BRAIN AS CPU SYSTEM

 The human brain can be thought of as a highly sophisticated and complex information processing system,
similar to a computer's Central Processing Unit (CPU). Both the brain and CPU receive and process inputs,
store information, and perform calculations to produce outputs.
 However, there are significant differences between the two, such as the way they store and process
information and the fact that the human brain has the ability to learn and adapt, while a computer's CPU
does not.
 Additionally, the human brain is capable of performing tasks such as perception, thought, and emotion, which
are beyond the scope of a computer's CPU.
 In the human brain, information is processed in a distributed manner across multiple regions, each with
specialized functions, rather than being processed sequentially in a single centralized location.
 Brain architecture is comprised of billions of connections between individual neurons across different areas
of the brain. These connections enable lightning-fast communication among neurons that specialize in
different kinds of brain functions.
 Just like how a computer's CPU has an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) to perform mathematical calculations, the
human brain has specialized regions for processing mathematical and logical operations. The prefrontal
cortex, for example, is responsible for higher-level cognitive functions such as decision making and problem
solving.

BASICS FOR BRAIN COMPUTER

COMPARISON

Construction Neurons and synapses ICs, transistors, diode,

capacitors, transistors.

Memory growth Increase each time by Increases by adding more

connecting synaptic links. memory chips.

Information storage Stored in electrochemical Stored in numeric and

and electric impulses. symbolic form.

Structural organization Brain is self-organizing Computers perform a

self- maintaining and monotonous job and
reliable. can’t correct itself.

Transmission information Use chemicals to fire the Communication is

action potential in the achieved through
neurons. electrical coded signals.
EYE AS A CAMERA SYSTEM:

 The human eye is a wonderful instrument, relying on refraction and lenses to form images. There are many
similarities between the human eye and a camera, including:
 A diaphragm to control the amount of light that gets through to the lens. This is the shutter in a camera, and
the pupil, at the center of the iris, in the human eye.
 A lens to focus the light and create an image. The image is real and inverted. A method of sensing the image.
 In a camera, film is used to record the image; in the eye, the image is focused on the retina, and a system of
rods and cones is the front end of an image-processing system that converts the image to electrical impulses
and sends the information along the optic nerve to the brain.
 There are two photoreceptors: RODS AND CONES
 These photoreceptors are localized around an area near the centre of the retina called the macula, which is
the functional center of the retina. The fovea is located in the center of the macula. The macula is responsible
for high-resolution, color vision, provided by different types of photoreceptors.
 Photoreceptors in the retina are classified into two groups, named after their physical morphologies. Rod
cells are highly sensitive to light and function in night vision, whereas cone cells are capable of detecting a
wide spectrum of light photons and are responsible for colour vision.
 Rods and cones are structurally compartmentalized. They consist of five principal regions: Outer segment,
connecting cilium, Inner segment,
 nuclear region, Synaptic region, Rods are responsible for vision at low light levels (scotopic vision). They do
not mediate color vision and have a low spatial acuity.
 Cones are active at higher light levels (photopic vision), are capable of color vision and are responsible for
high spatial acuity. The central fovea is populated exclusively by cones.
 There are3 types of cones which we will refer to as the short-wavelength sensitive cones, the middle-
wavelength sensitive cones and the long-wavelength sensitive cones or S-cone, M-cones, and L- cones

BIONIC EYES:
 Bionic eye, electrical prosthesis surgically implanted into a human eye in order to allow for the transduction
of light (the change of light from the environment into impulses the brain can process) in people who have
sustained severe damage to the retina.
 The bionic eye comprises an external camera and transmitter and an internal microchip. The camera is
mounted on a pair of eyeglasses, where it serves to organize the visual stimuli of the environment before
emitting high-frequency radio waves
 The stimulator microchip consists of an electrode array that is surgically implanted into the retina. That
functions as an electrical relay in place of degenerated retinal cells.
 The radio waves that are emitted by the external camera and transmitter are received by the stimulator,
which then fires electrical impulses. The impulses are relayed by the few remaining retinal cells and are
transduced as normal to the optic nerve pathway, resulting in vision.
 The bionic vision system consists of a camera, attached to a pair of glasses, which transmits high- frequency
radio signals to a microchip implanted in the retina.
 Electrodes on the implanted chip convert these signals into electrical impulses to stimulate cells in the retina
that connect to the optic nerve.
 It is an expensive treatment and not everyone can afford it
 It’s an artificial eye which provide visual sensations to the brain. It consist of electronic systems having image
sensors, microprocessors, receivers, radio transmitters and retinal chips. Technology provided by this help the
blind people to get vision again.

HEART AS A PUMP SYSTEM:

 Heart is sort of like a pump, or two pumps in one. The right side of your heart receives blood from the
body and pumps it to the lungs. The left side of the heart does the exact opposite: It receives blood from
the lungs and pumps it out to the body.
 The human heart is very strong and is capable of pumping blood up to 30 feet distance. An average heart
beats maximum of 70-80 beats per minute and is considered healthy. The efficiency of the heart can be
maintained and improved by performing physical activity.
 The heart is called a double pump because each side pumps blood to a different circulation.
Deoxygenated blood from the body drains to the right side of the heart. This is the first pump that sends
blood to the lungs, called the pulmonary circulation, where it becomes oxygenated and releases carbon
dioxide.
 The blood first enters the right atrium. The blood then flows through the tricuspid valve into the right
ventricle. When the heart beats, the ventricle pushes blood through the pulmonic valve into the
pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery carries blood to the lungs where it “picks up” oxygen.
 It then leaves the lungs to return to the heart through the pulmonary vein. The blood enters the left
atrium. It drops through the mitral valve into the left ventricle. The left ventricle then pumps blood
through the aortic valve and into the aorta.
 The aorta is the artery that feeds the rest of the body through a system of blood vessels.
 Blood returns to the heart from the body via two large blood vessels called the superior vena cava and
the inferior vena cava. This blood carries little oxygen, as it is returning from the body where oxygen was
used. The vena cava pump blood into the right atrium and the cycle begins all over again.
  The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with
two-thirds of the mass to the left of midline.
 The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the parietal layers of a serous membrane. The
visceral layer of the serous membrane forms the epicardium.
 The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen and
nutrients to function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of blood vessels to
bring oxygen to the contracting cells and to remove waste products.

ELECTRICAL SIGNALING ECG MONITORING :

 The heart's pumping action is controlled by electrical signaling, which generates the rhythm of the
heartbeat. This electrical signaling can be monitored using an electrocardiogram (ECG), which records the
electrical activity of the heart and provides important information about the heart's function.
 An ECG measures the electrical signals produced by the heart as it beats and generates a trace or waveform
that reflects the electrical activity of the heart. This trace can be used to diagnose heart conditions and
monitor the heart's function.
 Some common heart-related issues that can be diagnosed or monitored using an ECG include:
 Arrhythmias: Abnormalities in the heart's rhythm or rate can be detected using an ECG

Heart disease: Changes in the heart's electrical activity can indicate the presence of heart
disease, such as coronary artery disease or heart attacks. 
 The ECG is a well-established, quick, and easily accessible method for diagnosis and screening
of various cardiovascular diseases. It provides specific features that indicate presence of HF or
prognosis in HF patients especially to rule out HF in case of a normal ECG. However, use of
an ECG as primary diagnostic instrument often only yields insufficient diagnostic specificity.

PACE MAKERS:

 A pacemaker is a small device that's placed (implanted) in the chest to help control the heartbeat. It's used
to prevent the heart from beating too slowly. Implanting a pacemaker in the chest requires a surgical
procedure. A pacemaker is also called a cardiac pacing device.
 Types: Single chamber pacemaker. This type usually carries electrical impulses to the right ventricle of your
heart.
 Dual chamber pacemaker. This type carries electrical impulses to the right ventricle and the right atrium of
your heart to help control the timing of contractions between the two chambers.
 Biventricular pacemaker. Biventricular pacing, also called cardiac resynchronization therapy, is for people
who have heart failure and heartbeat problems. This type of pacemaker stimulates both of the lower heart
chambers (the right and left ventricles) to make the heart beat more efficiently.
 A pacemaker is implanted to help control your heartbeat. A pacemaker may be implanted permanently to
correct a chronic slow or irregular heartbeat or to help treat heart failure.
 Pacemakers work only when needed. If your heartbeat is too slow (bradycardia), the pacemaker sends
electrical signals to your heart to correct the beat.
 Some newer pacemakers also have sensors that detect body motion or breathing rate and signal the devices
to increase heart rate during exercise, as needed.

A pacemaker has two parts: Pulse generator. This small metal container houses a battery and the electrical
circuitry that controls the rate of electrical pulses sent to the heart.
  Leads (electrodes). One to three flexible, insulated wires are each placed in one or more chambers of the
heart and deliver the electrical pulses to adjust the heart rate. However, some newer pacemakers don't
require leads. These devices, called leadless pacemakers, are implanted directly into the heart muscle

LUNGS AS A PURIFICATION SYSTEM:

Introduction:

Every cell in your body needs oxygen to live. The air we breathe contains oxygen and other gases. The respiratory
system's main job is to move fresh air into our body while removing waste gases. Once in the lungs, oxygen is moved
into the bloodstream and carried through your body. At each cell in your body, oxygen is exchanged for a waste gas
called carbon dioxide. Your bloodstream then carries this waste gas back to the lungs where it is removed from the
bloodstream and then exhaled. Your lungs and the respiratory system automatically perform this vital process, called
gas exchange.

In addition to gas exchange, your respiratory system performs other roles important to breathing.

These include:

 Bringing air to the proper body temperature and moisturizing it to the right humidity level.
 Protecting your body from harmful substances. This is done by coughing, sneezing, filtering, or swallowing
them.
 Supporting your sense of smell.

Lungs help in the purification of blood. Arteries carry pure oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the
body. Veins carry impure venous blood back from other parts of the body to the right side of the heart. This impure
blood goes to the lungs for purification.

When the breath is inhaled, oxygen from the air comes in contact with the impure blood and the blood takes up
oxygen. The waste matter in the blood releases carbonic acid and the blood is purified. The purified blood is carried
to the heart by the veins.

Architecture:

 Trachea: The trachea is the main airway that leads from the larynx (voice box) to the lungs. It is lined with
cilia and mucus-secreting glands that help to filter out harmful substances and trap them in the mucus
 Bronchi: The trachea branches into two main bronchi. one for each lung. The bronchi is larger airways that
continue to branch into smaller airways called bronchioles.
 Bronchioles: The bronchioles are smaller airways that eventually lead to the alveoli which are the sites of
gas exchange
 Alveoli: The alveoli are tiny air sacs that are lined with a network of capillaries. This close proximity of the
alveoli and capillaries allows for efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air in the alveoli
and the bloodstream.
KIDNEY AS FILTRATION SYSTEM:

Kidneys remove wastes and extra fluid from the body. Kidneys also remove acid that is produced by the cells of
the body and maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals- such as sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and
potassium in the blood. Without this balance, nerves, muscles, and other tissues in the body may not work
normally.

Architecture:

 The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist. They are located just below the
rib cage, one on each side of the spine. Healthy kidneys filter about a half cup of blood every minute,
removing wastes and extra water to make urine.
 The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through two thin tubes of muscles called ureters, one
on each side of the bladder. Your bladder stores urine. Kidneys, Ureters, and bladder are part of your
urinary tract.

MECHANISM OF FILTRATION:

 Each kidney is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron includes a filter,
called the glomerulus, and a tubule.
 The nephrons work through a two-step process: the glomerulus filters blood, and the tubule returns needed
substances to your blood and removes wastes.
 Bowmans Capsule- this is a cup shaped structure that surrounds the glomerulus and filters waste and excess
fluid from the bloodstream into the renal tube.
  Glomerulus: A network of tiny blood vessels within the Bowman's capsule that filters waste and excess fluid
from the bloodstream.
 Proximal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that reabsorbs important substances, such as
glucose, amino acids, and electrolytes, back into the bloodstream.
 Loop of Henle: A U-shaped segment of the renal tubule that is critical for the reabsorption of ions and water.
 Distal convoluted tubule: A segment of the renal tubule that regulates the levels of electrolytes and other
important substances in the bloodstream.
 Collecting duct: A series of ducts that collect the filtrate from the renal tubules and transport it to the renal
pelvis, where it drains into the ureter and eventually into the bladder.

ELECTRO ENCEPHALO GRAM[EEG]

 An electroencephalogram (EEG) is a test that measures electrical activity in the brain using
small, metal discs (electrodes) attached to the scalp.
 Brain cells communicate via electrical impulses and are active all the time, even during
asleep.
 This activity shows up as wavy lines on an EEG recording.
 An EEG is one of the main diagnostic tests for epilepsy. An EEG can also play a role in
diagnosing other brain disorders.
 An EEG can find changes in brain activity that might be useful in diagnosing brain
disorders, especially epilepsy or another seizure disorder.
 An EEG might also be helpful for diagnosing or treating:
i. Brain tumors
ii. Brain damage from head injury
iii. Brain dysfunction that can have a variety of causes (encephalopathy)
iv. Sleep disorders
v. Inflammation of the brain (herpes encephalitis)
vi. Stroke

 EEG can detect abnormal electrical discharges such as sharp waves, spikes or spike-and-
wave complexes that are seen in people with epilepsy, thus it is often used to inform the
medical diagnosis.
 EEG can detect the onset and spatio-temporal evolution of seizures and the presence of
status epileptics.
 It is also used to help diagnose sleep disorders, depth of anesthesia, coma, encephalopathies,
cerebral hypoxia after cardiac arrest, and brain death.
 EEG used to be a first- line method of diagnosis for tumors, stroke and other focal brain
disorders, but this use has decreased with the advent of high-resolution anatomical imaging
techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT).
 sDespite limited spatial resolution, EEG continues to be a valuable tool for research and
diagnosis.

BIONIC EYES:
 Bionic eye, electrical prosthesis surgically implanted into a human eye in order to allow for the transduction
of light (the change of light from the environment into impulses the brain can process) in people who have
sustained severe damage to the retina.
 The bionic eye comprises an external camera and transmitter and an internal microchip. The camera is mounted
on a pair of eyeglasses, where it serves to organize the visual stimuli of the environment before emitting high-
frequency radio waves
 The stimulator microchip consists of an electrode array that is surgically implanted into the retina. That
functions as an electrical relay in place of degenerated retinal cells.
 The radio waves that are emitted by the external camera and transmitter are received by the stimulator, which
then fires electrical impulses. The impulses are relayed by the few remaining retinal cells and are transduced
as normal to the optic nerve pathway, resulting in vision.
 The bionic vision system consists of a camera, attached to a pair of glasses, which transmits high- frequency
radio signals to a microchip implanted in the retina.
 Electrodes on the implanted chip convert these signals into electrical impulses to stimulate cells in the retina
that connect to the optic nerve.
 It is an expensive treatment and not everyone can afford it
 It’s an artificial eye which provide visual sensations to the brain. It consist of electronic systems having image
sensors, microprocessors, receivers, radio transmitters and retinal chips. Technology provided by this help the
blind people to get vision again.