MODULE-2

Cellulose-Based Water Filters

Cellulose made.
Removes impurities and contaminants (particles, pathogens).
Alternative to traditional synthetic polymer filters.
High mechanical strength and hydrophilic properties.
Household, industrial and agricultural applications.

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 Construction of cellulose-based water filters
Cellulose Material Selection: strength, porosity, and chemical resistance.
Eg: paper, cotton & wood fibers.
Cellulose Preparation: cut into small pieces, wash to remove impurities & dry it for use.
Cellulose Layer Formation: stacking or compacting using heat and pressure.
Filter Medium Attachment: mesh or a support structure for stability and increase in filter surface
area.
Chemical Treatment: modify its properties, by increasing hydrophilicity or adding antimicrobial
agents.
Housing Assembly
Filter Testing:
Cellulose Acetate commonly used filter.

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 PHA as Bioplastic
❖PHAs are Polyhydroxyalkanoates.
❖Class of biodegradable and biocompatible polyesters produced by microorganisms.
❖Renewable resources such as sugar and cornstarch are used.
❖Alternative to traditional petroleum-based plastics

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Properties of PHA
PHAs have several properties that make them ideal for use as bioplastics, including:
 Biodegradability: broken down into water and carbon dioxide, reducing their impact
on the environment.
 Biocompatibility: PHAs are biocompatible and can be used in medical devices (sutures
and implants), without causing adverse reactions in the body.
 Mechanical properties: Similar mechanical properties as that of traditional petroleum
based plastics.
 Processing: PHAs can be processed using conventional plastic processing techniques
(injection moulding, blow moulding & extrusion)

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 Engineering applications

✔Packaging food containers, beverage

cups, and clamshell containers.
✔Manufacture of medical devices such as
sutures, implants & drug delivery
systems.
✔Biodegradable textiles
✔Agricultural Mulch Films to reduce soil
erosion and conserve moisture.
✔Consumer Goods such as toys, phone cases
& water bottles.
✔Automotive Parts: air ducts and headlamp
covers

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 POLY LACTIC ACID (PLA)
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable as well as recyclable polyester made from renewable
feedstock.

 Lactic acid as the raw material is produced by fermentation of glucose or sucrose and is
refined to a high purity.

 Mostly produced by the fermentation of starch from crops – wheat, corn, sugarcane, into lactic
acid subsequent polymerization.

➢ PLA is a bioabsorbable material and is widely used in orthopedic surgery

➢ Fixed devices such as dissolvable suture nets and absorbable steel plates are good examples of
its medical applications.

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Manufacturer: Evonik, Nature works, Danimer Scientific, etc.
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 DNA Vaccine
✔A piece of viral or bacterial DNA to stimulate an immune response against the pathogen.
✔Pathogen's DNA is introduced into the body to produce viral or bacterial proteins.
✔Proteins are then displayed on the surface of the cells, which triggers an immune response to
produce antibodies against the pathogen.
✔Vaccines for some diseases are Cancer, rabies, influenza, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

DNA vaccine for rabies

Efficacy: prevents rabies infection in both animal and human trials, also protects dogs against
rabies
Long-lasting protection stimulates a strong and long-lasting immune response for extended
periods of time
Ease of administration: they can be given via injection or even delivered orally
Cost-effective: relatively inexpensive to produce compared to traditional vaccines
Reduced risk of side effects: do not contain live virus particles

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RNA Vaccines
Genetic material from a pathogen is used in the form of RNA.
Pathogen's RNA is introduced into the body, to produce viral or
bacterial proteins.
RNA vaccines have several advantages over traditional vaccines.
Less production time and the ability to target multiple antigens.
RNA vaccines can be manufactured quickly, on emergency
situations large numbers of people can be vaccinated quickly.
RNA vaccines are currently being developed and tested for a range of
diseases, including COVID 19, influenza, and cancer.

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RNA Vaccines for Covid19
Uses genetic material from the SARS-CoV-2 virus, in the form of RNA, to stimulate an
immune response against the virus.
The first RNA vaccine for COVID 19, the Pfizer-BioNTech vaccine, was authorized for
emergency use in December 2020 and has been administered to millions of people
worldwide.
Another RNA vaccine, the Moderna vaccine, was also authorized for emergency use in
December 2020.

✔High efficacy
✔Rapid development
✔ Easy to modify
✔ Safe
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 Forensics – DNA Fingerprinting

▪Technique used in forensic science.

▪Identifies an individual based on their unique DNA profile.

Sample collection: DNA is extracted from a biological sample

(blood, semen or hair).
DNA amplification: The extracted DNA is then amplified
using a technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR).
DNA analysis: The amplified DNA is then analyzed using a
technique called gel electrophoresis.
DNA comparison: The DNA profile obtained is then compared
with other DNA profiles.

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 Proteins as Food
• Essential nutrients that provide the body with amino acids
(building blocks) of the body's tissues.
• Proteins are found in many different foods, including
meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, beans, lentils, tofu,
and eggs.
• Vital component of a healthy diet, as they help to build
and repair tissues, support immune function, and regulate
various metabolic processes.
• The body also uses proteins as a source of energy when
carbohydrates and fats are not available. 14
• The quality of proteins in food is determined by the
types of amino acids they contain, as well as the
amount of each type of amino acid.
• To ensure adequate protein intake, it is important to
consume a variety of protein-rich foods and to include
both complete and incomplete protein sources in the
diet.
• It is also important to consume sufficient amounts of
other nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, and
vitamins and minerals, to support overall health and
well-being. 15
Whey protein as food

• Derived from the liquid that separates from milk during

the cheese-making process.
• It is a complete protein, meaning it contains all of the
essential amino acids the body needs to build and repair
tissues.
• Whey protein is widely used as a dietary supplement,
particularly by athletes, bodybuilders, and people looking
to increase their protein intake.
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• It is commonly added to smoothies, shakes, and
other beverages, and is also available in powder
form that can be mixed into other foods or beverages.
• Compared to other types of protein, whey protein is
rapidly absorbed by the body and is high in
branched-chain amino acids, which are essential for
muscle growth and repair.
• It is also a good source of essential nutrients, including
calcium, potassium, and vitamins B2 and B12.
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 Use of whey protein as food
• Derived from cow's milk and is commonly used as a
food supplement. There are several uses of whey
protein as food, including:
• Sports nutrition: Whey protein is often used by
athletes and fitness enthusiasts to help build and
repair muscle tissue, support recovery after intense
exercise, and increase overall muscle mass.

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• Weight management: Manage weight by increasing satiety
and reducing appetite. It can also help with weight loss by
preserving muscle mass while reducing body fat.
• Health promotion: Rich in essential amino acids and has been
shown to have various health benefits, including improved
immune function, lower blood pressure, and reduced risk
of cardiovascular disease.
• Meal replacement: Meal replacement, either as a drink or in a
variety of food products. It provides a quick and convenient
source of protein, making it a popular option for people with
busy schedules or limited access to fresh foods.

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Meat analogs of protein
• Meat analogs, also known as meat substitutes or meat
alternatives, are plant-based foods designed to mimic
the taste, texture, and appearance of meat.
• They are made from a variety of ingredients, including
soy protein, wheat protein, pea protein, and other
plant-based ingredients, and are often fortified with
vitamins and minerals to provide a similar nutritional
profile to meat.

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• Popular alternative to meat for many people, including
vegetarians, vegans, and those who are looking to reduce their
meat consumption for health or ethical reasons.
• Good source of protein and can help to meet the body's protein
needs.
• There are many different types of meat analogs available,
including burgers, sausages, meatballs, deli slices etc..
• Some are designed to mimic specific types of meat, such as
chicken, beef, or pork, while others are marketed as a more
generic "meat-like" product.

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• When choosing meat analogs, it is important to look
for products that are high in protein and low in
added sugars, fats, and other ingredients that can be
harmful to health.
• It is also important to consider the texture and taste,
as some meat analogs can be more appealing than
others.

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Examples of meat analogs of protein as food

• Tofu: Made from soybeans, tofu is a versatile

meat analog that can be used in a variety of dishes,
including stir-fries, salads, and smoothies.
• Tempeh: Another soy-based product, tempeh is
made from fermented soybeans and has a nutty
flavor and firm texture. It can be sliced and used
in sandwiches or salads, or crumbled and used as
a meat substitute in tacos or spaghetti sauces.
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• Seitan: Wheat meat or wheat protein, seitan
is made from wheat gluten and has a chewy,
meat-like texture. It can be used as a
substitute for beef or pork in a variety of
dishes.
• Veggie burgers: Made from a variety of
plant-based ingredients, including soy
protein, grains, and vegetables, veggie
burgers are a popular meat analog that can
be grilled or baked and served on a bun.
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• Meatless meatballs: Made from
plant-based ingredients such as soy
protein, grains, and vegetables, meatless
meatballs are a tasty and protein-rich
alternative to traditional meatballs.
• Plant-based sausages: Made from soy
protein, pea protein, or other plant-based
ingredients, plant-based sausages are a
convenient and protein-rich alternative
to traditional sausages.
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 Lipids
• Lipids are a group of organic compounds that include fats,
oils, waxes, and some hormones.

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Role of Lipids
• Energy storage: Stored energy in the body, and they can be
broken down to release energy when it is needed.
• Insulation: Help to insulate the body, helping to regulate
temperature and protect against heat loss.
• Cell membrane structure: Helping to maintain their fluidity and
stability.
• Hormone synthesis: Some lipids, such as cholesterol, are
precursors to hormones, and are necessary for their production.
• Transport: Lipids are soluble in fat, but not in water. This makes
them ideal for carrying fat- soluble vitamins and other lipophilic
compounds through the bloodstream. 27
Engineering Applications of Lipids
• Cosmetics: Moisturizers, to improve skin hydration and texture.
• Food industry: Frying oils, to improve texture, flavor, and shelf
life.
• Medical devices: Drug delivery systems, to improve the delivery
and efficacy of drugs.
• Biofuels: Vegetable oils and animal fats, can be converted into
biodiesel and bioethanol, to provide a renewable source of energy.
• Surface modification: Modify the surface properties of metals and
polymers, to improve their performance and biocompatibility.
• Surfactants: Reduce surface tension and improve the mixing of oil
and water-based substances. 28
 Lipids as Biodiesel
• Lipids can be converted into biodiesel, which is a
renewable source of energy.
• Biodiesel is typically produced by transesterifying
vegetable oils or animal fats with an alcohol, such as
methanol, to form methyl esters.
• The resulting biodiesel can be used as a drop-in
replacement for traditional diesel fuel in internal
combustion engines.

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Advantages
• Renewability: Lipids are a renewable resource, and they can be
produced from a variety of sources, such as vegetable oils, animal
fats, and microalgae.
• Reduced emissions: Biodiesel produces fewer emissions
compared to traditional diesel fuel, reducing the impact on the
environment and public health.
• Improved performance: Biodiesel can improve engine
performance, increasing fuel efficiency and reducing engine wear
and tear.
• Biodegradability: Biodiesel is biodegradable, which reduces the
risk of environmental contamination in the event of a spill.
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The Process of Obtaining Biodiesel from Lipids
• Raw material preparation: Vegetable oils or animal fats, are
collected and purified to remove impurities.
• Transesterification: The purified lipids are mixed with an
alcohol, such as methanol, and a catalyst, such as sodium
hydroxide, to produce fatty acid methyl esters (FAME), which
are the main components of biodiesel. This process is known
as transesterification.
• Separation: The reaction mixture is then separated into two
layers: the upper layer contains the FAME (biodiesel) and the
lower layer contains the glycerol (byproduct).
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• Washing and drying: The biodiesel is washed with water to
remove any residual alcohol and soap that was formed during
the transesterification reaction. The biodiesel is then dried to
remove any remaining moisture.
• Purification: The biodiesel is further purified to remove any
impurities and improve its quality.
• Final product: The purified biodiesel is then stored and
distributed for use as a fuel.

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Working principle of lipids as cleaning agent
• Ability to dissolve grease and oils.
• Lipids are composed of hydrophobic (water-fearing)
and hydrophilic (water-loving) regions, which allows
them to surround grease and oils, effectively breaking
them down into smaller particles that can be more
easily removed.

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• Commonly used in cleaning products such as soaps,
shampoos, laundry detergents, and dishwashing
liquids.
• When a lipid-based cleaning agent is applied to a
surface, the hydrophobic regions of the lipid molecule
surround and dissolve grease and oils, while the
hydrophilic regions interact with water, allowing the
mixture to be rinsed away. The combination of the
lipid and water also forms an emulsion, which helps
to suspend and remove dirt and debris.
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• In addition, some lipids have additional properties,
such as foaming or lathering capabilities, that can
enhance their cleaning performance.
• For example, fatty alcohols can be used as foaming
agents in shampoos, while soap is known for its
lathering properties.
• These additional properties can help to loosen and
remove dirt and debris, making the cleaning process
more effective.

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Advantages of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents
• Biodegradability: Lipids are derived from natural sources,
such as plants and animals, and are biodegradable, which
makes them more environmental friendly than many
synthetic cleaning agents.
• Renewable resources: Lipids can be obtained from
renewable resources, such as crops, and are not based on
finite fossil fuels like some synthetic cleaning agents.
• Effectiveness: Lipids have excellent grease-cutting and
emulsifying properties, making them effective cleaning
agents. 36
• Mildness: Lipids are typically mild and gentle, making
them suitable for use in personal care products, such as
soaps and shampoos, and for cleaning delicate materials,
such as silk and wool.
• Cost-effective: Lipids can be less expensive than
synthetic cleaning agents, especially when obtained from
low-cost feedstocks, such as vegetable oils.
• Customizability: Lipids can be modified and customized
to improve their cleaning performance and to meet
specific application needs.
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Limitations of lipids as cleaning agents/detergents
• Stability: Some lipids can be susceptible to oxidation and
degradation, - reduce their effectiveness over time.
• Compatibility: Some may not be compatible with certain
surfaces or materials, and may cause staining or damage.
• Cost: Although lipids can be less expensive than synthetic
cleaning agents, the cost can vary depending on the source
of the lipids and the processing methods used.
• Availability: Limited by the availability of feedstocks, such
as crops and animal fats, and the need for processing and
refining. 38
• Performance: The cleaning performance of lipids can
vary depending on the specific properties of each
lipid and the type of soil or stain being removed.
Some lipids may not perform as well as synthetic
cleaning agents in certain applications.
• Regulation: The use of lipids as cleaning agents is
regulated by government agencies, and specific
requirements may vary from country to country.

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 Examples of Lipids as Cleaning Agents/Detergent
• Personal care products: Fatty acids and glycerides, are
commonly used as emulsifiers and surfactants in personal
care products, such as shampoos, soaps, and lotions.
• Industrial cleaning: As cleaning agents in metal cleaning,
degreasing, and stain removal.
• Laundry detergents: Laundry detergents to improve their
cleaning and sudsing performance.
• Cleaning agents for hard surfaces: Lipids can be used as
cleaning agents for hard surfaces, such as floors, countertops,
and walls, to remove dirt and grime.
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 Glucose-Oxidase in Biosensors
• Analytical devices that combine a biological recognition
element with a transducer to detect and quantify target
analytes.
• The biological recognition element can be an enzyme,
antibody, nucleic acid, or other biological molecule that
specifically interacts with the target analyte.
• Transducer converts the biological response into an
electrical signal that can be quantified and interpreted.

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• Applications in the fields of medicine, environmental
monitoring, and food safety.
• For example, biosensors can be used to monitor blood
glucose levels in patients with diabetes, detect contaminants
in water and food, and monitor environmental pollutants.
• Advantages over traditional analytical methods, including
rapid response time, high sensitivity, specificity, and
portability. Additionally, they can be designed to be
disposable and cost-effective, making them a useful tool in
various industries and applications.
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Enzymes Used in Biosensors
• Glucose oxidase (GOx): Used in blood glucose monitoring
for people with diabetes. The enzyme oxidizes glucose to
gluconic acid and hydrogen peroxide, which is then detected
by a transducer to quantify glucose levels in the blood.
• Lactate oxidase (LOx): Used in the determination of lactate
levels in biological fluids, such as blood and urine. LOx
oxidizes lactate to pyruvate, which is then detected by a
transducer.

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• Cholinesterase (ChE): Detection of organophosphorus pesticides
and nerve agents. ChE hydrolyzes acetylcholine, and the
decrease in acetylcholine levels is detected by a transducer to
quantify the presence of the toxic substances.
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP): Used in the detection of inorganic
phosphates, such as those found in wastewater and fertilizers.
ALP catalyzes the hydrolysis of phosphates to produce a signal
that can be quantified.
• Urease: Used in the detection of urea levels in biological fluids,
such as urine. Urease catalyzes the hydrolysis of urea to produce
ammonium and carbon dioxide, which can be quantified by a
transducer. 45
Advantages of Biosensors
• Sensitivity: Highly sensitive and can detect target analyzes at low
concentrations, making them useful in applications that require
precise quantification.
• Specificity: Designed to specifically recognize a target analyte,
which minimizes interference from other substances in the sample.
• Rapid response time: Biosensors can provide results in real-time,
making them useful in situations where quick results are required.
• Portability: Biosensors can be designed to be small and portable,
making them useful in field applications and remote locations.
• Cost-effectiveness: Manufactured at a low cost, attractive
alternative to expensive analytical methods in some applications.46
Limitations of Biosensors
• Stability: Affected by environmental conditions, such as
temperature and pH, which can lead to degradation of the
biological recognition element and loss of sensitivity.
• Interferences: Affected by other substances in the sample, which
can interfere with the performance of the biosensor.
• Calibration: Require frequent calibration to ensure accuracy,
which can increase the time and cost.
• Limited shelf-life: Biological recognition element may degrade
over time, leading to decreased sensitivity and specificity.
• Complexity: Complex to manufacture and use, requiring
specialized equipment and expertise to operate effectively. 47
Bio-Bleaching
• Bio-bleaching is a process that uses biological agents,
such as enzymes, to remove color and brighten fibers,
paper, and textiles.
• It is a sustainable alternative to traditional chemical
bleaching methods that use harsh chemicals, such as
hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.

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Advantages of Bio-Bleaching
• Sustainability: Uses biological agents, such as enzymes, which are
renewable and biodegradable, reducing the environmental impact.
• Improved product quality: Bio-bleaching can result in higher
brightness and a more uniform color compared to traditional
chemical bleaching, leading to improved product quality.
• Reduced energy consumption: Requires lower energy input
compared to chemical bleaching methods.
• Elimination of hazardous chemicals: Eliminates the use of harsh
chemicals, such as hydrogen peroxide and chlorine.
• Lower production of harmful by-products: Reduces the formation
of harmful by-products, such as dioxins
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Limitations of Bio-bleaching
• High cost of enzyme production
• Low efficiency compared to chemical bleaching: Less efficient
compared to traditional chemical bleaching methods, requiring
longer processing times and higher enzyme doses.
• Need for further research: Still in the early stages of development,
and further research is needed to optimize the process and
improve efficiency.
• Lack of widespread implementation: Limited by factors such as
the high cost of enzyme production, low efficiency compared to
chemical bleaching, and the need for further research to optimize
the process.
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