ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION OF BUILDING AND SYSTEMS

(EEC 245)
According to IEEE Wiring Regulation, Electrical Installation is an assembly of associated
electrical equipment to fulfil a specific purpose and having certain co-ordinated characteristics.
In other words, Electrical Installation is the interconnection of wires, machinery, apparatus,
appliances, materials and equipment used or intended for use by a consumer for the receipt,
distribution or use of electrical power or energy.

TOPIC ONE
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION SYMBOLS

In electronic/electrical circuits, there are many symbols that are used to represent or identify a
basic electronic or electrical device. They are mostly used to draw a circuit diagram and are
standardized internationally by the IEEE standard and the British Standard (BS 3939).

A list of graphical symbols used in building installation is given in the table below .

Distribution board Intermediate Switch

Switch general symbol

One-Way Switch with Pilot
Lamp ( Single Pole )

One-Way Switch (
Single Pole )
Pull switch

Two-pole Socket (5A)

 Socket (15A)

Three outlets shown in two

Two-Way Switch (
forms
Single Pole )

One Way Pull Cord Socket outlet with pilot light

Switch ( Single Pole )

Push button or bell- Switched socket outlet

push

Plug
Push button with
indicator lamp
Socket and plug

Lighting Outlet
Joint Box
Position
( Shown with Wiring )

Water heater shown with

Lighting Outlet on Wall
wiring
( Shown with Wiring )

Lighting Outlet on
Fan
mounted on ceiling (
( Shown with Wiring )
Shown with Wiring )

Main intake
Lamp, general symbol

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 Meter
Spotlight

Ceiling fan
Fluorescent lamp
(general symbol)

Fan regulator
Group of three 40W
Fluorescent tubes

Group of five 40W

Wiring in conduit
Fluorescent tubes

Wiring on the surface

Siren

Heater
Terminals

Television Receiving Set

Buzzer

Radio Receiving Set

Bell

Transformer with two

Automatic fire detector
separate windings

contactor
Main control

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 Isolator
Changeover switch

Lighting This is used to provide light for the output.

Lamp Abbreviated as „DS‟.

Lamp Circuit Symbol

Indicator Used to convert electrical energy into light. The

Lamp best example is the warning light on a car
dashboard.

Lamp Indiator Circuit

Symbol

Heater This transducer is used to change electrical energy

into heat.

Heater Circuit Symbol

Inductor Inductor is used to produce a magnetic field when a

certain current is passed through a coil of wire. The
wire is coiled on a soft iron core. Have applications
Inductor Circuit Symbol
in motors, and tank circuits. Abbreviated as „L‟.

Motor This device is used to convert electrical energy into

mechanical energy. Can be used as a generator as
well. Abbreviated as „M‟.

Motor Circuit Symbol

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Bell Used to produce a sound as the output, according to
the electrical energy produced as the input.

Bell Circuit Symbol

Buzzer It is used to produce an output sound corresponding

to the electrical energy in the input.

Buzzer Circuit Symbol

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 TOPIC TWO
ELECTRICAL HAZARD AND HAZARD
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Safety is a state of being protected from potential harm or something that has been designed to
minimize or to eliminate hazardous conditions that can cause harm. In dealing with the
electrical installation, it is necessary to ensure the safety of personnel as well as the protection
of equipment from electrical faults.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
The safety provision in any electrical wiring installation is to prevent the electric shock and the
occurrence of fires due to electrical causes. Certain safety rules should be learned and followed
faithfully while installation wiring. Only if the rules are followed, the with electrician can avoid
accidents and injury.
Listed below are some important points to remember when working:
1. Never work on live equipment (unless a special live test is required, for which you will need
to be an experienced and competent person).
2. Always ensure, by using approved test instruments, that equipment is dead.
3. Never accept another person‟s word that a circuit is safe to work on; always check.
4. Ensure that all supplies to equipment to be worked on are isolated at the appropriate places
and locked „OFF‟ if possible, and that all supply fuses are removed and retained in a safe place.
Place „CAUTION MEN AT WORK‟ notices at positions of isolation.
5. If work is to be carried out on dead equipment which is adjacent to live supplies, ensure that
barriers are used to define safe areas, or „DANGER LIVE APPARATUS‟ notices are placed on
all adjacent live equipment.
6. Do not work or walk with bare feet. Always wear insulated rubber shoes.
7. On no account, should you make use of aluminium or steel ladder. If you are working at
height, should hold the ladder for you.
8. Do not attempt operation of machine in the workshop unless under the supervision of your
instructors or supervisors.
9. When working on live, make sure you have a board marked “DANGER, MEN AT WORK”
fixed near the main switch gear.
10. Should there be any accident, you as a trained electrical personnel, should not panic but
technically disconnect the supply from the circuit by switching off at the nearest possible point.

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SYMPTOMS OF AN ELECTRICAL FAULT
The basic symptoms of an electrical fault may be described in one or a combination of the
following ways:
1 There is a complete loss of power supply.
2 There is partial loss of power supply.
3 The installation or piece of equipment is failing because of the following:
(a) An individual component is failing;
(b) The whole plant or piece of equipment is failing;
(c) The insulation resistance is low;
(d) The overload or protective devices operate frequently;

CAUSES OF ELECTRICAL FAULTS

The fault in an electrical installation or piece of equipment may be caused by:
 Negligence – lack of proper care and attention;
 Misuse –not using the equipment properly or correctly;
 Abuse – deliberate ill-treatment of the equipment.

HAZARD.
A hazard is a condition with potential to cause injury, illness, or death of personnel and damage
to or loss of equipment or property. For example, chemicals, electricity or working above
ground.

CAUSES OF ELECTRICAL HAZARDS

 electrical overloads
 faulty electrical appliances
 Unprotected or unearthed equipment
 Use extension cords as permanent wiring
 Use broken electrical cords.
 Contact with live parts causing shock and burns.
 Improper tools and materials.

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THE MOST COMMON CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS
These are as follows:

 Burns: electrical burns are generally more dangerous (and more painful) than normally
burns, as they are usually caused by an are containing molten metal
 Falls: a very large percentage of industrial accidents are caused by falls, eitherfrom a
height or by workers tripping over equipment left lying about.
 Ladder: Ladders and scaffolding are used mainly in performing works at higher
positions than the reach of human body, like lights, street lights and overhead power
lines that are not too high. To prevent dangers or injuries when climbing a ladder, do the
following:
 Check the condition of the ladder
 Position the ladder at a safe angle to prevent slipping
 Make sure that the floor is level
 Use special locks when necessary
 Be careful when placing the ladder on wet or any slippery surfaces
 Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for proper and safe use
 Aluminium ladders should be used with great caution, particularly near bare
conductors.
 Electrical shock: this is one of the main hazards in our field. It is not always possible to
work on “dead” circuit but certain precautions may be taken:
 Never assume that an installation is “dead” check thoroughly before opening
equipment, and do not check by touching conductors with fingertips.
 Check circuit thoroughly before replacing a re-loaded fuse in a “live” d.b
and, if still in doubt, replace with gloves; always keep your face clear.
 If working on an installation to which other people have access, remove
fuses and keep them beside you.
 Moving machine: great care should be taken when working on moving machinery oil
rags and ties should be kept well clear. Do not remove guards, and if it becomes
necessary to remove guard, do so when the machinery is stationary. Replace all guards
before leaving a machine.

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TO CONTROL THE RISK OF AN ACCIDENT WE USUALLY:
 eliminate the cause;
 substitute a procedure or product with less risk;
 put guards around the hazard;
 use safe systems of work;
 supervise, train and give information to staff;

ELECTRIC SHOCK
An electric shock occurs when the human body is in contact with two objects of unequal
potentials, in such a way that the body forms part of an electric circuit in which current will
flow.

EFFECT OF ELECTRIC SHOCK ON HUMAN BEINGS

There are four major factors, which determine the seriousness of an electric shock:
1. Path taken by the electric current through the body
2. Amount of current
3. Time the current is flowing
4. The bodies‟ electrical resistance.

TYPES OF SHOCK
Electric shocks are of two types:
 Direct contact, and
 Indirect contact.

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DIRECT CONTACT
Direct contact is contact of a person with a live conductor which is intended to carry current
under normal operation condition. The normal protection against this is the provision of
insulation on all current-carrying cables, and enclosing terminals and connections.

„
Fig.1. illustrates a shock between phase and neutral owing to touching both conductors atthe
same time.

Fig.2. illustrates a shock from the phase conductor to earth.

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INDIRECT CONTACT
Indirect contact is contact with exposed conductive parts which are not intended to carry
current but have become live as a result of a fault. Indirect contact can occur as a result of faults
in electrical appliances, particular with metal casings. The main protection against indirect
contact is earthing, combined with an overcurrent cut-out device.

Fig.3. illustrating a shock from an Electrical appliance that has become live due to a fault.

Fig.4. Faulty electrical appliance that has been earthed. No shock is received

TREATMENT OF AN ELECTRIC SHOCK

Speed is essential in the treatment of electric shock. A few minutes delay may cause all the
difference between recovery and death. A severe electric shock will affect the nerves which
controls the breathing and the action of heart. In the treatment, the following action should be
taking to save the victim.
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The first person to reach a shocked person should do the following
1) Switch off the supply if possible quickly.
2) If not possible, victim should be pulled with a dry insulated object.
3) Remove any obstruction to the patient breathing.
4) Start giving artificial respiration, and sent for medical personnel.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
This is the treatment normally given to a victim of electric shock, if artificial respiration is not
performed within 60 to 120 seconds of the accident, the victim‟s brain will suffer a permanent
damage or death.

METHODS OF APPLYING ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

There are three methods of artificial respiration:
1. Mouth-to-mouth.
2. Mouth-to-nose
3. Chest pressure arm lift (Sylvester method)
4. Back pressure arm lift (Holger-Nielson)
5. External cardiac compression – pulmonary resuscitation.
6. Shafer‟s method
The most practical method is the mouth-to-mouth/nose method.

SEQUENCE OF MOUTH-TO-MOUTH METHOD

 Lay the patient down on his back.

 Inspect and clean the mouth from any obstruction.
 Loosen clothing at neck and waist.
 Knee down by his side near his head, press his head fully back with one hand and pull
chin up with the other.
 close the patient nostrils by using the thumb and forefinger of one hand
 Open the mouth with your left hand.
 Breathe in deeply, place your lips over the patient mouth and exhale into the patient
mouth using a little force.
 Watch and feel his chest rise.
 Remove your lips and let the lungs deflate.
 The above sequence should be repeated 12 times every minute.

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  You should repeat the sequences again and again until he recovers or a doctor certifies
death.

SEQUENCE OF MOUTH-TO-NOSE METHOD

 Lay the patient down on his back.

 Inspect and clean the mouth from any obstruction.
 Loosen clothing at neck and waist.
 Ensure the patient has a good air way by bending his head backwards using both hands
to lift his jaw forward.
 Close the victim mouth with the thumb (push bottom chin with palm of hand and use
thumb to push lips).
 Place your mouth firmly over patient nose.
 Make the blowing operation
 Watch and feel the patient chest rise.

SEQUENCE OF HOLGER NELSON METHOD

 Lay the victim in proper position with elbows bent and projecting sideways. The head is
rested with one check on the hands.
 The operator should kneel in front of the casualty.
 The operator now straighten out his arms and places his palms, fingers outstretched on
the flat of the victim‟s back.
 Press down on the victim‟s back –counting 1, 2.
 Slide hands to victim‟s elbow – counting 3.
 Raise his elbows – counting 4, 5.
 Lower his elbows and slide hands to the victim‟s back – counting 6.
 Repeat these cycles of action until the victim recovers or a doctor certifies him dead.

SEQUENCE OF EXTERNAL CARDIAC COMPRESSION

 Provide a clear / good air way for the patient.

 Use some help to lay the patient down on his back with both legs raised.
 Kneel beside him, and put the heel of one hand of the lower part on his breastbone.
Place your other hand on the top.
 Press vertically downwards, press the breastbone in, and then release it (press towards
the spine for about 1.5 inches (4 cm).

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 Repeat the pressure at least 60 times per minute (once a second), with equal time
between pressure and relaxation.
Note:
 If you are alone, you must stop to inflate the lungs by mouth to mouth about
once every six chest compression.
 Pause from time to time to ascertain whether spontaneous heart beating returned.

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 TOPIC THREE
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION WIRING

Wiring system is a network of wires connecting various accessories for distribution of electrical
energy from the supplier meter board to the numerous electrical energy consuming devices such
as lamps, fans and other domestic appliances through controlling and protective devices.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

Schematic diagram is a diagram that uses graphical symbols to indicate the interrelationship of
the electrical component in a circuit. This diagram is used to understand the working principle
of the circuit.

Fig.2. schematic diagram

ADVANTAGES OF SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

 The diagram pictures the various electrical. Electronics and occasionally mechanical
component in the form of universally adaptable graphic symbols.
 It is a quicker and easiest way of conveying the needed information “sign language”.
 Schematic diagrams are meant to show the functions of the components in a simplified,
readily recognizable symbolic form.
 It shows the identification and rating of the various components, for the design layout
and for the ordering of components.
 It includes all the detail information of individual parts.
 It makes it easy for an electrical electronic engineer to repair a piece of electronic
equipment.

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DISADVANTAGES OF SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

 A schematic diagram can only be read by a technicians or electronic professional

 It cannot be read by a layman
 The symbols are not arranged on the diagram in the same relationship (physical) as the
components are in the equipment, nor do they show any physical details.
 It cannot be used to detect or trace fault
 Schematic diagram is merely a condensation of the electric circuit data that is presented
by the use of graphical symbols.
 Symbols must be located in accordance with circuit function.
 The physical position of each component in the circuit cannot be visualized.
 In cases where many similar components are connected, once the labels and terminals
markings are off, the circuit will become difficult to trace.

WIRING DIAGRAM

A wiring diagram or connection diagram shows the detailed connections between components
or items of equipment.

ADVANTAGE OF WIRING DIAGRAM

 It shows the exact position of each component in a circuit

 It shows the route taken by each component
 It is useful for tracing out the wiring connection and to locate fault to a certain limit in a
circuit

DISADVANTAGE OF WIRING DIAGRAM

 It is only a profession in the field that can interpret the wiring diagram with the
physical appearance.
 The wiring pattern is not a true reflection of the circuit diagram.

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WIRING SYSTEM

 Surface wiring
 Conduit wiring
 Trunking wiring
 Under ground
 Duct wiring
 Cleat Wiring
1) Surface wiring: this type of wiring, all the wires are exposed as such trouble shooting is
easier
2) Conduit wiring is used to run conductors through a pipe inside the wall of a building.
These provide mechanical protection and electrical safety to person and property. The
wiring can be surface or concealed. There are three types of conduit used in electrical
installation work: steel, PVC and flexible.

Advantages of steel conduit Disadvantages of steel conduit

 Affords cables good mechanical  Under certain conditions moisture is liable to

protection form on the inside wall of the conduit.
 Permits easy rewiring  Expensive compared with some other wiring
 Minimises fire risks. systems.
 Can be utilized as the Circuit Protective  Liable to corrosion where subject to acids,
Conductor.(CPC) alkalis and corrosive fumes.

Advantages of PVC Conduit Disadvantages of PVC Conduit

 Lightweight and easy to handle Non  Joining with adhesive must be correctly done to
corrosive avoid blocking the tube and to ensure a waterproof
 Very good insulator joint
 Speed of installation  Cannot be used as the earth conductor
 Excellent electrical and fire resistant  It does not have high mechanical protection
properties  PVC does not offer the same level of mechanical
 Easy to cut and deburr protection as steel.
 Simple to form and bend  A separate Circuit Protective Conductor must be run
 Does not require painting inside the conduit.

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 3) Trunking wiring: is an enclosure provided for the protection of cables which is
normally square or rectangle in cross section, having one removable side.

Advantage of Trunking Disadvantage of Trunking

 It allows conductors to be laid in rather  Trunking is not necessarily a complete wiring

than to be drawn in as is case with system in itself and thus associated with conduit
conduit  Trunking must not be installed in conditions
 It is used where a large number of where inflammable vapour is present
conductors are to be carried, or follow
the same route
 It allows wiring at different voltage to be
segregated but carried within the same
unit run

4) Underground wiring is a system of wiring where the cables are buried under the
ground.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN CHOOSING A WIRING SYSTEM

1. Safety.
2. Durability.
3. Appearance.
4. Mechanical protection.
5. Accessibility.
6. Initial cost.
7. Maintenance cost.
8. Flexibility
9. Type of building

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IEE REGULATION RELATING TO CABLES AND WIRING

The basic requirements for the installation of conductors and wiring systems are

1) All materials to used (conductors and cables) should be sufficient in size and power
rating for the purpose for which they are to be used.
2) All live conductors should be effectively insulated or so positioned and protected as to
avoid danger.
3) The voltage drop in a consumer installation must not exceed 2.5% of the supply volage,
4) Every circuit should be protected against excessive current and earth leakage.
5) Any metalwork associated with current-carrying conductors, or in unavoidably close
proximity with live conductors should be connected to earth.
6) Special precautions must be taken where conductors and wiring systems are exposed to
inflammable surroundings, or in wet or damp situations.
7) All conductors must be colour coded
8) Joints between two different or same metals must be protected against corrosion. Also
the joint must be electrically and mechanically sound

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 TOPIC FOUR
ELECTRICAL CABLES

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

CONDUCTOR: A conductor is a material which allows the free passage of an electric current
along it, with very little resistance.

INSULATOR: is a material which does not allow the free passage of an electric current.
Insulators are used to surround the conductor with a material that prevents the direct touch of
live conductor and to provide a protection from outer damages.
TYPES OF CONDUCTING AND INSULATING MATERIALS

Electrical Conducting Materials Electrical Insulating Materials

1 Silver 1 PVC ( poly-vinyl-chloride )

2 Copper 2 Crosslinked Polyethylene (XLPE)

3 Aluminium 3 Rubber

4 Gold 4 Plastic

5 Brass 5 Porcelain

6 Tin 6 Glass

7 Steel 7 Glass Fibre

8 Tungsten 8 Asbestos

9 Lead 9 Mica

10 Mercury 10 Magnesium Oxide

11 Nichrome 11 Silicone Rubber

12 Carbon 12 Butyl Rubber

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CABLES
A cable is a length of single insulated conductor (solid or stranded) or two or more such
conductors, each provided with its own insulation which are laid up together.
A cable consists of three parts.
1. Conductor
2. Insulation
3. Sheath (Mechanical Protection)

1. Conductor: any pure metal which offers low resistance to the passage of electric
current is called a conductor. The current is taken from one place to the other by
means of a conductor.
2. Insulation: it is the covering which bounds the current to flow in a definite path.
The insulation of the cable must be strong enough because a leakage current will
start giving electrical shocks and can cause fire.
3. Protective covering: it protects the insulation covering against any mechanical
injury.

TYPE OF CABLES
The following cables are used for different types of wiring installation:
I. M.I.M.S. cable (Mineral-insulated metal-sheathed cable)
II. P.V.C. (Poly-vinyl-chloride) cable
III. Lead sheathed cable
IV. Flexible cable
V. V.I.R. (Vulcanized insulation rubber) cable,
VI. XLPE cables (Cross-linked Polyethylene)
VII. TRS (Tough rubber sheathed)
VIII. Armoured cable
IX. Optical Fibre cable

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CONSTRUCTION OF CABLES

1 ARMOURED CABLES
An armoured cable is one where the conductors and insulation are protected by a layer or layers
of steel wires or tapes. The armouring protects the cable from mechanical damage while it is in
service, as well as giving added strength to withstand handling during installation.
Armoured cables are designed for high voltages 600V/1000V and also for use in places where
mechanical damage to conductors or insulation is likely to occur, e.g. Underground cables runs.

Armoured Cable

The general construction of the cables is given below:

CORE OR CONDUCTOR: all cables have one centre core or a number of cores, of stranded
copper conductors having highest conductivity.

INSULATION: the different insulations used to insulate the conductors are paper, varnished
cambric and vulcanized bitumen for low voltages. But mostly impregnated paper is used which
is an excellent insulating material.

METALLIC SHEATH: a metallic sheath is provided over the insulation so as to prevent the
entry of the moisture into the insulating material. The metallic sheath is usually of lead or lead
alloy.

BEDDING: over the metallic sheath comes a layer of bedding, which consists of paper tape
compounded with a fibrous material. The purpose of providing the bedding is to protect the
metallic sheath from mechanical injury from the armouring

ARMOURING: armouring is provided to avoid mechanical injury to the cable and it consists
of providing one or two layers of galvanised steel wires or two layers of steel tape.

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2. MINERAL-INSULATED METAL-SHEATHED CABLES (MIMS)
These are variety of electrical cables made from solid copper conductor, insulated by
compressed inorganic magnesium oxide powder, all contained within a metal sheath. Copper is
mostly used in constructing MIMS cables and where it is used is referred to as Mineral-
insulated copper clad cable (MICC) or Mineral-insulated copper sheathed cable. A similar
product sheathed with metals other than copper is called Mineral-Insulated Metal-Sheathed
Cables (MIMS).

Advantages
Mechanical strength: The metal sheath and solid filling of MI cables makes it mechanically
robust and can withstand a considerable amount of stresses such as, twisting, bending and
flattening.

Fireproof: Since MI cables use no organic material as insulation (except at the ends), they are
more resistant to fires than plastic-insulated cables and can thus be exposed to considerably
higher temperatures than cables with synthetic sheaths (e.g. PVC, teflon or textile fibres etc.).
The metal sheath will not contribute fuel or hazardous combustion products to a fire, and cannot
propagate a fire along a cable tray within a building.

Waterproof: the metals sheath is impervious to water, oil and gas.

Easy Installation: The cables are flexible, easy to handle and can be installed easily in a
limited space or in locations where access is difficult because additional insulation is required.

Long Life: The construction of the cable guarantees a long conductor life and thus the function
of the conductor because the sheath and the insulating powder protect the conductors (cores)
against environmental conditions such as corrosion or scaling.

Radiation Resistance: MI cable is also highly resistant to ionizing radiation and so finds
applications in instrumentation for nuclear reactors and nuclear physics apparatus.
The metal tube surrounding the conductors effectively shields circuits in MI cable from
electromagnetic interference. The metal sheath provides protection against accidental contact
with energized circuit conductors.

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DISADVANTAGES:
Vibration: MICC is not suitable for use where it will be subject to vibration or flexing, for
example connection to heavy or movable machinery. Vibration will crack the cladding and
cores, leading to failure.

Labour Cost: During installation MI cable must not be bent repeatedly as this will cause work
hardening and cracks in the cladding and cores. A minimum bend radius must be observed and
the cable must be supported at regular intervals.

Moisture absorption: The magnesium oxide insulation has a high affinity for moisture.
Moisture introduced into the cable can cause electrical leakage from the internal conductors to
the metal sheath. Moisture absorbed at a cut end of the cable may be driven off by heating the
cable.

The termination points: While the length of the MI cable is very tough, at some point, each
run of cabling terminates at a splice or within electrical equipment. These terminations are
vulnerable to fire, moisture, or mechanical impact.

Corrosion: The copper sheath material is resistant to most chemicals but can be severely
damaged by ammonia-bearing compounds and urine. A pinhole in the copper sheathing will
allow moisture into the insulation, and eventual failure of the circuit. A PVC over jacket or
sheaths of other metals may be required where such chemical damage is expected.

Repair: If the MI cable jacket has been damaged the magnesium oxide will wick or absorb
moisture into the cable and it will lose its insulating properties causing shorts to the copper
cladding, and thence to earth. It is often necessary to remove 0.5 to 2 metres (1.6 to 6.6 ft) of
the MI cable and splice in a new section to accomplish the repair.

3. PVC INSULATED PVC-SHEATHED CABLES

PVC is a general purpose thermoplastic used for wires and cables insulation and is a suitable
alternative to paper insulation. PVC can be used both as Insulating and Sheathing materials.

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Advantages
 Insulation resistance and breakdown strength are practically unaffected by moisture.
 There is no impregnated compound in these cable, hence these cables can be laid
vertically and on steep slopes.
 These cables can withstand a high transient conductor temperature without any
deformation of insulation. These cables are practically resistant to all chemicals
encountered in practice.
 These cables are flame retardant since PVC ignites with great difficulty and that too
when directly exposed to a flame.
 They are easy to install and handle due to their lighter weight.
 Small bending radii permit the termination of these cables in limited space. This eases
the termination of PVC cables in switch boards and control panels etc.
 PVC cables have a smooth outer surface resulting in a neat appearance when installed.
PVC outer sheath is tough and abrasion proof.

Disadvantage
PVC insulated cable becomes brittle due to high temperature variations. It is not recommended
for use above 70° C, although it can be taken to 80°C

IEE REGULATION RELATING TO CABLES AND WIRING

The basic requirements for the installation of Cables are:

1) All materials to used (conductors and cables) should be sufficient in size and power
rating for the purpose for which they are to be used.
2) All live conductors should be effectively insulated or so positioned and protected as to
avoid danger.
3) The voltage drop in a consumer installation must not exceed 2.5% of the supply voltage.
4) Every circuit should be protected against excessive current and earth leakage.
5) Any metalwork associated with current-carrying conductors, or in unavoidably close
proximity with live conductors should be connected to earth.
6) Special precautions must be taken where conductors and wiring systems are exposed to
inflammable surroundings, or in wet or damp situations.
7) All conductors must be colour coded

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 8) Joints between two different or same metals must be protected against corrosion. Also
the joint must be electrically and mechanically sound.
9) Flexible cable and flexible cord (exceeding 30V a.c): flexible cable of the circular
should be used for connections to movable equipment. Twisted flex should only be used
for fixed lighting fittings, not for portable appliances. All flexes must be protected from
mechanical protection.
10) Insulation remove from a conductor during the making of a joint should be replaced by
a suitable tape

VOLTAGE DROP ACROSS CABLES

As every cable conductor has resistance (however low), there will be a voltage drop across
them due to the current flowing through their resistance. If this voltage drop is excessive, the
“potential difference” across the load will be low and inefficient operation may be the result.
Since any voltage drop can be expressed as the product of current and resistance
(V = I x R), voltage drop across a cable depends on the resistance of the conductor and the
value of current flowing through it.
The voltage drop across a cable supplying a given load, can only be reduced by replacing it
with a cable having a larger cross sectional area. This is the main reason for using different
sizes of cables e.g.
1.5 mm2 for lighting loads
2.5 mm2 for heating loads
4mm2 for air conditioner loads
6 mm2 for cooking loads

VOLTAGE DROP CALCULATIONS

The voltage drop in cable conductor(s) is directly proportional to the circuit current and the
length of cable run.
The volt drop for a particular cable may be found from
VD = Factor x Design current x Length of run
The factor is given in the tables of Appendix 4 of the IEE Regulations. (See Table 2).
Voltage drop = current (A) × length of run (m) × millivolt drop per A/m
1000
(Note division by 1000 to convert millivolts to volts.)
27
Note BS 7671 Requirement limits the voltage drop permitted between the origin of the
installation and the terminals of a load to 4% of the nominal supply voltage. For a single-phase
230V supply this equates to 9.2V. This means that the voltage at the terminals of the load
should be, not less than 230 Volts minus 9.2 Volts which equals 220.8 Volts.

Also for a 400 Volt three phase supply, the volt drop should not exceed 4% of 400 Volts which
is equal to 16 Volts.

Table 2: Voltage Drop in Electrical Cables. From BS767

Example 1.

A subcircuit is to supply a 3kW heater. It is decided to use single-core copper PVC insulated
cable run in a PVC conduit. The supply is 240V, the ambient temperature is 30 0C, the length of
run is 20 metres and the circuit is protected by a miniature circuit breaker. Determine:

a) The design current of the circuit (IB)

b) The rating of the miniature circuit breaker (I N)
c) The smallest permitted cable size.

28
 Solution

a) IB = W = 3000 = 12.5A
V 240

b) Nearest standard size (above) circuit breaker = 15A

c) From I.E.E. table 2.5, two 1.5 mm2 single-core cables in conduit can carry 17A and
since no correction factors apply, this size is sufficient in current rating.

Check Voltage Drop

Maximum permissible voltage drop is 4% x 240 = 9.6V.

From tables, actual voltage drop for this cable run

mV x I x L = 29mV x 12.5A x 20m = 7.25V

1000 1000

This value is too high so try 2.5 mm2 cables with a 17mV drop per ampere per metre

= 18 x 12.5 x20 = 4.25V

1000

This is within the permitted limit and is the correct cable size.

Calculation of volt drop in cables is necessary in order to decide on the correct size of
cable for a given load.

SOLVE:

A 10hp, 240V, 50Hz single phase is multicore non-armoured cable having 850C rubber
insulation and copper conductor clipped direct. The length of run is 20 metres and the circuit is
protected by a miniature circuit breaker. Determine:

a) The design current of the circuit (IB)

b) The rating of the miniature circuit breaker (I N)
c) The smallest permitted cable size.

29
ELECTRICAL CABLE JOINTS
Joint in a cable is inevitable due to physical limits on cable lengths for installations,
manufacturing and packaging. Cable joints form the weakest link in any distribution system.
Also a failed joint is difficult to locate and repair. When cable joining is executed, it should be
done with a lot of care and consideration. Also the joint must be electrically and mechanically
sound.

There are several types of joints used in electrical wiring. These are:
1. T-joint
2. Married joint
3. Pigtail Joint
4. Rattail Joint
5. Straight Twist Joint

STEPS IN MAKING T-JOINTS ARE

30
31
STEPS IN MAKING MARRIED JOINTS ARE:

32
 TOPIC FIVE
SINGLE AND THREE PHASE ELECTRIC POWER SUPPLY

SINGLE-PHASE SUPPLY
A single-phase electric power supply is the distribution of alternating current electric power

where all the voltages of the supply vary in simultaneously. Single-phase distribution is used

when loads are mostly lighting and heating, with few large electric motors. A single-phase

power supply has two conductors, which have a sine wave that are 180 degrees apart.

The connections of service pole, pole fuse, energy meter, main switch and fuses and
distribution board for giving service connection to a single and load are as shown in figure
above.
For single phase supply, the service line (wire) has two wires namely phase wire and neutral
wire running from the supply pole to the consumer‟s premises.

THREE-PHASE SUPPLY
3 Phase Power Supply is a method of alternating current electric power generation, transmission
and distribution. 3 Phase Power Supply is delivered on three lines of power. Each line is
considered a phase and carries the same voltage at the same [Link] Phases is actually
three different phases all 120 degrees apart. Three Phase supplies are much more efficient and
are used to drive larger electric devices when more power is required with better response.

33
The connections of service pole, pole fuse, energy meter, main switch and fuses and
distribution board for giving service connection to a three phase load are as shown in figure
above.
For three phase supply, the service line (wire) has four wires namely 3 phase wires (red, yellow
and blue phases) and neutral wire running from the supply pole to the consumer‟s premises.

34
 TOPIC SIX
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION PROTECTION

ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION PROTECTION

Every circuit requires protection if, in the event of a fault, damage is to be avoided. The
inclusion into the circuit of a suitably rated fuse or protective device, such as a miniature circuit
breaker (MCB) will protect both the load, and the cables supplying the load, from the heat
damage associated with large fault currents.
Protective devices are used to provide a circuit with overload protection, short-circuit
protection and shock protection. The protective device, or fuse, is deliberately designed to be a
„weak link‟ in a circuit.
When current increases to a level where damage can be sustained, the fuse operates and
automatically interrupts the supply to the circuit. As the fuse is a part of the circuit, once it is
„broken‟ it also breaks the flow within the circuit, ending the supply.
All electrical installations, electrical apparatus and devices must be protected to:
(a) Prevent damage by fire or shock
(b) Maintain continuity of the supply
(c) Disconnect faulty apparatus from the remainder of the system
(d) Prevent damage to wiring and equipment
(e) Minimize the system interruptions under fault conditions.
(f) Protect against earth leakage

The methods of protection are

(i) Earthing or grounding of equipment
(ii) Use of fuses or circuit breakers (such as the Miniature Circuit Breaker – MCB)
(iii) Use of earth leakage and residual current circuit breakers.
(iv) Use of Lightning Arrestors
(iv) Use of Surge Arrestors

PROTECTION AGAINST OVERCURRENT

An over-current is any increase in the current in the electrical system, above the level for which
it is designed. It may occur in two ways:
1. As an overload current; or
2. As a fault current, this may be subdivided into

35
(a) A short-circuit current
(b) An earth fault current.
These conditions need to be protected against in order to avoid damage to circuit conductors
and equipment. In practice, fuses and circuit breakers will fulfil both of these needs.

The most common types of faults in domestic systems are:

(a) the short circuit faults (phase to neutral faults) – as a result of which large currents will flow
and damage may occur to wires, insulators, switches, etc., due to overheating; and
(b) Insulation failure (fault between the phase conductor and non-current carrying metallic
parts) of an electrical equipment - as a result of which high voltages may appear on the frames
of equipment and may be dangerous to a person coming in contact with it.

On consumer installations, the following devices are used:

1) Fuse;
2) Circuit breaker;
3) Surge Arrestors (Surge Protector);
4) Lightning Arrestors

FUSE
A fuse is a device for protecting a circuit against damage from an excessive current flowing in
it, by opening the circuit on the heating of a fuse - element by the excessive current. The
function of the fuse element (fuse wire) is
 To carry the normal working current safely without heating and
 To break the circuit when the current exceeds the limiting current.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF FUSE

The operation of fuse depends upon the heating effect of an electric current. When the electric
current is increased in a circuit due to short circuits or overloads, it increases the rate of heat
generation which will increase the temperature of the fuse wire and thereby the rate of heat
dissipation increases from the exposed surface of the fuse wire. The final temperature reaches
to such stage that the heat generation will be equal to the rate of heat dissipation. If this
temperature happens to be above the melting point of the material of fuse wire, fuse must have
operated.

36
IMPORTANT DEFINITION
 Fuse rating is the current the fuse will carry without undue deterioration
 Fusing current is the current at which the fuse will suddenly melt.
 Fuse element is that part of the fuse which actually melts when an excessive current
flows in the circuit and thus isolates the faulty device from the supply circuit
 Fuse link is that of part of the fuse which needs replacement when the fuse blows out.
 Fusing factor: this is the ratio between fuse rating and fusing current

= fusing current
Fuse rating

TYPES OF FUSE
 Rewirable fuseor Semi-enclosed fuses
 Cartridge fuse
 High breaking capacity fuse

REWIRABLE FUSE OR SEMI-ENCLOSED FUSES

The semi-enclosed fuse consists of a fuse wire, called the fuse element, secured between two
screw terminals in a fuse carrier. The fuse element is connected in series with the load and the
thickness of the element is sufficient to carry the normal rated circuit current.
When a fault occurs an overcurrent flows and the fuse element becomes hot and melts or
„blows‟.
This type of fuse is illustrated in Fig. 1. The fuse element should consist of a single strand of
plain or tinned copper wire having a diameter appropriate to the current rating as given in Table
2.1.

Fig. 1.A semi-enclosed fuse.

37
ADVANTAGES OF SEMI-ENCLOSED FUSES
 They are very cheap compared with other protective devices both to install and to
replace.
 There are no mechanical moving parts.
 It is easy to identify a „blown fuse‟.
 It requires no maintenance

DISADVANTAGES OF SEMI-ENCLOSED FUSES

 The fuse element may be replaced with wire of the wrong size either deliberately or by
accident
 The circuit cannot be restored quickly since the fuse element requires screw fixing.
 Deteriorates over time

CARTRIDGE FUSES
The cartridge fuse breaks a faulty circuit in the same way as a semi-enclosed fuse, but its
construction eliminates some of the disadvantages experienced with an open-fuse element.
The fuse element is encased in a glass or ceramic tube and secured to end-caps which are firmly
attached to the body of the fuse so that they do not blow off when the fuse operates. Cartridge
fuse construction is illustrated in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2.A cartridge fuse.

ADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSES
 They have no mechanical moving parts.
 The declared rating is accurate.
 The element does not weaken with age.
 They have small physical size and no external arcing which permits their use in plug
tops and small fuse carriers.
 Their operation is more rapid than semi-enclosed fuses. Operating time is inversely
proportional to the fault current.

38
DISADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSES
 They are more expensive to replace than rewirable fuse elements.
 They can be replaced with an incorrect cartridge.
 The cartridge may be shorted out by wire or silver foil in extreme cases of bad practice.

HIGH BREAKING CAPACITY FUSES

These cartridge fuses are for protecting circuits where extremely high fault currents may
develop such as on industrial installations or distribution systems.

Fig. [Link] fuse.

ADVANTAGES OF HBC FUSES

 They have no mechanical moving parts.
 The declared rating is accurate.
 The element does not weaken with age.
 Their operation is very rapid under fault conditions.
 They are capable of breaking very heavy fault currents safely.
 They are capable of discriminating between a persistent fault and a transient fault such
as the large starting current taken by motors.
 They do not require any maintenance.
 They are simple and have easy installation

DISADVANTAGES OF HBC FUSES

 They are very expensive compared to semi enclosed fuses.
 After each operation, its replacement is required.

CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker (CB) is a device for interrupting the current in a circuit under normal or
abnormal conditions.
39
  Under normal continuous – current rating, a circuit breaker is a single switching device.
 When the current exceeds the normal rating, either on overload or short circuit, the
circuit breaker acts as an automatically over current protection device

FUNCTIONS OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS

 Sense the current flowing in the circuit
 Measure the current flowing in the circuit
 Compare the measured current level with its pre-set trip point
 Act within a predetermined period by opening the circuit as quickly as possible to limit
the amount of energy that is allowed to flow after the trip point has been reached.

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER

EARTH LEAKAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER-: This is a safety device used in electrical
installations with high earth impedance to prevent shock; it detects small stray voltages on the
metal enclosures of electrical equipment, and interrupts the circuit if a dangerous voltage is
detected.

Fig.4. ELCB

OPERATION OF ELCB
When a leakage occurs between a live conductor and the earth circuit on the consumer
installation, the earth terminal will rise in potential. This potential or voltage causes a current to
flow in the coil of the ELCB, and the magnetic field set up causes the contacts to open and cut
off the supply. A test button is provided to check the ELCB operation. When pressed, it
disconnects the consumers earth and pushs a small current through the coil current to a safe
value on testing.

40
RESIDUAL CURRENT CIRCUIT BREAKER-: This is an electrical wiring device that
disconnects a circuit whenever it detects that the electric current is not balanced between the
phase („hot‟) conductor and the neutral conductor.

Fig. [Link] of a residual current device (RCD).

OPERATION OF AN RCD
An RCD is a device, which operates on the principle of current balance. Both phase and neutral
conductors are wound on a common transformer core forming a pair of primary coils. A
secondary coil or search coil, wound on the same core is connected to a trip coil. The trip coil
operates the tripping mechanism electro-mechanically. In healthy circuits the current flowing
out on the phase conductor, equals the current returning on the neutral conductor. The magnetic
effect of these two currents, cancel each other, therefore there is no voltage induced in the
search coil.
In the event of an earth leakage fault, current will flow to earth causing an imbalance in the
currents flowing through the transformer primary coils. This imbalance causes a magnetic flux
to be set up in the transformer core. The magnetic flux in turn induces a voltage in the search
coil, which is applied across the trip coil. The trip coil operates, the RCD tripping mechanism
and the supply is disconnected from the fault on the circuit or load.
A test button is provided to allow the consumer to periodically test the mechanical operation
of the RCD. It is recommended that the RCD be tested quarterly.

PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH ELCB.

41
Although the voltage type is cheaper and more sensitive than the current type, its disadvantage
is that it is liable to nuisance tripping by small current leakages such as cooker, hot plates and
immersion heaters. They can also be tripped by faulty adjacent installations where unknowly,
the areas of earth resistance around the various earth electrode overlap.
The current type is less sensitive than the voltage ELCB and is therefore not liable to nuisance
tripping. The I.E.E regulations state that the maximum voltage to earth when a fault occurs
should not exceed 40V and therefore if the operating current (I) multiplied by the earth loop
impedance value (Ω) is greater than 40V, the voltage type must be used.

Difference between Solid Earthing Practice and Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
ELCB PROTECTION SOLID EARTHING PROTECTION
 In the event of overload, all  In the event of overload, the
poles are disconnected excessive current flows to earth
via the ECC
 It is capable of remote control  It is not capable of remote
by push buttons control by push buttons
 Overload and time lags can  Overload and time lags cannot
be adjusted. be adjusted.
 The circuit can be closed,  The circuit does not need to be
again quickly closed quickly, as the faulty
current flows to earth.
 It can open the circuit, if the  It cannot open the circuit, if the
supply fails thereby avoiding supply fails thereby avoiding
unexpected switching ON unexpected switching ON

EARTHING
Earthling is the connection of the neutral point of a supply system or the non-current carrying
parts of electrical equipment or apparatus, such as metallic frame work, metallic covering of
cables, earth terminal of socket outlet, stay wire etc., to the general mass of earth by wire of
negligible resistance. This is to prevent the potential of live conductors rising above the
declared value, and to automatically cut off the supply when any appreciable leakage current
flows due to an insulation fault.

42
FUNCTION OF EARTHING
The earth is an inefficient conductor; it is widely used in electrical work. There are three main
functions of earthing:
 To ensure that no current carrying conductor rises to a potential with respect to general
mass of earth than its designed insulation,
 To avoid electric shock to the human beings, and
 To avoid risk of fire due to earth leakage current through unwanted path.

SPECIFICATIONS REGARDING EARTHING OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATIONS

 Distance of earth from building
 Size of earth continuity conductor
 Resistance of earth. The maximum permissible values of resistance of earth are:
 Large power station – 0.5Ω
 Major power station – 1.0Ω
 Small substation – 2.0Ω
 In all other cases - 5Ω
 The earth wire and earth electrode will be of same material
 The earth electrode shall always be placed in vertical position inside the earth or pit so
that it may be in contact with all the different earth layers.

METHODS OF EARTHING
1. Strip or wire earthing
2. Rod earthing
3. Pipe earthing
4. Plate earthing

EARTH CONTINUITY CONDUCTOR (ECC): the conductor, by means of which the metal
body of equipment or an appliance is connected to the earth.

EARTH ELECTRODE: any wire, pipe, rod or metal plate embedded in earth for the purpose
of making an effective connection with the general mass of earth
The following types of earth electrodes are acceptable:
(i) Earth rods or pipes;
(ii) Earth tapes or wires;

43
(iii) Earth plates;

EARTHING LEAD: An earthing lead is the final conductor by which connection to the earth
electrode is made.

CONSUMER’S EARTH TERMINAL: is the point in the consumer‟s installation distribution

fuse board where earth continuity conductor is connected.

BONDING connects the non-current-carrying metal parts of the electrical system, such as
metal boxes and metal conduit, in a continuous low-resistance path back to the main service
panel. If this metal becomes energized (a ground fault), current travels on the bonded metal and
quickly increases to an amount that trips the circuit breaker or blows the fuse. The dead circuit
alerts people to a problem.

44
 TOPIC SEVEN
LIGHTING SYSTEM

Design of the Lighting System

A simple means of designing lighting systems is achieved by means of the lumen method; this
is a simplified design approach to enable the designer to achieve an even light distribution in
spaces of reasonably simple geometry (i.e. rectangular).

The basis of the lumen method is the following equation:

E A
N
n  F  MF  UF
(1)
N - is the number of luminaires required;
E - is the required illuminance (lux);
A - is the area to be lit;
n - is the number of lamps per luminaire;
F - is the lamp lumen output (lumens);
MF - is known as the maintenance factor, which is a combination of three factors;
UF - is the utilisation and is a function of the luminaire properties and room geometry.

Utilisation Factor (UF)

The room geometry is a crucial factor in determining the utilisation factor term in the lumen
equation. Several parameters are important.
In the Lumen method of design the room geometry is characterised by a room index (K):

L W
K
( L  W )hm
(2)

45
 length L

width W

ceiling cavity
ceiling plane hm

working plane

floor cavity

Figure 2 important dimensional parameters for the Lumen Method

The utilisation factor can be obtained once the surface reflectances (or effective reflectances)
are known along with the room index (K); each luminaire produced by a manufacturer has a
lookup table for UF (UF values in bold):
Reflectances Room Index (K)
Ceiling Wall floor 0.75 1.00 … 5.00
0.7 0.3 0.2 0.45 0.51 … 0.69
Utilisation Factors

Lumens is the actual amoun of ambient light coming from a lamp. The higher the lumens, the
more lit up the room is.
Floors 20 lumens per square foot
Tables and raised surfaces 30 lumens per square foot

Luminaire is a lighting unit consising of one or more electric lamps with all of the necessary
parts and wiring
Diversity factor is the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands of the various
subdivisions of a system (or part of a system) to the maximum demand of the whole system (or
part of the system) under consideration. Diversity is usually more than one.
Maintenance factor is defined as the ratio of illuminance produced by a lighting system after a
certain period of time to the illuminance produced by the system when new. This period of time
is often the lifetime of the light source, particularly with regards to LED.
To ensure that the required illuminance is provided over a period of time, the lighting design
includes a maintenance factor MF that takes into account the reduction of luminous flux. The
new value for the illuminance of an installation is calculated from the maintained value of
illuminance, and the maintenance factor. The maintenance plan specifies the cleaning frequency

46
of the luminaires and the room and the lamp replacement. The maintained value of illuminance
thus depends on the luminaires, the lamps and the room conditions.

Light loss factor, commonly referred to as LLF, is the multiplying factor which light output
can be can be adjusted by due to environmental impacts and/or product degradation. Lamp
Lumen Depreciation (LLD), Lamp Dirt Depreciation (LDD), Ballast Factor (BF), Luminaire
Ambient Temperature Factor (LATF) are the more common factors which adversely affect the
light output. To keep this a little shorter we will only focus on these main four factors.

LLF = Light Loss Factor. This takes account of the depreciation over time of lamp output and
dirt accumulation on the fitting and walls of the building.

Typical LLF Values: Air Conditioned Office= 0.8, Clean Industrial =0.7, Dirty Industrial =0.6

Maintenance Factor (MF)

The maintenance factor is a value designed to account for the reduction in light output from a
lighting system due to: the ageing of the lamps and the accumulation of dirt and dust on the
light fittings and room surfaces. The MF is therefore time varying and is the product of 4
factors:

Lamp lumen maintenance factor (LLMF) – a value between 0 and 1 which accounts for the
degradation of lamp output over time:

lumen output at time t

LLMF(t ) 
initial lumen output
The LLMF for any time t can be obtained from manufacturer‟s data.

Lamp survival factor (LSF) – this accounts for the failure of lamps over time, if failed lamps are
replaced immediately this factor can be ignored.

Luminaire maintenance factor (LMF) – a value between 0 and 1 that accounts for dirt and dust
accumulation on the luminaire. The luminaire maintenance factor

LLF = Light Loss Factor. This takes account of the depreciation over time of lamp output and
dirt accumulation on the fitting and walls of the building.

Typical LLF Values: Air Conditioned Office= 0.8, Clean Industrial =0.7, Dirty Industrial =0.6

47
Spacing to Height ratio (SHR or S/Hm) is defined as the ratio of the distance between adjacent
luminaires (centre to centre), to their height above the working plane. For a rectangular
arrangement of luminaires and by approximation,

Where
A = total floor area
N = number of luminaires
Hm = mounting height

Nominal Spacing to Height ratio (SHR NOM) For a given mounting height we can see the
nominal spacing between fittings. Eg.1.75 to1 means that for every1 metre of mounting height
(above work plane) we should have a maximum 1.75 metres between fittings.

Example

Design a lighting installation for a college seminar room so that the average illuminance is 500
lux on the horizontal working plane, using the data listed below. Calculate the room index (R),
number of luminaire (N) and spacing to height ratio (SHR)

Room dimensions: 12 m long x 8 m wide x 3.2 m high

Working plane at 0.7 m above floor

Light Loss factor: 0.779

Dimensions: 1800 mm long x 200 mm wide

5800 average initial lumens per lamp

2 lamps per luminaire

48
Solution

(a) Initial calculation

From manufacturer's photometric data sheet, room index of 1.92 corresponds to utilisation
factor (UF) is 0.5336 by interpolation.

Therefore, the number of luminairs is 10.

Initial check on S/Hm ratio gives:

49
 TOPIC EIGHT
MISCELLANEOUS

PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM (PA SYSTEM)

A public address system (PA system) is an electronic sound amplification and distribution
system with a microphone, amplifier and one or more loudspeakers used to allow a person to
address a large public, for example for announcements of movements at large and noisy air and
rail terminals. PA systems are primarily for reproduction of speech.

Public address systems consist of input sources, amplifiers, control and monitoring equipment,
and loudspeakers. The primary input sources are microphones for live announcements and a
source of recorded sound. A sound source such as a Compact Disc player or radio may be
connected to a PA system so that music can be played through the system.

50
SOLVED EXAMPLES ON DEMAND AND DIVERSITY FACTORS

EXAMPLE1
Suppose we have four individual feeder-circuits with connected loads of 250 kVA, 200 kVA,
150 kVA and 400 kVA and demand factors of 90%, 80%, 75% and 85% respectively. Use a
diversity factor of 1.5.

Calculating demand for feeder-circuits

250 kVA x 90% = 225 kVA

200 kVA x 80% = 160 kVA

150 kVA x 75% = 112.5 kVA

400 kVA x 85% = 340 kVA

837.5 kVA

The sum of the individual demands is equal to 837.5 kVA.

If the main feeder-circuit were sized at unity diversity: kVA = 837.5 kVA ÷ 1.00 = 837.5 kVA.

The main feeder-circuit would have to be supplied by an 850 kVA transformer.

However, using the diversity factor of 1.5, the kVA = 837.5 kVA ÷ 1.5 = 558 kVA for the main
feeder.

For diversity factor of 1.5, a 600 kVA transformer could be used.

51
EXAMPLE 2

One Machine Shop has Fluorescent fixtures=1 No, 5kw each, Receptacle outlets =1 No, 1500w each.
Lathe=1No, 10 Hp, Air Compressor=1 No, 20 Hp, Fire Pump=1 No, 15 Hp.

After questioning the customer about the various loads, the information is further deciphered as
follows:

1. The shop lights are on only during the hours of 8 a.m. to 5 p.m.
2. The receptacle outlets are in the office only, and will have computers and other small
loads plugged into them.
3. The lathe is fully loaded for 5 minutes periods. The rest of the time is setup time. This
procedure repeats every 15 minutes.
4. The air compressor supplies air to air tools and cycles off and on about half the time.
5. The fire pump only runs for 30 minutes when tested which is once a month after
hours.

Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.

 = (15 minute run time/ 15 minutes) x 1.0 = 1.0

 Lighting Demand Load = 5 kW x 1.0 = 5 kW
 Receptacle Outlet Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor
 = (15 minute run time / 15 minutes) x 0.1 = 0.1
 Receptacle Outlet Demand Load = 15 x 1500 watts x 0.1 = 2.25 kW
 Lathe Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
 = (5 minute run time / 15 minutes) x 1.0 =0 .33
 Lathe Demand Load = 10 hp x .746 x .33 = 2.46 kW
 Air Compressor Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
 = (7.5 minute run time / 15 minutes) x 1.0 = 0.5
 Air Compressor Demand Load = 20 hp x .746 x .5 = 7.46 kW
 Fire Pump Demand Factor = Demand Interval Factor x Diversity Factor.
 = (15 minute run time/ 15 minutes) x 0.0 = 0.0
 Fire Pump Demand Load = 15 hp x .746 x 0.0 = 0.0 kW

Summary of Demand Loads :

Equipment kW D.F. Demand KW

Lighting 5 1 5
Receptacle Outlets 22.5 .1 2.25
Lathe 7.5 .33 2.46
Air Compressor 15 0.5 7.46
Fire Pump 11.25 0.0 0.0
TOTAL 61.25 Kw 17.17 Kw

52
53