HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Compiled by M Vermeulen. Presented by M Vermeulen & J Gibson.

IT ALL STARTS
WITH PUBERTY
_

It’s a hormonal
story…
 Hypothalamus

GnRH

Pituitary / Hypophysis
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
FSH Follicle-Stimulating Hormone LH Luteinizing Hormone

Ovaries  Testes  Testes  Ovaries 

Ovum Sperm Release of Development of

Ovulation
development development testosterone Corpus Luteum

Release of Leads to the Release of

oestrogen development of progesterone
secondary sexual
characteristics
THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM


 SCROTUM
Sac-like structure that protects the testes
and holds them in a distended position
“outside” the body. It can adjust how
close/far away the testes hang from the
body to ensure that their temperature is
always 2 - 3°C below body temperature.
This is the optimal temperature for
NORMAL, HEALTHY sperm production.

TESTES
Two glandular testes are the male reproductive
organs that release testosterone and produce
sperm cells (the male gamete)

Let’s look at a section through the testes

HOW ARE SPERM
CELLS MADE?
 GAMETOGENESIS
• The production of gametes through meiosis

• Called spermatogenesis in males Let’s take a closer look at

spermatogenesis

• Called oogenesis in females

 2n

KNOW THE FOLLOWING: 2n

MEIOSIS 1

Under the influence

- Spermatogenesis✓ occurs in the of testosterone
testes✓

[Link]
n Occurs in the testis

- under the influence of testosterone ✓

n MEIOSIS 2
- diploid cells ✓ in the seminiferous
tubules Four haploid sperm
n cells develop
- undergo meiosis ✓

- to form four haploid sperm cells ✓

STRUCTURE OF A SPERM CELL
head acrosome
The acrosome haploid nucleus
contains enzymes to dissolve a path into the ovum
Middle
Nucleus of the sperm portion/neck
carries genetic material of the male/haploid number of chromosomes
mitochondrion
Many mitochondria in the middle piece
release energy so that sperms could swim
cell membrane
The presence of a tail
tail
enables sperm cells to swim towards the ovum

The contents of the sperm cell such as the cytoplasm is reduced/condensed

making the sperm light for efficient movement flagellum

Sperm is streamlined
to allow for easier movement
EPIDIDYMUS
Continuation of the seminiferous tubules
of the testes that is located that back of
each testes.

This is where sperm cells are temporarily

stored until they are mature.
EPIDIDYMUS
Continuation of the seminiferous tubules
of the testes that is located that back of
each testes. This is where sperm cells are
stored until they are mature.

VAS DEFERENS
Muscular continuation of the epididymis
that connect with the urethra.

Contracts rhythmically to push the sperm

cells towards the urethra during
ejaculation. As the sperm cells move
along the vas deferens they will collect
glandular secretions from three glands.

Let’s look at these three glands

SEMINAL VESICLE
Produces seminal fluid that contains a lot
of fructose (sugar-nutrient) that will
provide energy for the sperm cells to
swim. It also acts as a lubricant
enhancing the sperm cell motility.
SEMINAL VESICLE
Produces seminal fluid that contains a lot
of fructose (sugar-nutrient) that will
provide energy for the sperm cells to
swim. It also acts as a lubricant
enhancing the sperm cell motility.

PROSTATE GLAND
Produces prostate fluid that is alkaline to
neutralise the acids in the vagina. It also
acts as a lubricant enhancing the sperm cell
motility.
 SEMINAL VESICLE
Produces seminal fluid that contains a lot
of fructose (sugar-nutrient) that will
provide energy for the sperm cells to
swim. It also acts as a lubricant
enhancing the sperm cell motility.

PROSTATE GLAND
Produces prostate fluid that is alkaline to
neutralise the acids in the vagina. It also
acts as a lubricant enhancing the sperm cell
motility.

COWPER’S GLAND
Produces an alkaline fluid to neutralise
any remaining acidic urine in the urethra.
It also acts as a lubricant enhancing the
sperm cell motility.

SPERM + GLAND SECRETIONS = SEMEN

BLADDER

URETHRA
Communal duct for semen AND urine in
men (different for women), but never
both at the same time.
PENIS
External male genitalia consisting of
skeletal muscle and many blood
vessels that dilate to cause an
erection.

Deposits the semen into the female

reproductive tract during sexual
intercourse.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM


 OVARIES
Two glandular ovaries on either side of the
uterus are the female reproductive organs that
release oestrogen and progesterone and take
turns to produce an ovum once per month
(the female gamete).

Let’s look at a section through the ovaries

The ovaries take turns to
produce a mature ovum
once per month.

Inside the ovary, primary

follicles (1) will develop into
mature Graafian follicles (2).

The ovum is located inside

the Graafian follicle (3) and
is formed through meiosis.

On day 14 of the menstrual

cycle ovulation (4) occurs
where the Graafian follicle
bursts to release the ovum
into the fallopian tube.

Remnants of the Graafian

follicle will develop into a
Corpus Luteum (5).
 Germinal
epithelium layer

Primary follicles
containing
immature ovum
Mature Graafian
follicle (4) containing
mature ovum (5)

Secondary follicle
containing
immature ovum
HOW ARE OVA
MADE?
If fertilisation of the ovum
occurs, the Corpus Luteum
will remain in tact and no
menstruation will occur.

If no fertilisation of the ovum

occurs, the Corpus Luteum
will disintegrate (6) and a
new primary follicle will
develop.

The unfertilised ovum along

with the endometrium will be
shed as blood during
menstruation.
 GAMETOGENESIS
• The production of gametes through meiosis

• Called spermatogenesis in males

• Called oogenesis in females

Let’s take a closer look at oogenesis
 2n
KNOW THE FOLLOWING:
2n
MEIOSIS 1 - Oogenesis✓ occurs in the ovaries✓

- under the influence of FSH

Under the influence
of FSH (Follicle-stimulating hormone) ✓
[Link]

n
Occurs in the
ovaries - diploid cells ✓

n
MEIOSIS 2 - undergo mitosis ✓

One haploid ovum n - to form numerous follicles✓

develops
- One cell inside a follicle undergoes meiosis
✓

- To form four cells ✓ of which only ONE

survives ✓ to produce a mature, haploid
ovum ✓
STRUCTURE OF AN OVUM
Nucleus of the ovum
carries genetic material of the female/haploid
number of chromosomes Follicular cells
(Corona
radiata)
Cytoplasm of the ovum
to support the development of the
Cytoplasm
embryo
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Jelly coat
through which the acrosome of the
sperm cell must enter Cell
membrane

Jelly layer
(Zona pellucida)
[Link]
FALLOPIAN TUBES
Stretches from each ovary towards the
uterus.

1. Is the site of fertilisation.

2. Is the pathway for the sperm cells to

reach the ovum.

3. Is the pathway for the dividing

zygote/embryo to reach the uterus.
UTERUS
Hollow, muscular organ that can stretch
to accommodate the developing foetus.

1. Protects the foetus during gestation.

2. Contracts powerfully to push the
foetus out through the cervix and
vagina during birth.
3. Contains a blood-rich layer, the
ENDOMETRIUM, into which the
blastocyst will implant to nourish the
developing foetus.

The endometrium builds up each month

in preparation for a potential pregnancy.
If no fertilisation occurs the endometrium
is shed as blood through the vagina
(menstruation).
CERVIX
Opening of the vagina into the uterus.

Stretches to allow the foetus to be

pushed out of the uterus during birth.

VAGINA
Muscular tube that receives the penis
during sexual intercourse.

It serves as the birth canal during the

birthing process.

It is the passage for menstrual blood to

leave the uterus during menstruation.
So far you have learned about many different
hormones …

FSH LH Oestrogen Progesterone

Let’s see how they all come together during

the MENSTRUAL CYCLE
1 Follicle stimulating hormone 1
(FSH) is released by the
pituitary gland / hypophysis.

2 FSH stimulates the ovary to start

forming a follicle. The 2
developing ovum is located
inside the follicle. A mature
follicle is called a Graafian
follicle.

3 As the follicle develops and

matures, it releases increasing 3
amounts of oestrogen.

4 Oestrogen stimulates the

endometrium to thicken. The
endometrium becomes more 4
blood rich and glandular in
preparation for the
implantation of a fertilized
ovum.
5 As the amount of oestrogen
peaks, it stimulates the pituitary
gland to release LH. 1 5 8

6 Just before day 14, the LH

concentration peaks, causing
the follicle to burst open and
6
2
release an ovum. This is called
ovulation.

The remnants of the Graafian 7

7
follicle is called the corpus
luteum. The corpus luteum
produces the hormone
progesterone. Progesterone
takes over the function of 3 7
oestrogen in maintaining the
endometrium.

8 Progesterone plays a role in

negative feedback and 4 7
prevents the pituitary from
releasing FSH and LH. This
prevents the development of
any new ova in the ovaries.
 If the ovum is not fertilized 1 5 8
9 12
within a few days, the corpus
luteum will decrease in size.

6
10 As the corpus luteum shrinks, 2 9
the levels of progesterone
decline.
7
11 When the progesterone levels
are very low, nothing will
support the endometrium any
more. The endometrium starts
to break down and separates 3 7
from the uterine wall.
Menstruation starts. 10

12 As the progesterone levels 7

decrease, nothing supresses 4 11
the pituitary gland not to
secrete FSH and increasing
FSH levels restarts a new
cycle.
 FERTILISATION, IMPLANTATION & GESTATION

[Link]
 Morula

OVULATION
High levels of LH trigger the
rupture of a mature Graafian
follicle to release an ovum from
the ovary into the Fallopian tube.

[Link]
of-development-of-the-fetus
 Morula
FERTILIZATION
Takes place in the Fallopian tube.

A haploid sperm cells (23 chromosomes) fuses

with a haploid ovum (23 chromosomes) to
form a diploid zygote (46 chromosomes).

[Link]
of-development-of-the-fetus
[Link]

Morula

MITOSIS & DEVELOPMENT

The zygote will divide through mitosis as it
moves down the Fallopian tube towards the
[Link] uterus. A dividing zygote is called an embryo.
of-development-of-the-fetus
 IMPLANTATION
The blastocyst embeds itself into the endometrium of
the uterus.

The outer wall of the blastocyst, called the chorion

develops chorionic villi (finger-like projections that
develop from the outer extra-embryonic membrane)
Morula which embeds into the uterine wall.

The cells of the embryo continue to divide and

differentiate to form the
different organs and limbs
of the foetus.

[Link]
of-development-of-the-fetus
 GESTATION
The period of development of the foetus inside the
uterus.

The foetus is enclosed in a sac called the amnion

which is filled with amniotic fluid.

The amniotic fluid allows for the

- free movement of the foetus
- protects the foetus against temperature fluctuations
- protects the foetus against dehydration and
- acts as shock absorber

The chorionic villi and the endometrium form the

placenta where the blood of both the foetus
and the mother run close to each other.

[Link]
of-development-of-the-fetus
 PLACENTA
The placenta allows for the:

- diffusion of nutrients and oxygen from the mother

to the foetus

- diffusion of carbon dioxide and waste products

from the foetus to the mother

- serves as a micro- filter and prevents the entry of

pathogenic substances into the blood of the foetus

- secretes progesterone which maintains pregnancy

[Link]
 ONE UMBILICAL VEIN
carries oxygenated blood rich in
Umbilical
nutrients from the placenta to the foetus cord

TWO UMBILICAL ARTERIES

carries deoxygenated blood and
waste products from the foetus to
the placenta
[Link]
[Link]
1. 1. The diagrams below represent the structures of an ovum, a sperm
and some parts of the male reproductive system.

1.1. Identify parts A, B, C, G and H. (4)

A – Jelly layer ✓ G – Testes ✓
B – Cytoplasm ✓ H – Scrotum ✓
C – Acrosome ✓
1. 1. The diagrams below represent the structures of an ovum, a sperm
and some parts of the male reproductive system.

1.2. Describe the process of spermatogenesis in part G. (4)

Under the influence of testosterone✓ diploid cells✓ in the
seminiferous tubules✓ of the testis undergo meiosis✓ to form
haploid sperm✓
1. 1. The diagrams below represent the structures of an ovum, a sperm
and some parts of the male reproductive system.

1.3. Write down only the LETTER of the part of the sperm that enters the ovum. (1)
D✓
1.4. Write down only the LETTERS of the TWO parts that enable the sperm to move
towards the ovum. E✓ & F✓ (2)
1. 1. The diagrams below represent the structures of an ovum, a sperm
and some parts of the male reproductive system.

1.5. Test results show that a man has a low sperm count. Explain why a doctor would
advise the man to wear underwear that is not tight. (3)
Tight underwear will pull the testes closer to the body✓
The temperature of the testes will be too high✓ and sperm will not
mature✓/sperm production is negatively affected
2. 1. Study the graph below.

2.1. Identify hormones A and B. (2)

A - Oestrogen✓
B - Progesterone✓

2.2. What effect does an increase

in hormone A have on the
endometrium? (2)

It increases✓
the thickness of the endometrium✓/the blood vessels in the
endometrium/the amount of glandular tissue in the endometrium
2. 1. Study the graph below.

2.3. Ovulation is indicated on the

graph:

(a) Define ovulation. (2)

Release of an ovum✓ from
a Graafian follicle ✓

(b) On which day did ovulation

take place? (1)
Day 14✓

(c) Which hormone secreted by the pituitary gland stimulates ovulation? (1)
LH✓

2.4. Explain why high levels of hormone B prevent the development of new follicles. (2)

High levels of hormone B/progesterone will inhibit✓ the secretion of FSH✓

2. 1. Study the graph below.

2.5. Explain evidence in the graph

that indicates that no
fertilisation took place during
the menstrual cycle shown
above. (3)

The progesterone✓ levels

decreased✓ because the
corpus luteum degenerated✓