediterranean type of climate.

2. Koppen's classification of climates is based on temperature and

precipitation data which are measurable and most effective in determining
climate. As it is based on quantitative parameters the climatic regions
have precise boundaries. In determining the B or dry climates Koppen
applied the concept of precipitation effectiveness by establishing
relationship between heat and moisture. Thus, his criteria are
26
 Unit - 13 Climatic Classification of Koppen
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
unambiguous, relatively simple to apply and understand.

It is more appealing to geographers because due consideration has been

given to interrelationship that exists between vegetation and climate. He
was convinced that the distribution pattern of natural vegetation is the
best representative of overall climate. Further, it is descriptive and
generalised classification. As it is based on shorthand code of letters for
the climate types, the repetition of descriptive terms is easily avoided. The
use of symbols and representation of climatic types on map further
increases its utility for geographers. This classification is so simple and
detailed that it is most frequently used at all educational levels i.e., from
school to research levels.

Terminal Questions
1. Discuss the five major categories of climates as given by Koppen. It is a
long answer so you must also describe the sub-divisions of all the
categories as in Sec. 13.3 of this unit.

2. Start your answer by giving brief summary of major and meso level
climatic regions (Ist Order and II Order as shown in Table 13.2). The focus
of the answer should be on merits and demerits of criteria and classes.
For this refer Sec. 13.4 of this unit.

3. In this answer you must focus on climates of midlatitude that is mainly –

Humid Mesothermal (C) and Humid Microthermal (D) in detail and for this
refer Sec. 13.3.3 and 13.3.4. Briefly mention that in tropical and polar
areas climate types are limited as they represent extremes and in
transitional part variations are more pronounced.

13.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

1. Lal D.S., (2011), Climatology, Sharda Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.
2. Critchfield, H. (2015), General Climatology, Fourth Edition, Pearson India
Education Services, Noida.
3. Singh, Savindra., (2009), Climatology, Pravalika Publications, Allahabad.
4. Trewartha, G.T. and L.H. Horn (1980), An Introduction to Climate,
McGraw Hill, Tokyo.
5. Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1995), Atmosphere, Weather and Climate,
Routledge, London and New York.
6. Strahler, Alan (2013), Introducing Physical Geography, Sixth Edition,John
Wiley and Sons, New York.
7. Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J. and Dennis Tasa (2015) The Atmosphere: An
Introduction to Meteorology, Twelfth Edition, Pearson India Education
Services, Noida.
8. Ahrens, Donald, C. and Robert Henson (2019) Meteorology Today: An
Introduction to Weather, Climate and the Environment, Twelfth Edition,
Cengage, Boston.

27
 Climatic Classification
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Block - 4

9. Saroha, J and Singh, S. (2023) Physical Geography, Pearson India

Education Services, Noida.

28
 UNIT 14

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
OF THORNTHWAITE
Structure
14.1 Introduction 14.5 Comparison of Koppen’s and
Expected Learning Outcomes Thornthwaite’s Classifications
14.2 Thornthwaite’s 1931 Scheme 14.6 Summary
of Climatic Classification: 14.7. Terminal Questions
Bases and Classes 14.8 Answers
14.3 Thornthwaite’s Second 14.9 References and Suggested
Scheme of Climatic Further Readings
Classification
14.4 Evaluation of Thornthwaite’s
Classifications

14.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit, you have studied the climatic classification of Koppen
which was based on empirical and generic approaches of climatic
classification. In this unit, you will study another very popular climatic
classification devised by renowned American climatologist C.W. Thornthwaite.
It is based on empirical, generic and applied approaches of climatic
classification. He applied the concepts of precipitation effectiveness, thermal
efficiency, seasonal distribution of precipitation, potential evapotranspiration,
humidity and aridity indices in his classifications. He also revised his
classification schemes to make it more effective. After going through his
schemes, original and revised, you will be able to understand the complexities
of global climates and finally, you will be able to compare climatic
classifications of Koppen and Thornthwaite.

Sec. 14.2 will acquaint you will the 1931 scheme of climatic classification of
Thornwaite. In sec 14.3, you will study his revised schemes which the
presented in 1948 and again in 1955. In Sec 14.4 you will learn about the
merits and limitations of the Thornwaite’s scheme. In sec 14.5 you will
compare both koppen and Thornthwaite’s classification.

Expected Learning Outcomes

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After completing the study of this unit, you should be able to:
 understand the bases of climatic classification of Thornthwaite
 differentiate between precipitation and precipitation effectiveness,
temperature and thermal efficiency, and actual and potential
evapotranspiration
 recognise the great diversity and complexity of global climatic classes
 evaluate and compare Thornthwaite’s classifications with Koppen’s
classification

14.2 THORNTHWAITE’S 1931 SCHEME OF

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION: BASES AND
CATEGOIRES
American climatologist Charles Warren Thornthwaite (1889-1963) put forward
his first scheme of classification of climates in 1931. It was initially devised for
North America but in 1933 he applied this scheme for global climatic
classification. He propounded his second scheme of climatic classification in
1948 and further improved it in 1955. Thornthwaite’s climatic classifications
are empirical, quantitative and complex. Like Köppen’s climatic classification,
Thornthwaite identified the boundaries of climatic regions on quantitative
basis but instead of temperature and precipitation criteria he used the
concepts of precipitation effectiveness and thermal efficiency in his first
climatic classification system.

14.2.1 Bases of 1931 Climatic Classification

Thornthwaite’s 1931 climatic classification was based on three criteria –
precipitation effectiveness, seasonal distribution of precipitation and thermal
efficiency.

[Link] Precipitation Effectiveness

Like Köppen, Thornthwaite also recognised the close relationship between

climate and natural vegetation and their distribution [Link], he
highlighted that precipitation effectiveness or precipitation efficiency is more
important and indicative factor for the growth and type of natural vegetation. It
is not necessary that two places receiving same amount of precipitation would
have similar precipitation effectiveness. In these two places, the one having
higher rates of evaporation will have lesser amount of moisture availability for
the growth of natural vegetation as compared to the second place. Thus,
Thornthwaite pointed out that it is not only precipitation that matters rather its
availability as moisture depends upon differential rates of precipitation and
evaporation. To measure precipitation effectiveness, he calculated mean
monthly precipitation effectiveness by dividing the mean monthly precipitation
by mean monthly temperature. In the absence of efficient instrumental
measurements of evaporation, he used temperature data to estimate
evaporation as the rate of evaporation depends on temperature. He
propounded the following formulae to calculate precipitation effectiveness:

Precipitation Effectiveness Ratio (P/E ratio) = 11.5 (P/T - 10)10/9

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Unit - 14 Climatic Classification of Thornthwaite
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where P = Mean monthly precipitation (in inches)

T = Mean monthly temperature (in degree F)

P/E Index = sum of all twelve months P/E ratios.

First, he calculated the P/E Ratio for all the twelve months of a year and then
he summed up all twelve months P/E ratios to get the P/E index. Based on
P/E index values he identified five humidity provinces and associated them
with specific major natural vegetation zones (Table 14.1).

Table 14.1: Main Climatic Classes based on Precipitation Effectiveness

Humidity Provinces Vegetation Zones P/E Index
A (Wet) Rainforest Above 127
B (Humid) Forest 64-127
C (Sub-humid) Grassland 32-63
D (Semi-arid) Steppe 16-31
E (Arid) Desert Below 16

[Link] Seasonal Distribution of Precipitation

Based on seasonal distribution of precipitation, Thornthwaite further sub-

divided these five humidity provinces into twenty sub-classes. The criteria and
symbols used are as under:

r = rainfall adequate in all seasons

s = rainfall deficient in summer
w = rainfall deficient in winter
d = rainfall deficient in all seasons.

1. Ar 5. Br 9. Cr 13. Dr 17. Er
2. As 6. Bs 10. Cs 14. Ds 18. Es
3. Aw 7. Bw 11. Cw 15. Dw 19. Ew
4. Ad 8. Bd 12. Cd 16. Dd 20. Ed

[Link] Thermal Efficiency

Like precipitation effectiveness, Thornthwaite gave importance not to

temperature rather to thermal effectiveness or thermal efficiency instead of
only temperature. He considered thermal efficiency as an important
determinant of growth and type and vegetation. He conceptualised thermal
efficiency as positive departure of mean monthly temperatures from the
freezing point. Higher departure outcomes represent higher thermal
efficiency. To measure thermal effectiveness, he first calculated monthly
thermal efficiency (T/E) ratios by applying the following formulae and by
summing up the T/E ratios of all twelve months he calculated thermal
efficiency index:

Thermal Effectiveness (T/E) ratio = (T–32)/4

where T is the mean monthly temperature (degree F).

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Thermal Efficiency (T/E) index = Sum of 1 to 12 months T/E ratios

Finally, based on positive departures of T/E index values he identified six

major thermal efficiency provinces.

Table 14.2 Thermal Efficiency Index and Thermal Provinces

Thermal Provinces T/E Index

A′ – Tropical Above 127
B′ – Mesothermal 64-127
C′ – Microthermal 32-63
D′ – Taiga 16-31
E′ – Tundra 1-15
F′ – Frost 0

14.2.2 Climatic Classes (1931)

Thornthwaithe, based on criteria of precipitation effectiveness (5 Humidity
Provinces), seasonal distribution of precipitation (4 Humidity subclasses) and
thermal efficiency (6 Thermal Provinces), identified following 32 climatic
classes at world level out of statistically probable combinations of 120 (5 × 4 ×
6) classes.

1. A A’r – Tropical wet climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.

2. A B’r - Mesothermal wet climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
3. AC’r – Microthermal wet climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
4. B A’r – Tropical humid climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
5. B A’w – Tropical humid climate with deficient rainfall in winter.
6. BB’r - Mesothermal humid climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
7. B B’w – Mesothermal humid climate with rainfall deficient in winter
season.
8. B B’s – Mesothermal humid climate with rainfall deficient in summer
season.
9. B C’r – Microthermal humid climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
10. B C’s – Microthermal humid climate with rainfall deficient in summer
season.
11. C A’r – Tropical subhumid climate with adequate rainfall in all seasons.
12. C A’w – Tropical subhumid climate with deficient rainfall in winter
season.
13. C A’d – Tropical subhumid climate with deficient rainfall in all seasons.
14. C B’r – Mesothermal subhumid climate with adequate rainfall in all
seasons.
15. C B’w – Mesothermal subhumid climate with deficient rainfall in winter
season.

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16. C B’s – Mesothermal subhumid climate with deficient rainfall in summer
season.
17. C B’d – Mesothermal subhumid climate with deficient rainfall in all
seasons.
18. C C’r – Microthermal subhumid climate with adequate rainfall in all
seasons.
19. C C’s – Microthermal subhumid climate withrainfalldeficient in summer
season.
20. C C’d – Microthermal subhumid climate with rainfall deficient in all
seasons.
21. D A’w – Tropical semiarid climate with deficient rainfall in winter season.
22. D A’d – Tropical semiarid climate with deficient rainfall in all seasons.
23. D B’w- Mesothermal semiarid climate with deficient rainfall in winter
season.
24. D B’s – Mesothermal semiarid climate with deficient rainfall in summer
season.
25. D B’d – Mesothermal semiarid climate with deficient rainfall in all
seasons.
26. D C’d – Microthermal semiarid climate with rainfall deficient in all
seasons.
27. E A’d – Tropical arid climate with deficient rainfall in all seasons.
28. E B’d – Mesothermal arid climate with deficient rainfall in all seasons.
29. E C’d – Microthermal arid climate with deficient rainfall in all seasons.
30. D’ – Taiga type climate.
31. E’ – Tundra type climate.
32. F’ – Permanently snow-covered polar climate.

SAQ 1
a) Describe precipitation effectiveness.
b) Briefly explain the concept of thermal efficiency

14.3 THORNTHWAITE’S SECOND SCHEME OF

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION
Thornthwaite propounded his second scheme of climatic classification in 1948
and revised it in 1955. In this classification he devised and applied the
concept of potential evapotranspiration. He applied potential
evapotranspiration as an index of thermal efficiency. Potential
evapotranspiration represents the potential loss of moisture through
evaporation from the water bodies and soil surface and through transpiration
from vegetation. Due to non-availability of instruments to measure

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evapotranspiration he indirectly estimated it by using temperature criterion.
Temperature varies from place to place and time to time even at a particular
place, depending upon the amount of insolation received. Thus, Thornthwaite
considered mean monthly temperature, number of days in a month and
duration of sunshine to calculate the potential evapotranspiration of different
locations.

Potential Evapotranspiration

First, he calculated monthly Heat Index (i) using the following formula:

Monthly Heat Index (i) = (t/5)1.514

where t is the mean monthly temperature in degree Celsius.

After that, he calculated Annual Heat Index (I) which has been defined as the
sum of the Monthly Heat Indices (i) as follows:

Annual Heat Index (I) = the sum of 12 months of (t/5)1.514

He calculated potential evapotranspiration for each month of a year based on

the following formula and then he calculated the annual potential
evapotranspiration (in cm) which has been defined as the sum of the potential
evapotranspiration for all the months of the year.

Potential Evapotranspiration (PE) = 1.6 (10t/I)α

where t is mean monthly temperature in degree Celsius of a particular month

and I is annual heat index of that particular year and it is calculated based on
summation of twelve months heat indices (i) as mentioned above; and

α = 6.75-7 × 10 × I 3 + 7.771 × 10-5 × I 2 + 0.01792 × I + 0.49239

The above equation represents the non-corrected potential evapotranspiration

because the values are estimated by assuming a month of 30 days and
sunshine duration of 12 hours. To make corrections for potential
evapotranspiration for different places, the following equation is used:

PE (Potential Evapotranspiration) = PE non-corrected ×N/12 × d/30

where N is the average number of hours in a day between sunrise and sunset
in a month and d is the actual number of days in a particular month.

Humidity index is the percentage ratio of water surplus and water need (PE).

Thornthwaite’s Thermal Regime Classifcation

The key parameter to evaluate ‘Thermal regime’ of a region is Potential

Evapotranspiration (PE) which is the index of thermal potential for vegetation
growth. Thornthwaite’s major thermal provinces based on the annual values
of PE which is also called as’ Thermal efficiency’ (TE).

Based on the annual values of PE/TE, 5 major thermal providences namely:

1. Megathermal
2. Mesothermal
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3. Micro thermal
4. Tundra
5. Frost

A megathermal climate is the climate which experience highest temperature

throughout the year with PE/TE above 114.0 cm Mesothermal climate
experiences persistent cold or heat conditions and experience PE between
570 cm and 114 cm

Microthermal climate is one where mean annual temperatures are very low
and PE is in between 28.5 and 57.0 cm.

Tundra (28.5-14.2 cm) and Frost (below 14.2 cm) are the cold climates with
low atmospheric demands (PE).

Scheme of Climatic Classification- Thermal regime (major

categorisation)

Annual TE (cm) Thermal Provinces Symbol

Above 114.0 Mega thermal A’
114.0-99.7 B’4
99.7-85.5 B’3
85.5-71.2 B’2
71.2-57.0 B’1
57.0-42.7 C’2
42.7-28.5 Micro thermal C’1
28.5-14.2 Tundra D’
14.2 below Frost E’

Thermal regime-Supplementary classification- Summer Concentration of

Thermal Efficiency (SCTE)

As thermal efficiency is the element of temperature and day-length, it also

indicate seasonal variations. To emphasise the seasonal variations in thermal
energy. Thornthwaite added a supplementary classification by analyzing
percentage of Summer Concentration of Thermal Efficency (SCTE). SCTE is
the percentage ratio of the sum of the thermal effcienceis (PE) of the three
successive moths of highest themal efficiency to the total annual themal
efficiency, as calculated as:

SCTE= Sum of the Thermal Efficiency (PE) of the three maximum

consecutive months X 100

Total Annual Potential Evapotranspiration

Scheme of supplementary Classification of Thermal effiency based on SCTE

percentages

SCTE(%) Supplementary Climate Symbol

type
Below-48.0 Mega thermal a’
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48.0-51.9 Meso thermal b’4
51.9-56.3 b’3
56.3-61.6 b’2`
61.6-68.0 Micro thermal b’1
68.0-76.3 c’2
76.3-88.0 c’1
Above 88.0 tundra d’

Thermal regime of particular region is represented by two letters.

First letter represents major climatebased on Annual TE and second letter

represents sub class based on SCTE %. For example A’a’ indicates
Megathermal and mega thermal.

Thornthwaite’s Mositure Regime classification

Thornthwaite’s in his climatic analyses, realised the fact that precipitation

alone is not an index to assess the moisture conditions of the environment. In
the water balance analysis, comparing Precipition (P) with Potential
Evapotranspiration (PE) various water balances elements can be derived
which in turn useful to evaluate certain indices such as, Aridity index (Ia),
Humidity index (Ih) and Index of moisture (Im).

Index of Aridity= Annual water defict X 100

Annual P.E
Index of humidity = Annual water surplus X 100
Annual P.E
Moisture Index (Im) = Ih – Ia
(Im) = Ih – Ia
Where
Im = Index of moisture
Ih= Index of humidity and
Ia= Index of aridity

Categorisation of Moist Climates (Major climates)

Humid climates (Im > 0)
Climatic type Symbol Moisture Index (Im %)
Pre humid A 100 and above
Humid B4 80 to 100
B3 60 to 80
B2 40 to 60
B1 20 to 40
Moist Sub humid C2 0 to 20
Dry climats (Im < 0)
Dry Sub humid C1 -33.3 to 0
Semi arid D -33.3 to -66.7
Arid E -66.7 to -100

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Moisture regime- Supplementary classification (Based on seasonal

variations)

The moisture index of a region in general indicates whether a region is humid

or arid. But it does not indicate wheather a region is continuously under wet or
dry condition.

In the moist climate, if the dry season occurs, it is important to know the
intensity of dryness. Similarly, in the dry climates, if wet season occurs the
knowledge of intensity of wetness is essential.

In moist climates, the intensity of water deficit may be large, moderate, little or
non-existent. Similarly, in dry climates the intensity of water surplus may
large, moderate, little or non-existent.

Thus, keeping the seasonal variations of moisture in view. Thornthwaite

proposed supplementary classification in moisture regime classification
considering seasonal variation of effective moisture (SVEM).

Scheme of Mositue regime- Supplementary classification

Moist climates (A, B C2) Aridity index (%)
r Little or no water deficit 0-10
s Moderate summer deficit 10-20
w Moderate winter deficit 10-20
sz Large summer deficit Above 20
wz Large winter deficit Above 20
Dry climates (C1, D, E) Humidity index (%)
d Little or no water surplus 0-16.7
s Moderate winter surplus 16.7-33.3
w Moderate summer surplus 16.7-33.3
sz Large winter surplus Above 33.3
wz Large summer surplus Above 33.3

In the moisture regime climatic analysis moisture regime classes are

represented by two letters:

First letter represents major moisture regime class based on index of moisture
(Im) and second letter represent seasonal variation based on moisture
adequacy.

Example: D d of a station indicates Semi arid and Little as no water deficit ‘d’.

Thus the climate of any region reprensted by two thermal regime and two
moisture regime classes.

Ex A’ a’ Dd

14.4 EVALUATION OF THORNTHWAITE’S

CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATIONS

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The first scheme of climatic classification (1931) of Thornthwaite was based
on the criteria of precipitation effectiveness, seasonal distribution of rainfall
and thermal [Link] this classification Thornthwaite established strong
relationship between climate and vegetation elements and viewed ‘plants as
meteorological instruments.’ He identified 32 types of climates at global level
with clearcut boundaries based on quantitative criteria and plotted them on
the map.

In his second scheme (1948) of climatic classification he used four criteria -

moisture index, thermal efficiency index or potential evapotranspiration,
summer concentration of thermal efficiency and seasonal moisture adequacy.
In this classification he viewed ‘plants as the machinery of evaporation’
through which moisture is transported from soil to atmosphere. He applied the
concept of potential evapotranspiration, but due to instrumental limitations,
used complex mathematical formulae to estimate it based on mean monthly
temperature. Scholars have pointed out this as a limitation, as the actual
evapotranspiration varies from the potential one. Another limitation of this
classification is the huge number of classes which cannot be represented at
global level. However, his concept of potential evapotranspiration and
moisture balance is very popular and applied frequently in the fields of soil
and agricultural sciences and hydrology. Thornthwaite’s climatic classification
is not a genetic classification, though it has impressed geographers and
hydrologists but could not satisfy meteorologists and climatologists, it failed to
incorporate causative factors of weather and climate and their interactions.

14.5 COMPARISON OF KÖPPEN’S AND

THORNTHWAITE’S CLIMATIC
CLASSIFICATIONS
There are a lot of similarities and dissimilarities in climatic classifications of
Köppen and Thornthwaite. The similarities include - (i) both the scholars
sincerely researched for decades to devise satisfactory schemes of climatic
classification; (ii) both the classifications are empirical but not genetic as both
are based on observable elements of climate like temperature and
precipitation but not on genetic factors like air masses, atmospheric
circulations etc.; (iii) both the classifications are based on quantitative criteria
therefore boundaries of climate classes are well defined;(iv) both the
classifications have given weightage to relationship of climate and vegetation
and finally, (v) both the scholars used letter symbols to represent different
climatic classes and sub-classes to make the schemes simple and
convenient.

The dissimilarities of their classifications include – (i) Köppen used mean

monthly and average annual temperature and precipitation criteria whereas
Thornthwaite applied the criteria of thermal efficiency, precipitation
effectiveness and potential evapotranspiration and seasonal variations in
thermal and moisture concentration. Conceptually and
practically,Thornthwaite’s criteria are better. But practically, it is difficult to
measure these indices; (ii) Köppen used simple statistical methods whereas
Thornthwaite used complex mathematical formulae to determine climatic

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classes; (iii) the number of climatic classes is limited in case of Köppen’s
classification to about 14 major climate classes but in case of Thornthwaite,
the number of climatic classes or regions is huge (32 in 1931 classification
and huge number of probable classes in 1948); (iv) Köppen’s climatic
classification is easy to understand and has applicability at all educational
levels but Thornthwaite’s classification can be understood only at higher
educational levels; (v) Köppen’s climaticclassification is most suitable for
macro level generalisations but for micro-level detailed analysis of climatic
variations Thornthwaite’s climatic classification is preferred, especially the
second scheme of classification and finally, (vi) Köppen’s climatic
classification is empirical and generic but Thornthwaite’s classification is
empirical, generic and applied and it’s concept of potential
evapotranspirationis frequently used in soil-moisture balance studies,
agriculture science and regional planning and in hydrological studies.

SAQ 2
Describe the concept of potential evapotranspiration.

14.6 SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied Thornthwaite’s two schemes of classification of
climates. These schemes are empirical, quantitative and generic.
Thornthwaite’s first climatic classification (1931) was based on three criteria –
precipitation effectiveness, seasonal distribution of precipitation and thermal
efficiency. Based on precipitation effectiveness he identified five humidity
provinces – Wet, Humid, Sub-humid, Semi-arid and Arid. Based on seasonal
distribution of precipitation, he further sub-divided these five humidity
provinces into twenty sub-classes.

He considered thermal efficiency as an important determinant of growth and

type and vegetation. He conceptualised thermal efficiency as positive
departure of mean monthly temperatures from the freezing point. Based on
thermal efficiency index he identified six thermal provinces – Tropical,
Mesothermal, Microthermal, Taiga, Tundra and Frost. Thus, Thornthwaite,
based on criteria of precipitation effectiveness (5 Humidity Provinces),
seasonal distribution of precipitation (4 Humidity subclasses) and thermal
efficiency (6 Thermal Provinces), identified 32 climatic classes at world level.

Thornthwaite propounded his second scheme of climatic classification in 1948

and revised it in 1955. In this classification he devised and applied the
concept of potential evapotranspiration. He applied potential
evapotranspiration as an index of thermal efficiency. Thornthwaite used
following four indices for the classification of climates: (i)Moisture Index (Im);
(ii) Potential Evapotranspiration (PE) or thermal efficiency index; (iii) Index of
summer concentration of thermal efficiency or potential evapotranspiration;
and (iv) Seasonal Moisture Adequacy based on Aridity and Humidity indices.
This classification was devised mainly to identify climate diversity at micro and
meso levels. His concept of potential evapotranspiration and moisture
balance is very popular and applied frequently in the fields of soil and

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agricultural sciences and hydrology. Thus, Thornthwaite’s climatic
classification is empirical, generic and applied.

14.7 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Differentiate between the first and second schemes of Thornthwaite’s
climatic classification.

2. Describe the merits and demerits of Thornthwaite’s climatic classification.

3. Discuss the similarities and dissimilarities in climatic classifications of

Koppen and Thornthwaite.

14.8 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ) 1
1. a) Thornthwaite recognised precipitation effectiveness or precipitation
efficiency as an important and indicative factor of the growth and type of
natural vegetation. It is noteworthy that two places receiving same amount
of precipitation may not have same level of precipitation effectiveness.
The place having higher rates of evaporation will have availability of lesser
amount of moisture for the growth of vegetation due to moisture loss in
evaporation. Thus, Thornthwaite pointed out that it is not only precipitation
that matters rather its availability as moisture depends upon differential
rates of precipitation and evaporation. Precipitation effectiveness,
therefore, represents efficiency of precipitation as available moisture for
vegetation growth. To measure precipitation effectiveness, he calculated
mean monthly precipitation effectiveness by dividing the mean monthly
precipitation by mean monthly temperature. Based on decreasing amount
of precipitation effectiveness, he identified five humidity provinces (Per
humid, Humid, Sub-humid, Semi-arid and Arid) and associated them with
specific major natural vegetation zones of the world.

b) Like precipitation effectiveness, Thornthwaite gave importance not to

temperature rather to thermal effectiveness or thermal efficiency. He
considered thermal efficiency as an important determinant of growth and
type and vegetation. He conceptualised thermal efficiency as positive
departure of mean monthly temperatures from the freezing point. Higher
departure outcomes represent higher thermal efficiency. To measure
thermal effectiveness, he first calculated monthly thermal efficiency (T/E)
ratios and by summing up the T/E ratios of all twelve months he calculated
thermal efficiency index. Based on thermal effectiveness he identified six
thermal provinces. These thermal provinces in decreasing order of
thermal effectiveness are –Mega thermal, Mesothermal, Microthermal,
Taiga, Tundra and Frost. The direction of thermal gradient is generally
equator to pole.

2. Thornthwaite used potential evapotranspiration as an index of thermal

efficiency. Potential evapotranspiration represents the potential loss of
moisture through evaporation from the water bodies, soil surface and
through transpiration from vegetation. Due to non-availability of
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Unit - 14 Climatic Classification of Thornthwaite
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instruments to measure evapotranspiration he indirectly estimated it by
using temperature criterion. Temperature varies from place to place and
time to time even at a particular place, depending upon the amount of
insolation received. Thus, Thornthwaite considered mean monthly
temperature, number of days in a month and duration of sunshine to
calculate the potential evapotranspiration of different locations. He used
potential evapotranspiration not only to identify thermal provinces but also
humidity provinces. According to him surplusor deficiency of moisture is
basically function of the differential amounts of precipitation and potential
evapotranspiration.

Actual evapotranspiration is the actual amount of water-vapour return to

the atmosphere from the ground and vegetation cover and it basically
represents ‘water use’ but potential evapotranspiration represents ‘water
demand of the atmosphere.’ The term ‘need’ signifies the quantity of soil
water needed if plant growth is to be maximised for the given conditions of
solar radiation and air temperature.

Terminal Questions
1. Discuss the three criteria of first classification and four criteria of second
classification. It is a long answer so you must describe the conceptual
differences of both the classification schemes and differences in terms of
outcomes. For this refer Sec. 14.2 and 14.3 of this unit.

2. Start your answer by giving brief summary of Thornthwaite’s climatic

classifications. The focus of the answer should be on merits and demerits
of criteria and classes. For this refer Sec. 14.4 of this unit.

3. In this answer you must focus on similarities and dissimilarities of both the
classifications and for better answer and understanding go through
previous units – 12 and 13 as well. Also refer Sec. 14.5 for comparative
assessment.

14.9 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
1. Lal D.S., (2011), Climatology, Sharda Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad.
2. Critchfield, H. (2015), General Climatology, Fourth Edition, Pearson India
Education Services, Noida.
3. Singh, Savindra., (2009), Climatology, Pravalika Publications, Allahabad.
4. Trewartha, G.T. and L.H. Horn (1980), An Introduction to Climate,
McGraw Hill, Tokyo.
5. Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1995), Atmosphere, Weather and Climate,
Routledge, London and New York.
6. Strahler, Alan (2013), Introducing Physical Geography, Sixth Edition,John
Wiley and Sons, New York.

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7. Lutgens, F.K., Tarbuck, E.J. and Dennis Tasa (2015) The Atmosphere: An
Introduction to Meteorology, Twelfth Edition, Pearson India Education
Services, Noida.
8. Ahrens, Donald, C. and Robert Henson (2019) Meteorology Today: An
Introduction to Weather, Climate and the Environment, Twelfth Edition,
Cengage, Boston.
9. Saroha, J and Singh, S. (2023) Physical Geography, Pearson India
Education Services, Noida.

42
 UNIT 15

CLIMATIC REGIONS OF THE

WORLD
Structure
15.1 Introduction 15.5 Summary
Expected Learning Outcomes 15.6 Terminal Questions
15.2 Tropical Climatic Regions 15.7 Answers
15.3 Temperate Climate Regions 15.8 References and Further
15.4 The Arctic or Polar Zones Reading

15.1 INTRODUCTION
In the Previous Units, you have learned about the Climatic Classification
Scheme presented by Thornthwaite and Koppen. You are also aware of the
bases of Climatic Classification including Thermal Efficiency, and Precipitation
Effectiveness. The climatic classification schemes of Koppen and
Thornthwaite both used alphabets and abbreviations of the Roman script to
indicate the variations in climatic characteristics. You have already studied
that Koppen used four variables viz, Rainfall, Temperature, Vegetation, and
Altitude whereas, Thornthwaite used Moisture Adequacy Index, Thermal
Efficiency Index, Seasonal Distribution of Moisture Adequacy and Summer
Concentration of Thermal Efficiency for his climatic classification scheme. In
the present unit, you will learn about the three comprehensive climatic regions
of the world. As you know a climatic region is any portion of the earth’s
surface over which broad climatic characteristics are similar. You will learn
about the Tropical Climatic Region and its sub-divisions in sec 15.2,
Temperate in 15.3, and Polar Climatic Region in sec 15.4, respectively.

Expected Learning Outcomes

After studying this unit, you would be able to:
 identify the spatial location, latitudinal extent, and distribution of
Tropical, Temperate and Polar Climatic Regions;
 classify sub-divisions of the Climatic Regions;
 differentiate among the climatic regions based on climatic conditions;
and
 compare and contrast climatic regions of the world.
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Block - 4

15.2 TROPICAL CLIMATIC REGIONS

Here in this section, you will learn about the Tropical climatic region. You will
know that the Tropical climatic region comprises of four climatic regions,
though being latitudinally situated in the tropics, they have the distinct climatic
characteristic.

The tropical Climatic region extends between 23.5O degrees North to 23.5O
South of the equator. The tropical zone is considered astride (on both sides
of) Equator up to the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere and Tropic
of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere. Some views favour a few-degree
pole ward extension of the tropical limit. It would be appropriate to consider
the tropical region up to 30O astride the equator.

This climatic region encompasses four climatic zones also known as low
latitude climates. These zones have distinct climatic characteristics and
different combinations of climatic elements.

Following climatic zones are found in the Tropical climatic region.

1. Equatorial Type of Climate
2. Tropical Wet and Dry or Savanna Climate
3. Tropical Monsoonal Climate
4. Tropical/ Sub-Tropical Hot Desert type of climate.

The last two climatic zones, that is, tropical monsoonal climate and tropical/
sub-tropical hot desert type of climate overlap with the sub-tropical and are
the transition zones. The monsoonal climate is found in the eastern part of the
globe in tropical latitude whereas hot deserts are concentrated in the western
boundaries of the subtropical high-pressure belt between 30-35º in both the
hemispheres.

15.2.1 Equatorial Type of Climate

Equatorial Region of the World

The tropical region of the world is dominated by Equatorial or Wet tropical or

Tropical Rainforest climatic conditions. Refer to Fig. 15.1 to get an acquainted
with the equatorial regions of the world.

Fig. 15.1: Equatorial Regions

(Source: Redrawn from ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong,
OUP, 1992.)
44
Unit - 15 Climatic Regions of the World
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
Distribution

Equatorial regions are also known as tropical rainforests having tropical wet
climate. The latitudinal extent of the equatorial regions is along the equator
extending 5⁰ to 10⁰ on either side. This zone is also characterised by the
Doldrums or the Inter-Tropical convergence zone (ITCZ). The Doldrums is
a low pressure area extending from 5°N to 5°S of the Equator. Winds are
eminently calm over here, with very little or no wind, making it extremely
difficult to navigate through. It is called ITCZ as it is a place for trade winds to
meet other the trade winds. Towards the north, equatorial zone merges into a
savanna climate up to 30O North and South. The western margins of the
continents are characterised by the presence of hot deserts. The eastern
margins of the continents are under the maritime influence and experience
Tropical Monsoon Climate.

The tropical rainforest or equatorial type of climate is found in the Amazon

River basin in South America, the Congo river basin and Guinea coast in
Africa, a large part of Malaysia, Indonesia, and the Philippines island in
South-Eastern Asia, eastern Central America (Parts of Panama, Costa Rica,
Nicaragua, Honduras, British Honduras, and Guatemala, some of the islands
of West Indies, Western Columbia, Coastal low lands of Eastern Brazil and
Eastern Madagascar. Refer to Fig. 15.1 to understand better. East Africa and
Andes mountainous region in South America are exceptions to equatorial
climatic conditions owing to altitudinal impact. In India, similar conditions are
found in the Western Ghat region, Tarai area of the Himalayas, Andaman and
Nicobar group of islands, Northeastern India except the Loktak lake region.

Climatic Conditions

Day and night in the equatorial regions are always of the same length. This
region receives maximum insolation. Uniformity of temperature throughout the
year is an outstanding feature of this region. The mean temperature in this
region lies between 24OC-27OC. This region has the lowest diurnal and yearly
temperature range in the whole world. However, the diurnal temperature
range may vary from 5OC-14OC.

This region experiences heavy precipitation between 152 cm to 254 cm and is

well distributed throughout the year. This region has no distinct dry season.
Due to the updraft (upward movement) of warm air, strong convective activity
is created leading to the formation of cumulonimbus clouds which causes
heavy rains. The equatorial region is characterised by 60% (average)
cloudiness and high humidity, making it sultry, oppressive, and enervating for
human beings. Rainfall in tropical rainforest climatic regions is not only
abundant but also highly dependable. Equatorial regions receive precipitation
between 03:00 to 04:00 p.m. daily.

The equatorial region supports luxuriant growth of natural vegetation, having

broad-leafed evergreen dense forest. Even though the laterite soil lacks the
required nutrients, abundant heat, high humidity and competition of sunlight
promote dense forest. The equatorial rain forest is also known as Selva. Lack
of sunlight on the ground (sometimes even less than 1 % of sunlight reaches
the forest ground, owing to thick multilayer tree foliage) hinders the growth of
plants on the forest floor. However, in some favourable conditions (availability
45
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
Block - 4 Climatic Classification

of sunlight) vines, ferns, Lianas, etc. create almost impenetrable undergrowth.

The equatorial region has the maximum biodiversity in the globe. These
forests are rich in valuable hardwood trees like Mahogani, Rosewood,
Coconut, Palm, and commercial crops like Cinchona, Banana, Wild Rubber,
and Bamboos are grown here. Known for being home to primitive people of
hunters and gathers, this region still comprise shifting cultivation. This region
is good for the plantation economy. Natural rubber, Cocoa, Coffee, Tea,
Tobacco, Species, Cinchona, Banana, Pineapple, Sago, and in some cases
sugarcane are important here. The important geographical regions famous for
plantation economy are Java, Sumatra, Malaysia, West Africa (Ghana &
Nigeria), Central America, Brazil, Amazon Basin, etc.

15.2.2 Tropical Wet and Dry or Savanna Climate

Spatial Distribution

Tropical wet and dry or Savanna Climate is typically located between 50 and
200 latitudes on either side of the equator. The region between 50 to 100 North
and South is called woodland savanna, whereas 10 0 to 150 North and South
is parkland, 150 to 200 North and South is grassland savanna. This
nomenclature is made based on the tree density, which depends upon soil
moisture, humidity, insolation, and rainfall. Savanna is flanked by a hot desert
in the west and by the monsoonal climate in the east. It is a transitional zone
between wet equatorial in the south and the semi-arid Steppe in the north. It
is also known as the Sudan type of climate. Savanna climatic region vacillates
between the rain-bearing ITCZ and rain suppressing subtropical high
pressure (horse latitude) belt. Savanna Climatic region is extensively found in
Latin America/ the Llanos of Orinoco Valley including Columbia and
Venezuela, the Guiana highlands and the Campos of Brazil. This region is
spread over vast areas in Africa on either side of the tropical rain climatic
region. It is known as veld in the southern part of Jerry, Angola, Zambia,
Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda, Central Zimbabwe, and Central &
Southwestern Madagascar. North of Congo Basin it is found in Sudan along
with Cameroon, Central Nigeria, Ghana, Togo, the Ivory coast, and eastern
Guinea.

Climatic Characteristics

This type of climatic region is characterised by an alternate hot rainy season

and cool dry season. The annual average temperature varies from 24 OC to 27
O
C annual range of temperature is more than 3 OC but less than 8OC. Distance
from the ocean/continentality is the main cause of the high annual range of
temperature. The annual average rainfall varies from 100 to 150 cm.

Woodland Savanna (50 to 100 North and South) receives 75 to 150 cm annual
average rainfall. Due to greater seasonal variation (inadequacy) in the
availability of soil water/ moisture the woods are not densely found, they are
scattered and dominated by the tree. The surface biome is dominated by
savanna grasses. Parkland savanna (100 to 150 North and South) receives 50
to 75 cm annual average rainfall. This climatic region is dominated by
savanna grasses with patches of trees.

Patches of trees emerge in either of four circumstances

46
Unit - 15 Climatic Regions of the World
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
 Moisture retaining soil is available.
 Physical depression/ low lying area.
 Caldera/ crater lake.
 Favourable groundwater table.

Savanna grassland (150to 200N & S) – average annual rainfall 30 to 50 cm.

Decreasing rainfall is due to the impact of continentality and nearness to
subtropical high pressure anti cyclonic belt. Rainfall is moderately favourable
for the growth of grasses. The region of dominated by Savanna grasses
which are tall, hard, and dense. This climatic condition emerged in the eastern
African equatorial region due to altitudinal impact.

Fig. 15.2: Tropical Wet and Dry Savanna Climate

(Source: Redrawn from [Link])

Trees in this climatic region are deciduous and have long roots to prevent
moisture loss through transpiration and avail water from deep within the
ground during the dry season. Most of the trees savanna region are fire-
resistant. It is dominated by both herbivorous and carnivorous. It is a region of
game animals due to the presence of a large number of herbivores and
favourable conditions. This is also known as the natural zoo of the world and
the land of big games. Savanna is a region of typical birds that run but don’t
fly like an ostrich in Africa Emu in Australia and is also home to Kangaroo,
Giraffe, Zebra, etc.

Savanna is the land of many different tribes who are either cattle pastoralists
like the Masai of the East African plateau or settled cultivators like the Hausa
of northern Nigeria.

15.2.3 Tropical Monsoonal Climatic Region

Tropical Monsoonal Climatic Regions of the world

47
 Climatic Classification
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
Block - 4

Fig. 15.3: Tropical Monsoon Climatic Region

(Source: Redrawn from ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong,
OUP, 1992.)

Spatial Distribution

The tropical Monsoonal Climate region is found between 10 0 and 250 North
and South latitudes. This climatic region is largely confined to the eastern
margins of the continents. However, vast Indian subcontinent is an exception.
Complete seasonal reversal of winds and more than 70% of the total rainfall
confined into four months are the outstanding features of these climatic
regions. Spatially the most defined monsoon regions are found in the coastal
areas of eastern and southern Asia, like India, Myanmar, Bangladesh,
Indonesia, Southern China and the Philippines. Hokkaido Island of Japan is a
region of temperate monsoon. The cold condition is akin to a temperate
climate but the pattern of precipitation in Hokkaido adheres to the monsoonal
parameters. Areas outside Asia that experiences a seasonal reversal of wind
are said to have the only monsoonal tendency or pseudo monsoon for
example southwest coast of West Africa including the coasts of Guinea,
Sierra Leone, Liberia and the Ivery coast. Similarly, equatorial East Africa
including the coastal area of Madagascar has the monsoonal climatic
condition, due to onshore south westerly winds during summer, and northeast
trade wind in winter. Pseudo monsoon is also noticeable along the northeast
coast of Latin America from the mouth of river Orinoco in eastern Venezuela
through Guyana, Surinam, and French Guyana to the northeast of Brazil.
Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean Islands have also
monsoonal effects.

Climatic Characteristics

The monsoonal region experiences high to very high temperatures during

summer. The average temperature for the summer months varies from 27 OC
to 32OC. During the winter months, mercury hovers between 10OC to 26.7OC
for non–coastal stations. The temperature in western Rajasthan and some
other inland stations may shoot up to 50 OC in summer and drops to 0 OC in
winter. The annual temperature range is very high and second only to the hot
dessert climatic region. The annual temperature range varies from 2 OC to 11
O
C. The high range of variation is due to continentality, latitude, altitude and

48
Unit - 15
………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………… Climatic Regions of the World

cloud cover. The diurnal range of temperature is relatively low in the coastal
regions.

The concentration of more than 70% of total annual rainfall within the four
months of the summer is an outstanding feature. Indians monsoon rains are
mainly orographic. The annual average rainfall is 200- 250cm, however, it
varies from coastal location, Inland location, windward side, and leeward side.
The onset of monsoon is in the form of southwestern branch on Andaman and
Nicobar group of Islands 15th May, and at coastal Kerala on 1st June is in form
of a burst of monsoon. It brings cyclonic torrential rains. The two distinct
branches of the Indian monsoon viz., Arabian sea and Bay of Bengal,
combinedly engulf the entire Indian subcontinent from June to September.
The stifling heat during summer develops low pressure on the Indian
subcontinent. The complex interplay of the tropical easterly jet stream and
high insolation develops high-pressure over the Tibetan plateau during late
April and early May, accentuated by a warm updraft of winds that augurs the
already low pressure on the Indian landmass, begins a cyclic movement in
the upper troposphere. This cyclic movement creates two limbs one at the top
of the Tibetan plateau of high pressure and another of low pressure above the
huge Indian landmass. The temperature over the sea continues to remain
relatively low. The flow of air streams from above the surface of the sea/
ocean (high pressure) towards the Indian landmass (Low Pressure) is what
we know as the southwest monsoon or summer monsoon. The reversal of the
wind system from the Tibetan plateau towards the sea in the winter is called
the retreating monsoon. Since it blows over dry landmass, it is deprived of
moisture except for a small stretch of the Bay of Bengal. The Tamil Nadu
coast is the only region which receives rainfall during the retreating/ winter
monsoon.

Nature and types of vegetation in this climatic region are the testimony of the
precipitation. Tropical rainforests are found in the areas having high rainfall.
Teak, Sal, Shisham, Mahua, Mango, Neem etc. are the important tree species
of the region.

The monsoon areas are regions of paddy culture. The Indian subcontinent,
southern coastal areas of China including the river valleys of Yangtzekiang,
Hwang ho, and others, Mekong and Menam delta regions of Thailand and
Cambodia, Irrawaddy and Chindwin River delta regions of Myanmar, low lying
areas of Bangladesh, etc. are famous for paddy cultivation. Besides, paddy
this climatic region is also known for its plantation crops like tea, sugarcane
and coffee. The region has largely an agriculture-driven economy.

15.2.4 Hot Deserts or Sahara Type of Climate

Hot and Mid Latitude Deserts of the World

49
 Climatic Classification
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
Block - 4

Fig. 15.4: Hot and Mid- Latitude Deserts of the World

(Source: Redrawn from ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong,
OUP, 1992.)

Spatial Distribution

The distribution of hot deserts corresponds to the subtropical high-pressure

belt and spatial location of land and water bodies. Latitudinally most of the hot
deserts located from150 to 350 North and South. This climatic region is
represented in the following deserts; coastal region of Peru and Chile in South
America; Namib and Kalahari deserts of coastal Angola, South-West Africa;
Interior of Botswana and South Africa; the great Australian desert; The
Sahara and Arabian deserts; The Iranian deserts; the Thar desert of Pakistan
and India; deserts of Northern Mexico.

The location situation of these deserts on the western margin of the

continents is the complex interplay of a combination of various climatic
conditions, such as location in the subtropical high-pressure belt, dryness of
moisture-laden trade winds, and presence of cold oceanic currents off the
western margins which causes an increase in the aridity.

Climatic Characteristics

Hot deserts of the world experience not only high temperature and low
humidity but also are the places having a high annual and daily temperature
range. The daily temperature range may vary from 22℃ to 28℃, while the
annual range here varies from 17 OC to 22 OC. The average temperature is
around 30 OC. Clear and cloudless sky with intense insolation, dry air and
rapid evaporation are causes of high temperature. Though the coastal deserts
have lower temperatures compared to their interior counterparts, aridity
continues to be very high.

Annual precipitation varies from practically no rainfall (mid-Atacama) to 25 cm

(William creek, Australia). Its location astride the Horse latitude/subtropical
high-pressure belt experiences calm and clear atmosphere due to the descent
of air. Descending air creates an anticyclonic situation bringing stability to the
atmosphere, a condition least favourable for precipitation of any kind. This
climatic region comes under the offshore trades winds while falls outside the
influence of the rain-bearing onshore westerlies. Winds blowing from the
50
Unit - 15
………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………… Climatic Regions of the World

cooler region to the warmer region of the deserts undergo a decrease in

relative humidity which thwarts saturation and prevents subsequent
condensation, hence practically little chance of rainfall.

Xerophytic or drought resistance scrub is the predominant vegetation of the

deserts. Plants have long roots, few or no leaves, and the foliage is either
waxy, leathery, hairy, or needle-shaped to reduce the loss of water through
transpiration.

Hot deserts of the world are inhabited by tribal communities who are primitive
hunters and gatherers, important among them are Bedouin of Arabia,
Bushman of Kalahari, Bindibu of Australia, and Tuaregs of Sahara. These
aborigines procure their livelihood from nomadic hunting and food gathering.

SAQ 1
a. Monsoon Climatic Region is found on which margin of the continents?
b. What is the latitudinal extent of the Parkland Savanna Climatic Region?

15.3 TEMPERATE CLIMATE REGIONS

You learned about the tropical region and the different sub climatic regions
found within the latitudinal extent of the tropics astride the equator. As we go
towards the poles, we come across another natural and climatic region
named Temperate or mid-latitude climate. Similar to the tropics the temperate
region is further subdivided into distinct climatic zones/regions, based on their
location on the eastern or western margins of the continents and the interiors
of the continents.

Temperate climatic regions are located between 350 and 650 North and South
latitude. However, climatologists like Koppen, Thornwaite, Trewartha, etc.
slightly differ in their latitudinal extent. Some include transition zones like
Steppe as part of the temperate climatic region. A more generic classification
of this climatic region is a warm temperate and cool temperate region. To
have better clarity, temperate region is subdivided into the Mediterranean,
Steppe region, China type of, British/ Western European, Central continental,
and Laurentian climatic regions. The following table and diagram explain the
latitudinal extent and spatial location of these regions.

World Climatic Types

Climatic Region Latitude Climatic Type
(Approximate)
1. Warm Temperate 30 OC -45 OC North a. Western margin
region and South (Mediterranean type)
b. Central continental (Steppe
Type)
c. Eastern Margin:
i) China type
ii) Gulf type
iii) Natal type

51
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
Block - 4 Climatic Classification
O
2. Cool Temperate 45 C -65 OC North a. Western Margin (British type)
Zone and South b. Central continental (Siberian
type)
c. Eastern Margin (Laurentian
type)
O O
3. Cold zone 65 C - 90 C North a. Arctic or polar
and South

Fig. 15.5: Regions of the Mediterranean climates

(Source: Redrawn from ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong,

OUP, 1992.)

15.3.1 Spatial Distribution

The warm temperate western margin (Mediterranean region) is also called as
dry summer subtropical climate. It is entirely confined to the western portion of
the continental masses between 30 OC-45 OC North and South. There are five
regions of the world having the Mediterranean climate these are: the
borderlands of the Mediterranean sea (north of the Mediterranean sea from
Portugal to Turkey and Beyond of Iranian Highlands; the southern borderland
includes Morocco, Northern Algeria, Tunisia and North of Bengasia in Libia);
the central and southern California coast in the USA; Central Chile; The Cape
town area of South Africa; South and south-western coast of Australia. This
climatic region occupies only 1.7% of the total land area of the world.

The Mediterranean is the only climatic region of the world that receives rainfall
only in winter. The existence of this climatic condition is due to the shifting of
the pressure belts. During the southward movement/ shifting of the pressure
belts of the world (please refer to the figure below), this climatic region comes
under the influence of the warm, moist, and rain-bearing Westerlies
(corresponding to the 40 OC -45 OC North and South latitude). Westerlies bring
winter rainfall to this region. The northward shift of the pressure belts owing to
the apparent movement of the sun, brings these regions under the influence
of offshore trade winds and subtropical high-pressure conditions, thus
depriving them from precipitation.

52
Unit - 15 Climatic Regions of the World
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
Climatic Characteristics

The Mediterranean climatic region is considered as one of the ideal climates

for human habitation with maximum days of clear sky, plenty of sunshine,
moderate temperature, and winter rainfall. This climatic region is famous for
the production of citrus fruits and vines. The average temperature in the
coldest month is usually between 4.4 OC to 10 OC and the hottest month is 21
O
C to 27 OC. The mean annual temperature ranges between 11 OC and 17 OC.
However, it may be higher in case of greater distance from the sea. The
rainfall is confined to the winter, and varies from 35 cm to 90 cm.

The Mediterranean climatic region is famous for the origin of distinct local
winds both hot and cold. Important among them are the Mistral, cold wind of
South France blowing down the Rhone valley between the Alps and Massif
Central, Bora of erstwhile Yugoslavia, a cold north-easterly wind along the
Adriatic Sea, Sirocco is a hot dry and dusty wind of Sahara Desert causes
rainfall on the Levante coastal areas known as ‘Blood rain’ due to presence of
red particles of the sand that form the hygroscopic nuclei resulting in the red
colour of the droplets, hence the name. Sirocco is known as Chili in Tunisia,
Ghibi in Libia, Leveche in Spain, Khamsin in Egypt, and Gharbi in the
Adriatic and Aegean Sea.

Mediterranean vegetation has the following characteristics:

 Trees have small broad leaves of moderate height and are widely spaced.
 Evergreen forests of Oaks are found in the region receiving more than 60
cm average annual rainfall, Eucalyptus Forests are common in Australian
part of this climatic region.
 Scrubs and Bushes are the most predominant. The common species are
Laurel, Myrtle, Lavender, Arbutus, and Rosemary of which a number of
them are strong scented.
 The scrub vegetation (scattered, stunted trees and tall bushes) is known
by different names.
 This type of vegetation is called maquis in southern France, and Macchia
in Italy. In California, the term Chaparral is used, in Australia as Mallee
scrub. In limestone uplands, where the soil is extremely thin and the scrub
deteriorates into highly xerophytic ground creepers, a more exact term,
garrigue, is used.

This climatic region is famous for Orchard farming as known as the world’s
Orchard lands. It is famous for citrus fruits like Oranges which have different
names in their area of production due to distinct shape, size, teste, and
quality. They are Sunkist oranges from California, Seville from Spain,
Oranges of Israel are Jaffa. This region is also known for olive tree and wheat
farming, Mediterranean region produces the best-quality wines which include
Sherryn in southern Spain, Port wine in Portugal, Chianti, Asti, and
Marsala from different parts of Italy. Among the famous wine-producing
regions, champagne in the Paris basin, Bordeaux in the Garomme Basin,
and Burgandy are located in the Rhone-Saone valley.

53
 Climatic Classification
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
Block - 4

15.3.2 Steppe
Steppe is the grassland of Eurasia stretching eastwards from the source of
the Black Sea across the great Russian Plain to the foothills of Altai Mountain
covering a distance of well over 3220 km. In North America, grassland is quite
expensive, called prairies. They are situated between the foothills of the
Rockies and Great Lakes Strides along the American Canadian border. This
grassland in Hungary is known as Pustaz, Pampas in Argentina, Veld in
South Africa, Downs in Australia, and New Zealand grassland in northern
New Zealand Canterbury.

This climatic region is situated in the interior of the continent between 30⁰ and
45⁰ N&S. remoteness from maritime influence causes dryness even though
being under the influence of westerlies.

Mid Latitude Grasslands (Steppes)

Fig. 15.6: Steppe or Mid-Latitudinal Grasslands

(Source: Redrawn from ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong,
OUP, 1992.)

Climatic Characteristics

Temperature ranges from 260 in summer and 100 in winter. The annual
temperature range is less than 15 0 in the southern hemisphere and more than
300 in the northern hemisphere. Annual rainfall varies from 38 to 78 cm. Most
of the rain occurs in summer.

Grasses are soft and nutritious in comparison to Savanna grasslands. Soil

moisture is adequate to sustain grasses throughout the year. The distribution
of grasses is interrupted by shrubs and low trees. This region is characterised
by herbivores and extremely low bird density (27p/ 40 Hectare). The average
life cycle of grasses is 1 to 10 years and because of this region remains green
throughout the year.

This region is famous for wheat farming and livestock rearing dairy and meat
production. Steppe temperate grasslands are also known as granaries of the
world.

54
Unit - 15 Climatic Regions of the World
………………………………………………………………………………..…………………………………………
15.3.3 Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Region
Warm type of climatic region may be further divided into the western margin,
central continental, and eastern margin. The Eastern margin temperate region
has three distinct climatic conditions, namely China, Gulf, and Natal type.

Distribution

China Type of Climatic Region

On the eastern margins of the continents in warm temperature latitudes,

China types of climate is found. Both Mediterranean and China type climate
are situated in the same latitudes. China type of climate receives rainfall
during summer, geographically it is found in central and northern China,
and southern Japan. It receives heavy precipitation through the rain-bearing
southeast monsoon, with decreasing trend towards the interiors. The annual
range varies from 7.2℃ in central China to 12.8℃ in the northern part of
China. The recurrent typhoon (intense tropical cyclones) is another
characteristic feature in this climatic region. This climatic region also famous
for mixed forest (presence of both evergreen and deciduous trees).

Fig. 15.6: Warm Temperate Eastern Margin Region.

(Source: [Link])

Gulf Type of Climatic Region

It is found in the southeastern United States similar to that of Central China

except that the monsoonal characteristics are less well established. Florida,
New Orleans, and Alabama represents this climate. The average annual
summer temperature is 27.80 C average annual winter temperature remains at
200. On shore winds cause a moderate annual temperature range. Annual
rainfall varies from 148 cm (maximum) in Miami and New Orleans to 105 cm
(minimum) in Charleston. This region is famous for its extensive cultivation of
cotton and maize. The famous cotton and corn belts of the USA are located in
this climatic region.

The Natal type of Climatic Region is named after the Natal Province of
South Africa and is located in New South Wales (Australia), Natal (South
Africa), Parana-Paraguay-Uruguay basin (South America). This type of
climate is found only in the Southern Hemisphere. The narrowness of the
continents and the dominance of maritime influence result in a very small
annual temperature range. This region receives 120 cm of rainfall on average
with the maximum being 132 cm in Asuncion in Paraguay. The mean monthly

55
……………………………………………………………………...…………………………………………………
Block - 4 Climatic Classification

temperature varies between 4° C and 25° C and is strongly modified by

maritime influence. The warm temperate eastern margins are the home of
several varieties of tree species which include Eucalyptus in Australia in the
Australians Alps of Victoria and in Blue Mountain in New South Wales;
Parana Pine and Quebracho (Axe Breaker, an extremely hardwood used for
tanning), and Verba mate trees from the forest of southwestern Brazil,
Eastern Paraguay, and North Eastern Argentina. Palm tree, Chest Nuts, Iron
Wood, Black Woods, and wattle tree are some of other species found in the
Natal climatic region. Oak, Camphor, Camelia, and Magnolia are some tree
species that are found in the forest of China and southern Japan. Walnut,
Oak, Hickory and Maple are important and common species in the Gulf States
of USA.

[Link] Cool Temperate Zone

Fig. 15.7: Spatial Distribution of British Type or West European Climatic

Region.
(Source: ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong, OUP, 1992.)

The latitudinal extent of this climate is 450 to 600 North and South. The major
regions of occurrence are, the western coast of North America, Spanning
Oregon, Washington, and British Columbia; Western Europe and the British
Isles; Victoria and Tasmania; New Zealand; and Chile, South of 35⁰. This is a
moist climate where most of the precipitation falls during winter season and
summer experiences minimum rainfall. The mean annual temperatures are
between 4.4⁰C to 15.5⁰C. The climate is considered as ideal for comfort and
mental alacrity. This region remains under the permanent influence of the
Westerlies throughout the year. In this humid climate, precipitation is copious
in all months but with a distinct winter maximum. Orographic barriers cause
very large annual precipitation on the windward sides.

Among the valuable deciduous hardwood, temperate species include Oak,

Elm, Ash, Berch, Beech, Poplar and Hornbeam. Willows, Alder, and Aspen
grow in wetter areas and Chestnut, Sycamore, Maple and Lime are the other
species. These species occurring in pure stands with sparse undergrowth,
and easy access and have immense lumbering value.

56
Unit - 15
………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………………… Climatic Regions of the World

Bristish type climate region comprises the most urbanised, industrialised and
developed parts of the world. This climatic region is famous for Fishing
activities (particularly in Britain, Norway, and British Columbia), Intensive
Market Gardening (also known as Truck Farming in the USA), Horticulture,
Mixed Farming, Dairy Farming, Sheep Rearing, and other advanced
agricultural activities. The region is also a leading producer of Beat sugar.

[Link] a The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climatic Region:

This climatic region is found only in the Northern Hemisphere. On the

poleward side, it merges into the Arctic tundra of Canada and Eurasia at
around the arctic circle southwards it fades into the temperate Steppe climate.

This climatic region is characterised by several winters of long durations, and

cool brief summer. The warmest month has a temperature of 10 0 while the
winter months are always below the freezing point. It receives 62cm of annual
average rainfall. Siberia is often referred to as the cold pole of the earth.
Verkhoyansk of Siberia is the coolest place on the earth. Taiga forest
dominates this climatic region. Among them important species are pine, white
pine, red pine, scots pine, jack pine, lodgepole pine, Douglas fir, and balsam
fir. Spruce and larch are also found in pure stands. fur-bearing animals like
muskrat, ermine, mink, and silver fox produce the finest quality of fur in the
world. The lumbering industry is the main source of economy in the region

[Link] b The cool temperate eastern margins Laurentian climatic

region

It occurs on the eastern side of North America between 35 0 and 550 N and on
the eastern side of South America, South of 40⁰ S. It is found in Northeastern
North America, including eastern Canada, North East USA (maritime
provinces and new England state), and Newfoundland. In Asia, it is found in
eastern costal lands including Eastern Siberia, Eastern China, Manchuria,
Korea, and northern Japan.

This region is under the influence of continental polar air mass in winter
causing temperatures as low as -9⁰C to -7⁰C, however, continental tropical
and maritime tropical air masses during summer bring the temperature of the
region to 15⁰C to 34⁰C. The annual temperature range is as high as 24⁰C.

Precipitation in North America and North Japan occurs throughout the year,
whereas in north East Asia (Except North Japan and North Korea) rainfall is
confined to the summer months. Uniformity in precipitation (7.5 cm to 10 cm
per month) in North American Region is an outstanding feature of this climate.
The Asiatic and North Eastern Americans of this climate experience influence
of both Westerlies and Easterlies. NE American region receives westerly
depressions during winters which sneak through the Rockies and blow over
the Great Lakes to gather moisture and bring rainfall. However, onshore
easterlies blow over warm Gulf Stream and Cold Labrador currents. The
meeting of these to contrasting currents on the coastal waters off
Newfoundland produces dense mist and fog, initiating heavy precipitation in
the form of drizzles.

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Block - 4 Climatic Classification

Fishing along with lumbering and agriculture is the most important economic
undertaking here. This region is famous for having the world's famous fishing
grounds including the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.

SAQ 2
a. Which climatic region receives rainfall only during winter months?
b. Why Newfoundland is famous for mist and fog?

15.4 THE ARCTIC OR POLAR ZONES

Polar Regions of the World

Fig. 15.8: Arctic or Polar Type

(Source: Redrawn from ‘Certificate Physical and Human Geography’ by GohChengLeong,
OUP, 1992.)

In the last two previous sections (15.2 and 15.3) you have learned about the
climatic conditions found in the form of distinct climatic regions in the tropical
and temperate world. Here in this section, you will study the climate found in
the Polar regions of the world.

The polar climatic region is spread mainly, North of the Arctic Circle which
include ice -caps found in Greenland and the highlands of these high latitude
regions, where the ground is under permanent snow cover. Along with
Greenland, the barren grounds of northern America and Alaska and the Arctic
Seaboard of Eurasia above the 65⁰ latitude are taken as polar or tundra
regions. The virtually uninhabited continent of Antarctica in the southern
hemisphere is the greatest single stretch of ice cap where the layer of
permanent ice is several kilometres thick.

Climatic Condition

Characterised by extremely low mean average temperature where the

maximum temperature is seldom above 10°C. The lowest temperature drops
to -37°C normally not more than 4 months have temperatures above freezing
point. This is a region of permafrost where the ground remains solidly frozen
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for 8 months. Winter is long and very harsh and summers are cool and brief.
Arctic and Antarctic Circles remains under darkness for 6 months. Despite 6
months of sun during summer, the temperature remains low, as sun rays are
feeble, slanting, and lack vigour.

Precipitation here is in the form of snow. Usually, it receives 12 inches or

30.48 cm of snowfall annually. It takes 10-12 inches of snow to make 1 inch of
rain. Precipitation in form of rain and sleet is common during summer when
evaporation is possible.

Arctic foxes, polar bears, grey wolves, caribou, snow geese and musk-oxen
are found here. In mountainous areas, goats, sheep and marmots can be
found. Penguins live in the Antarctic. Whales, seals and snowy owls are also
found in polar regions. When the surface layer of the permafrost melts in the
summer, shallow lakes and bogs appear which attract insects, birds and other
wildlife.

Deficiency in heat is the greatest inhibiting factor for the growth of vegetation
in this region, Tundra/Polar regions don’t have trees because of unavailability
of adequate temperature. Stunted birches, dwarf willows, and undersised
alders along with mosses and grasses are the only vegetation in this region.

The polar / tundra region is largely devoid of human habitations except for
quite a few who live semi-nomadic life and have to adapt themselves to the
harsh environment Eskimos as a semi-nomadic tribe found in Greenland,
Northern Canada and Alaska, live in igloos and hunt caribou (name of the
reindeer in America) and other animals to secure a steady supply of their
meat, milk, fat, skins, and bones. In the Eurasian tundra other nomadic tribes
such as the Lapps of Northern Finland and Scandinavia, the Samoyeds of
Siberia (from the Ural Mountains and the Yenisey Basin) the Yakuts from the
Lena basin, and the kayaks and Chukchi of North-Eastern Asia, Wander with
their herds of Reindeer in search of pastures.

SAQ 3
a. Why do Eskimos live in a house made up of Ice?
b. What is the area of habitation of Samoyeds and Yakut tribes?

15.5 SUMMARY
The whole unit can be divided broadly into three climatic regions which we
discussed in detail in the above section. The classification is done based on
latitudinal expanses from the equator towards the poles. However, it would be
interesting to point out that the climatic conditions vary in the same latitude
based on the coastal and continental location, altitude, influence of the
prevailing winds, air masses and pressure belts. Precisely, that is why we
have climatic regions having distinct characteristics in the same latitude
having locations in the eastern and western margins of the continents.
Geographical locations in the interior (impact of continentality) of the
continents usually have relatively dry conditions. The Mediterranean, Steppe

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Block - 4 Climatic Classification

and the China type Climates with the similar latitudinal extent and broadly
considered temperate climates, have distinct climatic characteristics.

15.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Explain why hot deserts of the world are situated on the Western Margins
of the Continents? Explain.

2. Why the Mediterranean Climatic region receives rainfall only during the
winter months?

3. Explain the differences in climatic conditions among the western

European, Siberian and Laurentian types of the climatic region, situated in
the same latitude.

15.7 ANSWERS
Self-Assessment Questions (SAQ)
1. a) Monsoon Regions are generally found on the eastern margins of the
Continents.
b) Park Land Savanna is found between 10 0 and 150 N & S Latitudes.
2. a) Mediterranean Climatic Region receives rains only during the winter
season
b) Meeting of two oceanic currents of contrasting thermal Characteristics,
the Warm Gulf Stream and Cold Labrador currents off the coast Of
Newfoundland cause thick fog and mist. The onshore winds cause
rainfalls in the form of drizzles in the region.
3. a) Eskimos live in the houses made of ice called igloos because the
temperature inside an igloo remains constant at a higher temperature in
comparison to the temperature outside.
b) The Samoyeds tribe live in the Ural Mountains and Yennisy river basin
in Siberia, whereas Yakuts are found in the Lena River basin area in
North-East Asia.

Terminal Questions
1. Your answer must contain the following points

A. The climatic significance of the Subtropical High-Pressure belt is

characterised by anti cyclonic atmospheric movement coupled with
subsiding air.
B. About the onshore trade winds that dry up completely by the time they
reach the western margins.
C. Presence of Cold Oceanic Currents off the western coast.

2. Start your answer by mentioning the shifting of the global pressure belts
due to the northward and southward apparent movement of the Sun.
Mention how during the winter months the shifting of global pressure belts

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brings the Mediterranean region under the influence of warm moist

Westerlies.

3. Begin your answer by mentioning the latitudinal situation of the three

climatic regions on the globe.

Although almost within the same latitudinal extent these regions are
located on the eastern margin, western margin and the Continental
location. Due to their locations, they come under the influence of different
prevailing winds and the Air Masses, causing a difference in climatic
conditions.

15.8 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

1. Lal D.S.,(1985), Climatology, Chaitanya Publishing House, Allahabad.
2. Leong GohCheng, (1992), Certificate Physical and Human Geography,
Oxford University Press, New York.
3. Strahler A.N. and A.N. Strahler., (2001), Modern Physical Geography,
Wiley and Sons, New York.
4. Trwartha G.T., [Link]., (1980), An Introduction to Climate, McGraw Hill,
Tokyo.
5. [Link].
6. [Link]

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