Thermal Comfort
Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort is defined as the condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment and is assessed by subjective evaluation (Fanger, 1970). According to Hensen (1991) the
condition of thermal comfort is defined as a state in which there are no driving impulses to correct the
environment by behavior. It is defined by De Dear and Brager (2002) as a complex psychological and
physiological state influenced by factors such as air temperature, radiant temperature, humidity, air
velocity, and clothing insulation [as well as activity level].
Thermal comfort refers to the feeling of satisfaction with the thermal environment, where individuals are
not too hot or too cold (ISO, 2005). It refers to the sensation of being neither too hot nor too cold. It is
achieved when the body's heat production and heat loss are in balance (Olesen and Parsons, 2012).
According to ASHRAE (2020) thermal comfort refers to the state of mind in which individuals express
satisfaction with the thermal environment. It is influenced by various factors such as air temperature,
humidity, air velocity, and clothing insulation.
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort
All the definition of thermal comfort during many decades refer to the condition of mind at which
individuals expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment. Research has shown that temperature
sensations, particularly local cold sensations, are primarily influenced by the activity of thermoreceptors
in the skin (Gagge et al., 1967). However, thermal comfort or discomfort is a more complex response
that reflects the overall state of the body's thermoregulatory system (Nakamura et al., 2008).
Thermal comfort depends on the combination of a large number of factors from climatic-physical to
personal factors that affect the thermal perception of human beings. In 1962, Macpherson defined the
following six factors as those affecting thermal sensation: four physical variables (air temperature, air
velocity, relative humidity, mean radiant temperature), and two personal variables (clothing insulation
and activity level, i.e. metabolic rate) (Fanger, 1970; Carlucci et al., 2018). These six parameters are
the primary factors of thermal comfort (Nasrollahi, 2009) and used in all researches as the only main
parameters of thermal comfort.
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort
The condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment
and is assessed by subjective evaluation (Fanger, 1970).
Thermal comfort refers to the feeling of satisfaction with the thermal
environment, where individuals are not too hot or too cold (ISO, 2005).
Thermal comfort refers to the sensation of being neither too hot nor too cold. It
is achieved when the body's heat production and heat loss are in balance
(Olesen and Parsons, 2012).
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort Factors
Primary Factors of Thermal Comfort:
1. Air Temperature
2. Radiant Temperature
3. Air movement
4. Humidity
5. Metabolic rate
6. Clothing insulation
DOI: 10.3390/buildings12112007
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort
Main categories of thermal comfort models:
1. The Rational or Heat Balance Model
2. Adaptive model
Each thermal comfort model has its potentialities and limits and
their own application area.
Heat balance model considers the heat balance between the
human body and the environment. It has been developed using
data from extensive and rigorous experiments conducted in climate
chambers (widely used for thermal comfort analysis in the design
phase and for HVAC sizing and control).
Adaptive models mainly based on measured/surveyed data from
field studies of people in building.
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort and Energy Consumption
Relationship between Thermal Comfort and Building Energy Efficiency
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Human energy balance – 3 Climate shells
1. Skin (“Naked ape”)
− Poor protection against heat losses and heat gains
− Strategy within nature: curl up into a ball, hibernation,
grouping
2. Clothes (“Insulated human”)
− Cultural Insulation replaces natural
(fur, feathers)
− i.e.: fur coat
(water, steam and heat resistant)
3. Room / Building (“Wider Hull”)
− First housings with relative low volume
(tent, hut)
− Later on: “room in room”
(room like beds, oven)
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Human energy balance - Thermoregulation
Human: Effective temperature control system
Small range of adjustment: close to 37°C (mainly within the brain)
Adjustable to extreme conditions: tropic heat, polar coldness, sweat or ice bath
Inner heat production: 80W to 800W
Control center: Midbrain (Hypothalamus)
Thermal receptors: reaction of certain temperature or change in temperature
Strategies for a constant inner body temperature TBody
Imminent overheating / undercooling: change of cloth or place
Tbody : rise of outer blood circulation results in higher skin temperature and heat transmission
Tbody : sweating for latent heat dissipation
Tbody : lowering of outer blood circulation results in lower skin temperature and heat losses
Tbody : lowering the temperature of outer body parts
Tbody : extended heat production (shiver with cold)
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Human energy balance – Energy output
Activity met W/m2
Inner heat production Lying 0,8 46
Metabolism of human body:
max 25% result in external work
min 75 % result in heat production Relaxed sitting 1,0 58
Relaxed standing 1,2 70
Basic production: 0,8 met
(1 met = 58 W/m² skin area)
Slightly working while sitting 1,2 70
Influence parameters
Activity Slightly working while standing 1,6 93
Surrounding temperature
Age, gender
Moderate work while standing 2,0 117
Heavy work / Indoor sports 3,0 175
Long distance run 10 460
met-values and heat production according to activity
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Human Heat Loss
• Convection
• Radiation
• Evaporation
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Human energy balance – Overall heat balance I
Heat Balance Equation:
K = R + C = M – W - Edif – Esw – Eres – Cres
with:
K: Heat transfer through clothes
R: Radiation heat flow
C: Convective heat flow
source: [Link]
M: Metabolism rate
W: Mechanical work
Edif: Latent skin heat losses by vapor diffusion
Esw: Latent skin heat losses by transpiration
Eres: Latent breath heat losses
Cres: Sensible breath heat losses
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Human energy balance – Overall heat balance II
Human Body 100 %
Blood
88 % 12 %
12 %
Skin 76% Lungs
uncovered covered
10 %
29 %
40 %
7%
6%
4%
2%
2%
46 % 35 % 19 %
Radiation Convection Condensation
Room surfaces Room air
46 % 54 %
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Human energy balance - Activity
High body activity:
transpiration
Heat emission
Transpiration
Low body activity:
long wave radiation and convectioni
Convection
Radiation
Heat production
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Human energy balance – Air temperature
Heat losses [ W ]
Evaporation
Convection
Radiation
= Avarage room temperature Air temperature [ °C ]
= Skin temperature
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Thermal comfort – Indoor climate parameters II
Operative („felt“) room temperature
heavy workshop activity
Specific heat emission (=f(activity))
medium activity (salesman,
housework)
easy activity while standing
(shopping, lecturing,
laboratory)
sitting activity (office,
apartment, school)
or relaxed standing
relaxed sitting (office)
relaxed lying
Thermal insulation value
of clothing (Icl)
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Thermal comfort – Indoor climate parameters II
6/2/2025
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Overall view on indoor climate
Thermal comfortable indoor climate
(for a cooling situation)
Surface uncomfortable warm
temperature
temperature 22°C < < 26°C
humidity 35% < < 65%
difference between air temperature and surrounding uncomfortable cold
planes smaller than 2K
Room air temperature
max. air speed of 0.1 m/s to 0.2 m/s
Source: DIN ISO 7730
Thermal uncomfortable indoor climate uncomfortable
wet
high air exchange rates (high energy losses) Relative
humidity
comfortable
high humidity (prevents transpiration cooling)
still comfortable
outer building components with low thermal resistance uncomfortable
dry
(radiation asymmetry)
air speed above 0.15 m/2 Room air temperature
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Comfort Zone – Primary Factors
Air Temperature
Convection
Air Movement
Room Surface
Radoiation
Temperature
Evaporation
Evaporation
Air Humidity
Breezing
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Comfort Zone - Standards
Factors of Comfort Zone:
1. Air Temperature
2. Radiant Temperature
3. Air movement
4. Humidity
5. Metabolic rate
6. Clothing insulation
Minimum temperatures of summer and winter comfort
zones in different standards
DIN 1946/2 SIA V382/1
Comfort Criteria CIBSE (1990)
(1/1994) (1992)
∆t az ≤2K <2 K <3 K
T 0,1 min, Winter 21 °C 19 °C 20 °C
Source: ASHRAE 2001, p.8.12
T 0,1 min, Summer 21 °C 22 °C 22 °C
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Psychrometric Chart
1. Comfort
2. Sun shading
3. High thermal mass
4. High thermal mass/ night flushing
5. Direct evaporative cooling
6. Natural ventilation cooling
7. Fan-forced ventilation cooling
8. Internal heat gain
9. Passive solar direct gain (low mass)
10. Passive solar direct gain (high mass)
11. Humidification
12. Wind protection
13. Conventional air conditioning
14. Conventional heating
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Design Strategies for Thermal Comfort
Passive Design Strategies for Thermal Comfort
• Building orientation & form to optimize daylight and heat gain.
• Natural ventilation strategies for cooling.
• Thermal mass for stable indoor temperatures.
• Shading devices to reduce unwanted heat gain.
Active Design Strategies for Thermal Comfort
• HVAC system optimization: Demand-controlled ventilation, radiant heating/cooling.
• Adaptive comfort models: Smart building technologies.
• Energy-efficient materials & insulation to maintain indoor conditions.
Future Trends
• The future of thermal comfort: AI-driven climate control, personalized HVAC systems.
• Role of architects & engineers in designing sustainable, comfortable spaces.
• Challenges in balancing comfort & energy efficiency.
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal comfort
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal comfort – Individual sensation
PMV (Predicted Mean Vote)
The PMV index predicts the mean response of a large group of 7-step scale from -3 (cold) to +3 (hot)
people on a 7-point thermal sensation scale, from +3 (hot) to -3
(cold), where 0 is neutral. The metric is designed for fully PDD predicted percentage of dissatisfied
mechanically ventilated buildings and is determined in even in the best thermal case you’ll find 5 to 15%
dissatisfied people
accordance with ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55.
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal comfort – Individual sensation
Dissatisfied
Predicted mean vote (of thermal comfort)
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
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Thermal Comfort - PMV Limitations
Plan and Pictures of the Lecture Hall and location of Sensors
This study investigates thermal comfort
perceptions in mechanically heated and
ventilated lecture halls, focusing on the
alignment between Predicted Mean Vote
(PMV) and Actual Mean Vote (AMV). It
also examines the influence of various
parameters, including outdoor
temperature, on AMV. A mixed-method
approach, combining environmental
measurements and occupant surveys, was
applied in a large lecture hall at the Berlin
Institute of Technology.
Case Study – Lecture Hall, Institute of
Architecture
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
New Researches in the Field of Thermal Comfort
Thermal Comfort in Mechanically Conditioned Lecture Halls: PMV Limitations and Outdoor
Climate Influence
Results revealed significant discrepancies (1.05 units) between PMV and AMV, with indoor air
temperature moderately correlated with AMV (r = 0.27), while outdoor air temperature had a
stronger influence (r = 0.34). Findings indicate that outdoor conditions impact thermal perception
even in mechanically conditioned spaces, with the 10-day average outdoor temperature showing the
strongest effect. This highlights the potential applicability of adaptive thermal comfort models,
although current standards restrict their use to naturally ventilated, occupant-controlled spaces.
The study also reveals negligible correlations between AMV and age (r = 0.04), CO₂ concentration
(r = -0.14), number of occupants in the room (r = -0.10), or seat location (r = -0.09), while gender (r
= 0.21) and time spent in the building (r = -0.21) exhibit stronger influences. Female students report
AMV values 0.14 units lower on average, and longer time spent in the building is associated with
lower thermal sensation.
Results underscore the need for updated thermal comfort models that capture the transient, adaptive
nature of academic spaces and account for both indoor and outdoor climatic factors.
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thermal Comfort - PMV Limitations
Pearson and Spearman Correlation Matrix for comfort parameters
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
AMV vs. PMV
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi
Thank You!
Energy Performance of Buildings Dr.-Ing. Farshad Nasrollahi