Chapter-4

Smart Materials

Smart Materials:

Smart materials are the materials that can significantly alter one
or more of their inherent properties owing the application an
external stimuli in a controlled fashion.

External stimuli: stress, temperature, moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields. They are able to
perceive and feel the external and/or internal stimuli, react on stimuli and develop functionality
to adapt them.
The word ‘Smart’ implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environments
and then respond to these changes in predetermined manners. Smart materials can be classified
into two types either active or passive.

Smart Materials

Passive Smart Materials Active Smart Materials

Type I Type II

Passive Smart Materials: Passive smart materials are materials that can only sense
the external stimuli, but not adapt to it. Such materials lack the inherent capability to
transducer/actuate energy.
Passive smart materials include Kevlar and Optical Fibres.
Active Smart Materials (Type I):
Active Smart Materials possess the capability of modifying their geometric and material
properties under the application of external stimuli thereby acquiring an inherent capacity to
transducer/actuate energy. They are good candidates for integrating devices and structures
that can self-accommodate to changing external conditions and behave as smart
devices or systems.
Photochromatic glasses-- change color when exposed to sunlight

Active Smart Materials (Type II): Change energy from one form to another.
 LEDs -- convert electricity to light.

Type of Smart Material Input Output

Piezoelectric Deformation Potential Difference

Electrostrictive Potential Difference Deformation

Magnetostrictive Magnetic Field Deformation

Thermoelectric Temperature Potential Difference

Shape Memory Alloys Temperature Deformation

Photochromic Radiation Color Change

Thermochromics Temperature Color Change

Piezoelectric Materials:
 Piezoelectric materials are materials that have the ability to generate internal electrical
charge from applied mechanical stress.
 Materials that exhibit the piezoelectric effect also demonstrate the inverse piezoelectric
effect (also called the reverse or converse piezoelectric effect). The inverse piezoelectric
effect is the internal generation of mechanical strain in response to an applied electrical
field.
 The structure made with this material can bend, expand and compress.

Naturally occurring crystals:

 Sucrose (table sugar)
 Topaz
 Quartz. A stable crystal used in watch crystals and frequency reference crystals for
radio transmitters.
 Berlinite (AlPO4). A rare phosphate mineral structurally identical to quartz.

Man-made crystals:
 Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4), a quartz analog.
 Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14), a quartz analog.

Piezoelectric ceramics:​
 Barium titanate (BaTiO3). The first piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
  Lead titanate (PbTiO3)
 Lead zirconate titanate (PZT). Currently the most commonly used piezoelectric ceramic.
 Potassium niobate (KNbO3)
 Lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
 Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)

Mechanism of Piezoelectricity:

Piezoelectric Effect Arises From Crystal Structure. The piezoelectric effect is always associated
with noncentrosymmetric crystals.

A typical noncentrosymmetric crystal structure such as a perovskite (calcium titanate — CaTiO3)

has a net non-zero charge in each unit cell of the crystal. However, as a result of the titanium ion
sitting slightly off-center inside the unit cell, an electrical polarity develops, thereby turning the
unit cell effectively into an electric dipole. A mechanical stress on the crystal further shifts the
position of the titanium ion, thus changing the polarization strength of the crystal. This is the
source of the direct effect. When the crystal is subjected to an electric field, it also results in a
relative shift in the position of the titanium ion, leading to the distortion of the unit cell and
making it more (or less) tetragonal. This is the source of the inverse effect.
Small displacements of ions in the crystal lattice create the polarization observed in
piezoelectricity. This only occurs in crystals that do not have a center of symmetry. When placed
under stress, the piezoelectric crystal produces a polarization, P proportional to the stress that
produced it. The main equation of piezoelectricity is
P=d×stress
where d is the piezoelectric coefficient, a factor unique to each type of piezoelectric material.
The piezoelectric coefficient for quartz is 3 × 10-12. The piezoelectric coefficient for lead
zirconate titanate (PZT) is 3 × 10-10.
Applications of Piezoelectric Materials

1. In gas lighter

It consists of the following parts:

1. Impact Pad
2. Piezoelectric crystal
3. Ignition Head.

Impact Pad bears the hammer blows from the upper part and passes the force on the piezoelectric
crystal causing it to deform and produce a spark.

2. Energy harvesting
Convert oscillatory mechanical energy into electrical energy. This technology, together with
innovative mechanical coupling designs, can form the basis for harvesting energy from
mechanical motion. Piezoelectric energy can be harvested to convert walking motion from the
human body into electrical power.

The Heel Strike Generator uses Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT-5A) piezoelectric materials to
transform mechanical energy into electrical energy. The input mechanical energy is transformed
into electrical energy through four PZT-5A bimorph stacks.

3. Pressure sensor

When a force is applied to a piezoelectric material, an electric charge is generated across the
faces of the crystal. This can be measured as a voltage proportional to the pressure (see diagram
to the right).
Shape memory alloys
 Shape memory alloy is very common example of smart material.
 Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) are an intermetallic alloy that can be deformed but will
return to their original shape when heated.
 SMAs have a Shape Memory Effect (SME) and pseudoelastic effect, which are related to
the same underlying mechanism as elastic effects.
 These shape changes occurs between two phase martensite to austenite. Martensite phase
is stable at lower temperature and austenite phase is stable at higher temperature.
Basically these material exist between two phase.

Current shape memory alloys are:

 NiTi, or nitinol. This is the most developed SMA, with excellent mechanical properties.
It is pretty much the only commercially viable SMA.

 Cu-Al-Ni, Fe-Mn-Si, and Cu-Zn-Al systems. These have poorer mechanical properties
and are still in development, although they may one day offer advantages over NiTi such
as higher transformation temperatures

 Ni-Mn-Ga. A magnetic shape memory alloy, which is affected by magnetic fields rather
than temperature. Magnetic shape memory alloys are also in the developmental stage.

 Other alloys also exist, which are even less commercially viable. Alloys with gold, silver,
platinum, and palladium have made good SMAs in the laboratory, but they will probably
never be worth the cost of the raw materials.
 SMAs are said to exhibit a crystallographically reversible martensitic transformation. At
high temperatures, the SMA exists as an austenite phase (the parent or memory phase)
with long range order. On cooling below the transformation temperature, the austenite
transforms to a thermoelastic martensite whose structure has many variants, typically
sheared platelets. Because the martensitic structure is self-accommodating, the
deformation on transformation to martensite is zero. The martensite deforms by a
twinning mechanism that transforms the different variants to the variant that can
accommodate the maximum elongation in the direction of the applied force. The
interfaces between platelets in the martensite phase slip very readily and the material is
deformed at low applied stresses. The austenite phase has only one possible orientation,
thus when heated, all the possible deformed structures of the martensite phase must revert
to this one orientation of the austenite memory phase and the material recovers its
original shape.
  When martensite is deformed and then heated to the austenitic state, the material returns
to the shape it had before the pseudoplastic deformation. The pseudoplastic deformation
is characterized not by gliding and generation of dislocations but rather by the movement
of twin boundaries thereby reducing the number of different martensitic variants. Upon
subsequent cooling, the shape remains unchanged. This phenomenon is known as one-
way shape memory effect since there is a shape change during heating only and not
during cooling. It is a natural crystallographic property of shape memory materials (Fig. 1,
2). Strain values up to 8% can be recovered in polycrystalline NiTi alloys.

Touch Screen: A touch screen is a display that can detect the presence and location of a touch
within the display area

It uses more than two piezoelectric transducers located at some positions of the screen to turn the
mechanical energy of a touch (vibration) into an electronic signal. The screen hardware then uses
an algorithm to determine the location of the touch based on the transducer signals. Touch screen
can be broadly categorised into Resistive, Capacitive, Surface Acoustic Wave and Infrared.

Resistive touch screen: Resistive touch screens consist of a glass or acrylic panel that is coated
with electrically conductive and resistive layers made with indium tin oxide (ITO). The thin
layers are separated by invisible space.
 Applied pressure brings two conductive layers together which creates an electrical connection
that can be sensed and located.

Capacitive touch screen: Capacitive sensing is a technology, based on capacitive coupling that
takes human body capacitance as input. Capacitive sensors detect anything that is conductive or
has a dielectric different from that of air.

 A surface capacitive works by measuring current. A protective cover is placed over the
transparent electrode film which lies on top of the glass substrate. Voltage is applied to
the corners and when a finger or stylus makes contact with the surface it disrupts the
current. The controller then registers and determines point of contact.

Infrared Touch Screen

  Consists of infrared LEDs (Light emitting diode) and light sensors that are placed on the
perimeter of the panel. LEDs transmit beams of light that run parallel to the assigned light
sensor create a light grid. Anything that disrupts the light or reduces the light such as a
finger or stylus will register a touch.

Magnetostrictive Materials: when subjected to a magnetic field, and vice versa (direct and
converse effects), this material will undergo an induced mechanical strain. Consequently, it can
be used as sensors and/or actuators.

Chromic materials are dyes and pigments that exhibit a distinct colour change when
exposed to an external stimulus, such as Radiation, Pressure, Temperature, Chemical, Electric
field, Magnetic Field etc.

Thermo-responsive Smart Polymers : Thermoresponsive polymers are the ones that exhibit
conformational changes in response to temperature stimuli, especially near body temperature.
Example: : Polyethylene oxide, Poly vinyl methylether and Poly hydroxyethyl methacrylate etc