Sphere

A sphere (from Greek σφαῖρα, sphaîra)[1] is a surface

analogous to the circle, a curve. In solid geometry, a Sphere
sphere is the set of points that are all at the same distance
r from a given point in three-dimensional space.[2] That
given point is the center of the sphere, and the distance r
is the sphere's radius. The earliest known mentions of
spheres appear in the work of the ancient Greek
mathematicians.

The sphere is a fundamental surface in many fields of

mathematics. Spheres and nearly-spherical shapes also
appear in nature and industry. Bubbles such as soap
bubbles take a spherical shape in equilibrium. The Earth
is often approximated as a sphere in geography, and the
celestial sphere is an important concept in astronomy. A perspective projection of a sphere
Manufactured items including pressure vessels and most Type Smooth surface
curved mirrors and lenses are based on spheres. Spheres Algebraic surface
roll smoothly in any direction, so most balls used in Euler char. 2
sports and toys are spherical, as are ball bearings.
Symmetry group O(3)
Surface area 4πr2
Basic terminology Volume 4
⁠3 ⁠πr3

As mentioned earlier r is the sphere's radius; any line

from the center to a point on the sphere is also called a
radius. 'Radius' is used in two senses: as a line segment and
also as its length.[3]

If a radius is extended through the center to the opposite

side of the sphere, it creates a diameter. Like the radius, the
length of a diameter is also called the diameter, and denoted
d. Diameters are the longest line segments that can be
drawn between two points on the sphere: their length is
twice the radius, d = 2r. Two points on the sphere
connected by a diameter are antipodal points of each
other.[3]

A unit sphere is a sphere with unit radius (r = 1). For

Two orthogonal radii of a sphere
convenience, spheres are often taken to have their center at
the origin of the coordinate system, and spheres in this
article have their center at the origin unless a center is mentioned.
A great circle on the sphere has the same center and radius as the sphere, and divides it into two equal
hemispheres.

Although the figure of Earth is not perfectly spherical, terms borrowed from geography are convenient to
apply to the sphere. A particular line passing through its center defines an axis (as in Earth's axis of
rotation). The sphere-axis intersection defines two antipodal poles (north pole and south pole). The great
circle equidistant to the poles is called the equator. Great circles through the poles are called lines of
longitude or meridians. Small circles on the sphere that are parallel to the equator are circles of latitude (or
parallels). In geometry unrelated to astronomical bodies, geocentric terminology should be used only for
illustration and noted as such, unless there is no chance of misunderstanding.[3]

Mathematicians consider a sphere to be a two-dimensional closed surface embedded in three-dimensional

Euclidean space. They draw a distinction between a sphere and a ball, which is a solid figure, a three-
dimensional manifold with boundary that includes the volume contained by the sphere. An open ball
excludes the sphere itself, while a closed ball includes the sphere: a closed ball is the union of the open ball
and the sphere, and a sphere is the boundary of a (closed or open) ball. The distinction between ball and
sphere has not always been maintained and especially older mathematical references talk about a sphere as a
solid. The distinction between "circle" and "disk" in the plane is similar.

Small spheres or balls are sometimes called spherules (e.g., in Martian spherules).

Equations
In analytic geometry, a sphere with center (x0, y0, z0) and radius r is the locus of all points (x, y, z) such
that

Since it can be expressed as a quadratic polynomial, a sphere is a quadric surface, a type of algebraic
surface.[3]

Let a, b, c, d, e be real numbers with a ≠ 0 and put

Then the equation

has no real points as solutions if and is called the equation of an imaginary sphere. If , the
only solution of is the point and the equation is said to be the equation of
a point sphere. Finally, in the case , is an equation of a sphere whose center is and
whose radius is . [2]

If a in the above equation is zero then f(x, y, z) = 0 is the equation of a plane. Thus, a plane may be
thought of as a sphere of infinite radius whose center is a point at infinity.[4]
Parametric
A parametric equation for the sphere with radius and center can be parameterized using
trigonometric functions.

[5]

The symbols used here are the same as those used in spherical coordinates. r is constant, while θ varies
from 0 to π and varies from 0 to 2π.

Properties

Enclosed volume
In three dimensions, the volume inside a sphere (that is, the
volume of a ball, but classically referred to as the volume
of a sphere) is

where r is the radius and d is the diameter of the sphere.

Archimedes first derived this formula (On the Sphere and
Cylinder c. 225 BCE) by showing that the volume inside a
sphere is twice the volume between the sphere and the
circumscribed cylinder of that sphere (having the height
and diameter equal to the diameter of the sphere).[6] This
may be proved by inscribing a cone upside down into semi-
sphere, noting that the area of a cross section of the cone Sphere and circumscribed cylinder
plus the area of a cross section of the sphere is the same as
the area of the cross section of the circumscribing cylinder,
and applying Cavalieri's principle.[7] This formula can also be derived using integral calculus (i.e., disk
integration) to sum the volumes of an infinite number of circular disks of infinitesimally small thickness
stacked side by side and centered along the x-axis from x = −r to x = r, assuming the sphere of radius r is
centered at the origin.

Proof of sphere volume, using calculus

At any given x, the incremental volume (δV) equals the product of the cross-sectional area of
the disk at x and its thickness (δx):

The total volume is the summation of all incremental volumes:

 In the limit as δx approaches zero,[8] this equation becomes:

At any given x, a right-angled triangle connects x, y and r to the origin; hence, applying the
Pythagorean theorem yields:

Using this substitution gives

which can be evaluated to give the result

An alternative formula is found using spherical coordinates, with volume element

so

For most practical purposes, the volume inside a sphere inscribed in a cube can be approximated as 52.4%
π
of the volume of the cube, since V = ⁠ ⁠ d3, where d is the diameter of the sphere and also the length of a
6
π
side of the cube and ⁠6 ⁠ ≈ 0.5236. For example, a sphere with diameter 1 m has 52.4% the volume of a cube
with edge length 1 m, or about 0.524 m3.

Surface area
The surface area of a sphere of radius r is:

Archimedes first derived this formula[9] from the fact that the projection to the lateral surface of a
circumscribed cylinder is area-preserving.[10] Another approach to obtaining the formula comes from the
fact that it equals the derivative of the formula for the volume with respect to r because the total volume
inside a sphere of radius r can be thought of as the summation of the surface area of an infinite number of
spherical shells of infinitesimal thickness concentrically stacked inside one another from radius 0 to radius
r. At infinitesimal thickness the discrepancy between the inner and outer surface area of any given shell is
infinitesimal, and the elemental volume at radius r is simply the product of the surface area at radius r and
the infinitesimal thickness.
 Proof of surface area, using calculus

At any given radius r,[note 1] the incremental volume (δV) equals the product of the surface
area at radius r (A(r)) and the thickness of a shell (δr):

The total volume is the summation of all shell volumes:

In the limit as δr approaches zero[8] this equation becomes:

Substitute V:

Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to r yields A as a function of r:

This is generally abbreviated as:

where r is now considered to be the fixed radius of the sphere.

Alternatively, the area element on the sphere is given in spherical coordinates by

dA = r2 sin θ dθ dφ. The total area can thus be obtained by integration:

The sphere has the smallest surface area of all surfaces that enclose a given volume, and it encloses the
largest volume among all closed surfaces with a given surface area.[11] The sphere therefore appears in
nature: for example, bubbles and small water drops are roughly spherical because the surface tension locally
minimizes surface area.

The surface area relative to the mass of a ball is called the specific surface area and can be expressed from
the above stated equations as

where ρ is the density (the ratio of mass to volume).

Other geometric properties
A sphere can be constructed as the surface formed by rotating a circle one half revolution about any of its
diameters; this is very similar to the traditional definition of a sphere as given in Euclid's Elements. Since a
circle is a special type of ellipse, a sphere is a special type of ellipsoid of revolution. Replacing the circle
with an ellipse rotated about its major axis, the shape becomes a prolate spheroid; rotated about the minor
axis, an oblate spheroid.[12]

A sphere is uniquely determined by four points that are not coplanar. More generally, a sphere is uniquely
determined by four conditions such as passing through a point, being tangent to a plane, etc.[13] This
property is analogous to the property that three non-collinear points determine a unique circle in a plane.

Consequently, a sphere is uniquely determined by (that is, passes through) a circle and a point not in the
plane of that circle.

By examining the common solutions of the equations of two spheres, it can be seen that two spheres
intersect in a circle and the plane containing that circle is called the radical plane of the intersecting
spheres.[14] Although the radical plane is a real plane, the circle may be imaginary (the spheres have no real
point in common) or consist of a single point (the spheres are tangent at that point).[15]

The angle between two spheres at a real point of intersection is the dihedral angle determined by the tangent
planes to the spheres at that point. Two spheres intersect at the same angle at all points of their circle of
intersection.[16] They intersect at right angles (are orthogonal) if and only if the square of the distance
between their centers is equal to the sum of the squares of their radii.[4]

Pencil of spheres
If f(x, y, z) = 0 and g(x, y, z) = 0 are the equations of two distinct spheres then

is also the equation of a sphere for arbitrary values of the parameters s and t. The set of all spheres
satisfying this equation is called a pencil of spheres determined by the original two spheres. In this
definition a sphere is allowed to be a plane (infinite radius, center at infinity) and if both the original spheres
are planes then all the spheres of the pencil are planes, otherwise there is only one plane (the radical plane)
in the pencil.[4]

Properties of the sphere

In their book Geometry and the Imagination, David Hilbert and Stephan Cohn-Vossen describe eleven
properties of the sphere and discuss whether these properties uniquely determine the sphere.[17] Several
properties hold for the plane, which can be thought of as a sphere with infinite radius. These properties are:

1. The points on the sphere are all the same distance from a fixed point. Also, the ratio of the
distance of its points from two fixed points is constant.
The first part is the usual definition of the sphere and determines it uniquely. The second
part can be easily deduced and follows a similar result of Apollonius of Perga for the
circle. This second part also holds for the plane.
2. The contours and plane sections of the sphere are circles.
This property defines the sphere uniquely.
3. The sphere has constant width and constant girth.
 The width of a surface is the distance between
pairs of parallel tangent planes. Numerous other
closed convex surfaces have constant width, for
example the Meissner body. The girth of a
surface is the circumference of the boundary of
its orthogonal projection on to a plane. Each of
these properties implies the other.
4. All points of a sphere are umbilics.
At any point on a surface a normal direction is at
right angles to the surface because on the
sphere these are the lines radiating out from the
center of the sphere. The intersection of a plane
that contains the normal with the surface will
form a curve that is called a normal section, and
the curvature of this curve is the normal
curvature. For most points on most surfaces,
A normal vector to a sphere, a normal
different sections will have different curvatures;
plane and its normal section. The
the maximum and minimum values of these are
curvature of the curve of intersection is
called the principal curvatures. Any closed
the sectional curvature. For the sphere
surface will have at least four points called
each normal section through a given
umbilical points. At an umbilic all the sectional
point will be a circle of the same radius:
curvatures are equal; in particular the principal
curvatures are equal. Umbilical points can be the radius of the sphere. This means that
thought of as the points where the surface is every point on the sphere will be an
closely approximated by a sphere. umbilical point.
For the sphere the curvatures of all normal
sections are equal, so every point is an umbilic.
The sphere and plane are the only surfaces with this property.
5. The sphere does not have a surface of centers.
For a given normal section exists a circle of curvature that equals the sectional
curvature, is tangent to the surface, and the center lines of which lie along on the normal
line. For example, the two centers corresponding to the maximum and minimum
sectional curvatures are called the focal points, and the set of all such centers forms the
focal surface.
For most surfaces the focal surface forms two sheets that are each a surface and meet
at umbilical points. Several cases are special:
* For channel surfaces one sheet forms a curve and the other sheet is a surface
* For cones, cylinders, tori and cyclides both sheets form curves.
* For the sphere the center of every osculating circle is at the center of the sphere and
the focal surface forms a single point. This property is unique to the sphere.
6. All geodesics of the sphere are closed curves.
Geodesics are curves on a surface that give the shortest distance between two points.
They are a generalization of the concept of a straight line in the plane. For the sphere
the geodesics are great circles. Many other surfaces share this property.
7. Of all the solids having a given volume, the sphere is the one with the smallest surface area;
of all solids having a given surface area, the sphere is the one having the greatest volume.
It follows from isoperimetric inequality. These properties define the sphere uniquely and
can be seen in soap bubbles: a soap bubble will enclose a fixed volume, and surface
tension minimizes its surface area for that volume. A freely floating soap bubble therefore
approximates a sphere (though such external forces as gravity will slightly distort the
bubble's shape). It can also be seen in planets and stars where gravity minimizes
surface area for large celestial bodies.
8. The sphere has the smallest total mean curvature among all convex solids with a given
surface area.
 The mean curvature is the average of the two principal curvatures, which is constant
because the two principal curvatures are constant at all points of the sphere.
9. The sphere has constant mean curvature.
The sphere is the only embedded surface that lacks boundary or singularities with
constant positive mean curvature. Other such immersed surfaces as minimal surfaces
have constant mean curvature.
10. The sphere has constant positive Gaussian curvature.
Gaussian curvature is the product of the two principal curvatures. It is an intrinsic
property that can be determined by measuring length and angles and is independent of
how the surface is embedded in space. Hence, bending a surface will not alter the
Gaussian curvature, and other surfaces with constant positive Gaussian curvature can
be obtained by cutting a small slit in the sphere and bending it. All these other surfaces
would have boundaries, and the sphere is the only surface that lacks a boundary with
constant, positive Gaussian curvature. The pseudosphere is an example of a surface
with constant negative Gaussian curvature.
11. The sphere is transformed into itself by a three-parameter family of rigid motions.
Rotating around any axis a unit sphere at the origin will map the sphere onto itself. Any
rotation about a line through the origin can be expressed as a combination of rotations
around the three-coordinate axis (see Euler angles). Therefore, a three-parameter family
of rotations exists such that each rotation transforms the sphere onto itself; this family is
the rotation group SO(3). The plane is the only other surface with a three-parameter
family of transformations (translations along the x- and y-axes and rotations around the
origin). Circular cylinders are the only surfaces with two-parameter families of rigid
motions and the surfaces of revolution and helicoids are the only surfaces with a one-
parameter family.

Treatment by area of mathematics

Spherical geometry
The basic elements of Euclidean plane geometry are points and
lines. On the sphere, points are defined in the usual sense. The
analogue of the "line" is the geodesic, which is a great circle; the
defining characteristic of a great circle is that the plane
containing all its points also passes through the center of the
sphere. Measuring by arc length shows that the shortest path
between two points lying on the sphere is the shorter segment of
the great circle that includes the points.

Many theorems from classical geometry hold true for spherical

geometry as well, but not all do because the sphere fails to
satisfy some of classical geometry's postulates, including the
parallel postulate. In spherical trigonometry, angles are defined
Great circle on a sphere
between great circles. Spherical trigonometry differs from
ordinary trigonometry in many respects. For example, the sum
of the interior angles of a spherical triangle always exceeds 180 degrees. Also, any two similar spherical
triangles are congruent.

Any pair of points on a sphere that lie on a straight line through the sphere's center (i.e., the diameter) are
called antipodal points – on the sphere, the distance between them is exactly half the length of the
circumference.[note 2] Any other (i.e., not antipodal) pair of distinct points on a sphere
 lie on a unique great circle,
segment it into one minor (i.e., shorter) and one major (i.e., longer) arc, and
have the minor arc's length be the shortest distance between them on the sphere.[note 3]
Spherical geometry is a form of elliptic geometry, which together with hyperbolic geometry makes up non-
Euclidean geometry.

Differential geometry
The sphere is a smooth surface with constant Gaussian curvature at each point equal to 1/r2.[9] As per
Gauss's Theorema Egregium, this curvature is independent of the sphere's embedding in 3-dimensional
space. Also following from Gauss, a sphere cannot be mapped to a plane while maintaining both areas and
angles. Therefore, any map projection introduces some form of distortion.

A sphere of radius r has area element . This can be found from the volume element in
spherical coordinates with r held constant.[9]

A sphere of any radius centered at zero is an integral surface of the following differential form:

This equation reflects that the position vector and tangent plane at a point are always orthogonal to each
other. Furthermore, the outward-facing normal vector is equal to the position vector scaled by 1/r.

In Riemannian geometry, the filling area conjecture states that the hemisphere is the optimal (least area)
isometric filling of the Riemannian circle.

Topology
Remarkably, it is possible to turn an ordinary sphere inside out in a three-dimensional space with possible
self-intersections but without creating any creases, in a process called sphere eversion.

The antipodal quotient of the sphere is the surface called the real projective plane, which can also be
thought of as the Northern Hemisphere with antipodal points of the equator identified.

Curves on a sphere

Circles
Circles on the sphere are, like circles in the plane, made
up of all points a certain distance from a fixed point on
the sphere. The intersection of a sphere and a plane is a
circle, a point, or empty.[18] Great circles are the
intersection of the sphere with a plane passing through
the center of a sphere: others are called small circles.
Plane section of a sphere: one circle

More complicated surfaces may intersect a sphere in

circles, too: the intersection of a sphere with a surface of
revolution whose axis contains the center of the sphere (are coaxial) consists of circles and/or points if not
empty. For example, the diagram to the right shows the
intersection of a sphere and a cylinder, which consists of two
circles. If the cylinder radius were that of the sphere, the
intersection would be a single circle. If the cylinder radius were
larger than that of the sphere, the intersection would be empty.

Loxodrome
In navigation, a loxodrome or rhumb line is a path whose
Coaxial intersection of a sphere and a
bearing, the angle between its tangent and due North, is cylinder: two circles
constant. Loxodromes project to straight lines under the
Mercator projection. Two special cases are the meridians which
are aligned directly North–South and parallels which are aligned directly East–
West. For any other bearing, a loxodrome spirals infinitely around each pole. For
the Earth modeled as a sphere, or for a general sphere given a spherical coordinate
system, such a loxodrome is a kind of spherical spiral.[19]

Clelia curves
Loxodrome
Another kind of spherical spiral is the Clelia curve, for which the longitude (or
azimuth) and the colatitude (or polar angle) are in a linear
relationship, ⁠ ⁠. Clelia curves project to straight lines under the
equirectangular projection. Viviani's curve ( ⁠) is a special case.
Clelia curves approximate the ground track of satellites in polar orbit.

Spherical conics Clelia spiral with c = 8

The analog of a conic section on the sphere is a spherical conic, a
quartic curve which can be defined in several equivalent ways.

The intersection of a sphere with a quadratic cone whose vertex is the sphere center
The intersection of a sphere with an elliptic or hyperbolic cylinder whose axis passes through
the sphere center
The locus of points whose sum or difference of great-circle distances from a pair of foci is a
constant
Many theorems relating to planar conic sections also extend to spherical conics.

Intersection of a sphere with a more general surface

If a sphere is intersected by another surface, there may be more complicated spherical curves.

Example
sphere–cylinder

The intersection of the sphere with equation and the cylinder with equation
is not just one or two circles. It is the solution of the non-linear system of
equations
(see implicit curve and the diagram)

Generalizations

Ellipsoids General intersection sphere-

An ellipsoid is a sphere that has been stretched or compressed in one or cylinder

more directions. More exactly, it is the image of a sphere under an

affine transformation. An ellipsoid bears the same relationship to the
sphere that an ellipse does to a circle.

Dimensionality
Spheres can be generalized to spaces of any number of dimensions. For any natural number n, an n-sphere,
often denoted S n, is the set of points in (n + 1)-dimensional Euclidean space that are at a fixed distance r
from a central point of that space, where r is, as before, a positive real number. In particular:

S 0: a 0-sphere consists of two discrete points, −r and r

S 1: a 1-sphere is a circle of radius r
S 2: a 2-sphere is an ordinary sphere
S 3: a 3-sphere is a sphere in 4-dimensional Euclidean space.
Spheres for n > 2 are sometimes called hyperspheres.

The n-sphere of unit radius centered at the origin is denoted S n and is often referred to as "the" n-sphere.
The ordinary sphere is a 2-sphere, because it is a 2-dimensional surface which is embedded in 3-
dimensional space.

In topology, the n-sphere is an example of a compact topological manifold without boundary. A topological
sphere need not be smooth; if it is smooth, it need not be diffeomorphic to the Euclidean sphere (an exotic
sphere).

The sphere is the inverse image of a one-point set under the continuous function ‖x‖, so it is closed; Sn is
also bounded, so it is compact by the Heine–Borel theorem.

Metric spaces
More generally, in a metric space (E,d), the sphere of center x and radius r > 0 is the set of points y such
that d(x,y) = r.

If the center is a distinguished point that is considered to be the origin of E, as in a normed space, it is not
mentioned in the definition and notation. The same applies for the radius if it is taken to equal one, as in the
case of a unit sphere.
Unlike a ball, even a large sphere may be an empty set. For example, in Zn with Euclidean metric, a sphere
of radius r is nonempty only if r2 can be written as sum of n squares of integers.

An octahedron is a sphere in taxicab geometry, and a cube is a sphere in geometry using the Chebyshev
distance.

History
The geometry of the sphere was studied by the Greeks. Euclid's Elements defines the sphere in book XI,
discusses various properties of the sphere in book XII, and shows how to inscribe the five regular polyhedra
within a sphere in book XIII. Euclid does not include the area and volume of a sphere, only a theorem that
the volume of a sphere varies as the third power of its diameter, probably due to Eudoxus of Cnidus. The
volume and area formulas were first determined in Archimedes's On the Sphere and Cylinder by the method
of exhaustion. Zenodorus was the first to state that, for a given surface area, the sphere is the solid of
maximum volume.[3]

Archimedes wrote about the problem of dividing a sphere into segments whose volumes are in a given ratio,
but did not solve it. A solution by means of the parabola and hyperbola was given by Dionysodorus.[20] A
similar problem – to construct a segment equal in volume to a given segment, and in surface to another
segment – was solved later by al-Quhi.[3]

Gallery

An image of one of the most accurate Deck of playing

human-made spheres, as it refracts the cards illustrating
image of Einstein in the background. This engineering
sphere was a fused quartz gyroscope for instruments,
the Gravity Probe B experiment, and differs England, 1702.
in shape from a perfect sphere by no more King of spades:
than 40 atoms (less than 10 nm) of Spheres
thickness. It was announced on 1 July 2008
that Australian scientists had created even
more nearly perfect spheres, accurate to
0.3 nm, as part of an international hunt to
find a new global standard kilogram.[21]
Regions
Hemisphere Spherical sector
Spherical cap Spherical segment
Spherical lune Spherical wedge
Spherical polygon Spherical zone

See also
3-sphere Napkin ring problem
Affine sphere Orb (optics)
Alexander horned sphere Pseudosphere
Celestial spheres Riemann sphere
Curvature Solid angle
Directional statistics Sphere packing
Dyson sphere Spherical coordinates
Gauss map Spherical cow
Hand with Reflecting Sphere, M.C. Escher Spherical helix, tangent indicatrix of a curve
self-portrait drawing illustrating reflection of constant precession
and the optical properties of a mirror sphere Spherical polyhedron
Hoberman sphere Sphericity
Homology sphere Tennis ball theorem
Homotopy groups of spheres Volume-equivalent radius
Homotopy sphere Zoll sphere
Lenart Sphere

Notes and references

Notes
1. r is being considered as a variable in this computation.
2. It does not matter which direction is chosen, the distance is the sphere's radius × π.
3. The distance between two non-distinct points (i.e., a point and itself) on the sphere is zero.

References
1. σφαῖρα ([Link]
3Aentry%3Dsfai%3Dra^), Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on
Perseus.
2. Albert 2016, p. 54.
3. Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sphere" ([Link]
dia_Britannica/Sphere). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University
Press. pp. 647–648.
4. Woods 1961, p. 266.
5. Kreyszig (1972, p. 342).
 6. Steinhaus 1969, p. 223.
7. "The volume of a sphere – Math Central" ([Link]
1/[Link]). [Link]. Retrieved 10 June 2019.
8. E.J. Borowski; J.M. Borwein (1989). Collins Dictionary of Mathematics. Collins. pp. 141, 149.
ISBN 978-0-00-434347-1.
9. Weisstein, Eric W. "Sphere" ([Link] MathWorld.
10. Steinhaus 1969, p. 221.
11. Osserman, Robert (1978). "The isoperimetric inequality" ([Link]
78-84-06/S0002-9904-1978-14553-4/). Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 84 (6):
1187. doi:10.1090/S0002-9904-1978-14553-4 ([Link]
4553-4). Retrieved 14 December 2019.
12. Albert 2016, p. 60.
13. Albert 2016, p. 55.
14. Albert 2016, p. 57.
15. Woods 1961, p. 267.
16. Albert 2016, p. 58.
17. Hilbert, David; Cohn-Vossen, Stephan (1952). "Eleven properties of the sphere". Geometry
and the Imagination ([Link] (2nd ed.).
Chelsea. pp. 215–231. ISBN 978-0-8284-1087-8.
18. Weisstein, Eric W. "Spheric section" ([Link]
MathWorld.
19. "Loxodrome" ([Link]
20. Fried, Michael N. (25 February 2019). "conic sections" ([Link]
fore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8161). Oxford Research
Encyclopedia of Classics. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8161 ([Link]
093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.8161). ISBN 978-0-19-938113-5. Retrieved
4 November 2022. "More significantly, Vitruvius (On Architecture, Vitr. 9.8) associated conical
sundials with Dionysodorus (early 2nd century bce), and Dionysodorus, according to Eutocius
of Ascalon (c. 480–540 ce), used conic sections to complete a solution for Archimedes'
problem of cutting a sphere by a plane so that the ratio of the resulting volumes would be the
same as a given ratio."
21. New Scientist | Technology | Roundest objects in the world created ([Link]
om/article/[Link]).

Further reading
Albert, Abraham Adrian (2016) [1949], Solid Analytic Geometry, Dover, ISBN 978-0-486-
81026-3.
Dunham, William (1997). The Mathematical Universe: An Alphabetical Journey Through the
Great Proofs, Problems and Personalities ([Link]
h). New York: Wiley. pp. 28 ([Link]
226. Bibcode:[Link].....D ([Link]
ISBN 978-0-471-17661-9.
Kreyszig, Erwin (1972), Advanced Engineering Mathematics ([Link]
cedengineer00krey) (3rd ed.), New York: Wiley, ISBN 978-0-471-50728-4.
Steinhaus, H. (1969), Mathematical Snapshots (Third American ed.), Oxford University Press.
Woods, Frederick S. (1961) [1922], Higher Geometry / An Introduction to Advanced Methods
in Analytic Geometry, Dover.
John C. Polking (15 April 1999). "The Geometry of the Sphere" ([Link]
u/~ikofman/Polking/[Link]#basic). [Link]. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
External links
Mathematica/Uniform Spherical Distribution
Surface area of sphere proof ([Link]
surface_sphere)

Retrieved from "[Link]