CH-3 Geometric Design of

Highways

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 Chapter 3: Geometric Design
Highway geometric design refers to the calculations and
analysis made by designers to fit the highway to the
topography of the site while meeting the safety, service and
performance standards. Elements of the highways that are
visible to the drivers and road-users are called geometric
elements. However, the engineer must also take into
consideration the social and environmental impacts of the
highway geometry on the surrounding facilities.

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 3.1 Introduction
• The geometric design of highways is that stage of
highway design which deals with the dimensions of the
road and layout of visible features of the highway.
• It is majorly concerned with the design of the road
elements and does not include pavement design,
structural and drainage components.
• The geometrics of highway should be designed to provide
optimum efficiency in traffic with maximum safety at the
reasonable cost. The design of such features is highly
influenced by traffic, driver behavior and psychology and
vehicle characteristics.
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 Objectives:
 Determine the routing of proposed highway, within the
allowance permitted by the design standard and right-of-
way.
 Incorporate various physical features of the road
alignment to ensure that drivers have sufficient view of
the road (and obstacles) ahead from them to adjust their
speed of travel to maintain safety and ride quality within
the design standard.
 Provide a basis for the highway engineers to evaluate and
plan for the construction of a section of the proposed
highway.
 Provide aesthetic value of the road including
sustainability aspect consideration.
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The features normally considered under the geometric design of roads are
grouped as:

ELEMENTS OF CROSS SECTION

• Traffic lane, Carriageway, Shoulder, Median strips, Right of the way, Side
slope.
• Camber
• Super elevation
• Extra widening of pavement
• Sight distance across the road
ELEMENTS OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
• Deflection angle, Horizontal curve radius and length
• Transition curve
• Sight distance along the road plan
ELEMENTS OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
• Grade
• Vertical curves
• Sight distance along the road profile

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BASIC DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA FOR
DESIGN:
The basic factors influencing the design are as
follows:
• Nature of terrain/Topography
• Functional classification of the road
• Design Traffic volume and composition
• Traffic capacity
• Design speed
• Design vehicle
• Road user behavior
• Environmental and other factors
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 Terrain Classification:
 Topography is an important factor and influences the physical
location of the highway. Geometric design standards are different
for different terrain conditions. The hilly and mountainous regions
are affected by valleys, hills, steep slope which increase the cost of
construction and time of construction too. The slope should be
considered in the plain areas too considering the drainage
conditions.
 The location and geometric design elements such as gradients,
sight distance, cross-sections, radius of curvature, speeds, etc. of a
highway are affected by topography, physical features, and land
use.
Class Terrain type Percent Cross-slope

1 Plain 0 to 10
2 Rolling >10 to 25
3 Hilly/Mountainous >25 to 60
4
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 Terrain Classification:

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 Functional Classification of road:
Roads generally serve a multitude of purposes:
 As through route - for long distance traffic
 As local route – for local traffic
 In urban and rural areas –urban roads/rural roads
 For fast and slow vehicles – 2 wheels to 10+ wheels
 As servicing/access roads
 For use by pedestrians
 For parking areas

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 Design traffic volume and composition:
 Traffic Data: Traffic data indicates the service for
which the road is being planned and directly affects
the geometric elements such as width, alignment, etc.
 Traffic volume – AADT, ADT
 Directional distribution – the percentage of traffic
volume flowing in each direction
 Traffic composition – the percentage of different types
of vehicles in the traffic stream – different types of
vehicles are converted into passenger car unit (PCU) to
design a road width
 Traffic projection – using the design period of a road
(5-20 years)a reliable traffic projection should be
made considering the following elements
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 Design traffic volume and composition:
 Current traffic – currently using the existing road
 Normal traffic growth – anticipated growth due to population
growth
 Diverted traffic – traffic that switches to a new facility from nearby
roads
 Converted traffic – traffic resulting from changes of mode
 Change of destination traffic – traffic that has changed to different
destination due to new or improved transport and not changes in
land use
 Development traffic – traffic due to improvement on adjacent land
development that would have taken place had the new or improved
road not been constructed
 Induced traffic – traffic that did not previously exist in a any form
but results when new or improved transport facilities are provided
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 Traffic Capacity:
The maximum traffic flow occurs when the speed falls to nearly a
half of the free-flow speed. Hence it is not desirable to design the
road facility for maximum capacity conditions.
Factors affecting traffic capacity include:
Roadway factors – geometric characteristics such as number of
lanes, lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and vertical
alignments, lateral and vertical clearances, design speed, pavement
surface conditions etc.
Traffic factors – composition of traffic, lane distribution, variation in
traffic flow, traffic interruptions, etc.
Traffic control conditions – traffic signs, traffic signals,
traffic regulation
The theoretical maximum capacity is given as:
C= (1000 v)/s
Where v = speed in km/h
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= average center to center spacing
YKS of vehicles in meter 14
 Traffic Capacity:

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 Design Speed:
Definition: A design speed is a selected speed used to determine
the various geometric design features of the roadway.
Design speed is the maximum safe speed selected for designing
specific section of road considering the terrain, land use,
classification of the road
The speed that a driver adopts on a road depends on:
 Physical characteristics of the road and its surroundings
 Weather conditions in the area
 Presence of other vehicles and the nature of these vehicles,
and
 Speed limitations placed upon the vehicles either by law or by
mechanical devices fitted in vehicles

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 Design Speed:

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 Road user characteristics:
Pedestrian considerations :
 Walking speed
 Walkway capacities
 Level of Service of pedestrian walkways
 Pedestrian at intersections
 Consideration of disabled persons
Bicycle Facility :
 Safety for bicycle users,
 Types of carriageway for bicycle-way,
 Bicycle-safe drainage grades
 Adjusting manhole covers to the grade
 Maintaining a smooth, clean riding surface
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 Vehicle size and performance:
The vehicle characteristics affecting the road design are as:
Width of the vehicle: width of traffic lane, width of
shoulder, width of parking space;
The height of vehicle: clearance to be provided to
overhead structures ;
Overall length of vehicle: design of horizontal
curves, valley curves, safety regulations;
Vehicle loads: bridge design, pavement thickness, design of
ruling gradients
Vehicle speed: Super-elevation, limiting radius, sight
distances, width of pavement on straights and curves,
width of shoulder, intersection design, traffic capacity of a
lane.
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 Design Vehicles:
Dimensions Vehicle type Maximum dimensions, m
Width All 2.5
Height Single decked vehicle 3.8 – 4.2
Double decked vehicle 4.75
Length Single unit with two axle 11.00
Single unit with more than 12.00
two axle
Tractor semi-trailer 16.00
combination
Tractor Trailer 18.00
combination

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 Weight of the vehicles:
IRC suggests that single axle load should not
exceed 10.2 tones (102 kN) and for tandem axle
18 tones (180 kN). The gross load of any vehicle or
combination of vehicles should not exceed the
weight worked out by the following formula:

W  1525 ( L  7.3)  14 .7 L2

Where, W is the gross weight of the vehicle in kg, L

is the distance between the extreme axles in m.

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 Economical and Environmental Consideration:
Economical: Highway economics is concerned with the cost
of a proposed improvement and the benefits resulting
from it. Final design decisions on the proposed projects are
supported by the total economic analysis.
Environmental: It is essential that the highway be
considered as an element of the total environment. The
term “environment,” as used here refers to the totality of
humankind’s surroundings: social, physical, natural, and
aesthetic. It includes the human, animal, and plant
communities and the forces that act on all three.
Air pollution, noise pollution, aesthetic conditions,
landscaping, etc. also influence the geometric design of
roads.
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 Safety:
Road traffic safety refers to the methods and measures
used to prevent road users from being killed or
seriously injured. ... The third level is about reducing
the crash risk which involves applying the road-design
standards and guidelines (such as from AASHTO),
improving driver behavior and enforcement.

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3.2 BASIC ROAD TERMS
 Traffic volume
 Traffic Capacity
 Skid/Slip
Skid: Skidding occurs when the path travelled along
the road surface is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheel due to friction.
Slip: Slipping occurs when the wheels revolve more
than the corresponding longitudinal movement along
the road.

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3.3 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

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3.3 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

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3.3 CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS

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 Right of way: Right of way (ROW) or land width is
the width of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate
all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and
may reasonably provide for future development.
The right of way width is governed by:

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 NRS recommends the minimum width of Right
of way as in the table below.
Type of Road Minimum Right of way, Building line,
m m

National Highway 50 (25m on either side 62

of the road center line)

Feeder Road 30 (15m on either side 42

of the road center line)

District Road 20 (10m on either side 32

of the road center line)

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 Carriage way width and number of lane:
 Width of the carriage way or the width of the pavement
depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of
lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the
vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves
operating speed and safety.
 The standard width of carriageway shall be as shown on the
following table. Total width of pavement shall be determined
based on the volume of the traffic and capacity of each lane
as given on art.

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YKS
 Number of Lane:
Number of traffic lane is the function of Design hourly
volume and the capacity of the traffic lane. Number of
traffic lane can be found by using the formula below:
N
n .......... .......... .......... ........( I )
C
1000 V
C  .......... .......... .......... .( II
S

Where, N is the design hourly traffic volume, Veh /hr; C is

the traffic capacity of a single lane; V is design speed
Kmph;
S is the average spacing of vehicles in m (s=V*tr + 6.1)m.
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 Similarly, carriage way width can be
calculated by using the following relationship.
It is that strip of road which is considered for
the movement of vehicular traffic.

Where, Tw is width of traffic lane; n is the

number of traffic lane.

C w  T w n .......... .......... .......... ........( III )

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 Road Margin:
Shoulder: Shoulder is the portion of roadway on either
side of the carriage way which is periodically used for
overtaking, parking or repairing vehicles, fixing traffic
sign and signal, stacking construction material. Well
maintained shoulder increases the lifetime of pavement.
The width of shoulders on either side of the carriageway
shall be at least 0.75 m. Recommended width of
shoulder for various classes of roads is given below in
Table 11-2.

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 Shoulder:

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 Medians
a. For roads with 4 or more lanes, it is recommended to
provide medians or traffic separators. Medians should be
as wide as possible.
b. A minimum median width of 5m is recommended. But a
width of 3m can be adopted in areas where land is
restricted.
c. In mountainous and steep terrains maximum possible
width of median dictated by the topography should be
provided. In such situations simple barriers may be
provided to function as a median or individual
carriageways could be designed at different levels.
d. On long bridges and viaducts the width of the median
may be reduced to 1.5m, but in no case this should be less
than
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1.2m. YKS 36
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 Cycle tracks: Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the
volume of cycle traffic on the road is very high. Minimum width for
cycle track should be kept 2 m and it may be increased by 1 m for
each additional cycle lane.

 Footpaths or sidewalks: These are exclusive "Right of Way" to

pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided for the
safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and
vehicular traffic is high. Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be
increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be either as
smooth as the pavement or smoother than that to induce the
pedestrian to use the footpath.
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 NRS recommendation for sidewalk: In urban areas,
the sidewalk should be provided as per the number of
pedestrians estimated for future. Usually, a 60 cm
width should be provided for a pedestrian density of
30 pedestrian /min, subject to a minimum sidewalk
of 2.5 m on each side of carriageway.

 Guard rails: Provided at the edge of the shoulder

when the road is constructed on a fill so that the
vehicles are prevented from running off the
embankment, especially when the height of the fill
exceeds 3 m.

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Embankment slopes: It should be as flat as possible
for the purpose of safe traffic movement and for
aesthetic reasons. However, from the slope stability
point of view a steeper slope may be possible, it may
be kept as flat as permitted by economic
considerations.
Drainage: The pavement surface should be
impermeable to prevent seepage of water into the
pavement layers. Minimum 0.5% slope should be
adopted.

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 Kerbs:
Kerbs indicate the boundary between the carriage
way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths.
Different types of kerbs are shown in the figure
below (IRC recommendation).

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3.4 CAMBER
Camber is the convexity provided to the cross
section of the carriageway. Camber is provided on
the straight roads by raising the center of the
carriageway with respect to the edges, forming a
crown or highest points on the center line.
The rate of camber or cross slope is usually
designated by 1in n which means that the traverse
slope is in ratio 1 vertical to n horizontal.
Camber is also expressed as a percentage. If the
camber is X%, the cross slope is X in 100.

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OBJECTIVES OF PROVIDING CAMBER
To drain out the surface water.
To prevent infiltration of water into the underlying
pavement layers and soil sub grade.
To separate the traffic in the two direction.
To improve the appearance of the road.
The required camber of a pavement surface depends
on:
a) The type of the pavement
b) The amount of rainfall.

44
 NRS 2070

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Too steep cross slope/ camber is not desirable
because of following reasons:
• Transverse tilt of vehicles causes uncomfortable side
thrust and a drag on the steering of automobiles.
Also, the thrust on the wheels along the pavement
edges is more causing unequal wear of the tyres as
well as road surface.
• Discomfort causing throw of vehicle when crossing
crown during overtaking operation.
• Problem of toppling over of highly loaded vehicles.
• Formation of cross ruts due to rapid flow of water.
• Tendency of most of the vehicles to travel along the
center line.
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TYPES OF CAMBER
1. Straight Line Camber

Figure : Straight line camber

*Generally adopted for very flat slopes such as PCC or RCC Pavement
R 2 R
n  tan   
W / 2 W
2 R y

W x
y  nx .......... .......... ........( IV )
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TYPES OF CAMBER
2. Parabolic Camber

*Perfect for highways and areas with lots of rain

Figure : Parabolic type of camber
y  x 2

y R 2R 2
2
 2
 *
x (W / 2 ) W W
2R
n 
W
2x2 2 nx 2
y  n  .......... .......... .......... ......( V )
W W
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TYPES OF CAMBER
3. Composite Camber

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Tutorial No. 1: The width of pavement is 7.0 m. If
the centerline of the road has an elevation 412.23 m,
find the elevation of the edge of the pavement and
the center of lane if:
a) Straight line camber is provided
b) Parabolic camber is provided

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Tutorial No. 2: The centerline of a double lane
road has an elevation of 320.50 m as recorded
from longitudinal profile. The camber is 2.5% and
cross fall of the shoulder is 5%. Calculate the
elevation of road surface at the center of lane,
edges of the pavement and road edge if the
shoulder is 1.5 m wide for
i) straight line camber is provided
ii) parabolic camber is provided. Take the lane
width equal to 3.5m.

YKS
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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
A curve is nothing but an arc which connects two
straight lines which are separated by some angle
called deflection angle.
This situation occurs where the alignment of a road
way or rail way changes its direction because of
unavoidable objects or conditions.
The object may be a hill or a lake or a temple etc. so,
for the ease of movement of vehicle at this point a
curve is provided.

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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Horizontal curves are necessary in each and every point of intersection of
two straight alignment to change the direction.

Reasons of deviations
• Topography
• Restriction imposed by property
• To provide access to particular
locality
• To avoid structures with
religious, cultural and
environmental values
• To make use of existing right of
ways
• 6/13/2025
To keep the driver alert. YKS 55
3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Types

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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Types

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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Types

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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Types

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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Elements of Horizontal Curve

Where,
E= Apex Distance
M= Mid Ordinate
C= Chord Length
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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Design of Horizontal Curve( effect of centrifugal force)
A horizontal highway curve is a curve plan to provide change in
direction to the central line of a road. When a vehicle traverses a
horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts outwards through the center
of gravity of the vehicle.

𝟐
Centrifugal Force, P =
where,
P =Centrifugal force, kg
W= Weight of the vehicle, kg
R=Radius of the circular curve
V= Speed of vehicle, m/ sec
g= Acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 m/sec2
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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Design of Horizontal Curve( effect of centrifugal force)
The centrifugal force acting on a vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve
has two effects:
a) Tendency to overturn the vehicle outwards about the outerwheel
b) Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outwards.
a) Overturn effect
the equilibrium condition for
overturning will occur when:

‘
There is danger of overturning when centrifugal ratio P/W or v2/gR
attains a value of b/2h.
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3.5 HIGHWAY CURVES
Design of Horizontal Curve( effect of centrifugal force)
b) Transverse Skidding effect
The equilibrium condition for the transverse skid resistance developed is
given by:

Thus to avoid overturning and lateral skidding on horizontal curve the

centrifugal ratio should be always less than 'b/2h' and ‘f’.
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 Overturn effect

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION/ Cant/Banking
• Superelevation in roads is basically provided on the horizontally
curved portion of the roads in which the outer edge of the road
pavement is raised with respect to the inner edge, thus providing a
transverse slope throughout the length of the horizontal curve of the
road.
• This transverse inclination to the surface of the road pavement is
known as Superelevation.
• Superelevation is also known as Cant or Banking.
• Superelevation is expressed as the height of the outer edge of the
pavement with respect to the width of the pavement. It is denoted by
letter “e”.

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Objectives of providing Superelevation:
• The main aim of providing superelevation is to counteract the effect of
centrifugal force acting on the moving vehicle.

• To prevent the damaging effect on the surface of the roads due to

improper distribution of load on the roads.

• To help the fast-moving vehicles to pass through a curved path

without overturning or skidding.

• To reduce the maintenance cost of the road on the curved portion.

• To ensure the smooth and safe movement of vehicles and passengers

on the curved portion of the roads.
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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Analysis of Superelevation:

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Analysis of Superelevation:
Consider a vehicle moving on the circular horizontal curve of the road. The
speed of the moving vehicle on the circular path is V m/s. The curve of the
radius is R meters

The forces which are acting on a vehicle while it is moving on the horizontal
circular curve are as follows:

1. The centrifugal force which is acting horizontally out ward through the
W V2
center of gravity, P=
gR

2. The weight(W) of the vehicle which is acting vertically downwards through

the center of gravity.

3. The friction which is developed between the wheel of the vehicle and the
pavement acting transversely along the pavement surface towards the
center of the curve.
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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Analysis of Superelevation:

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Analysis of Superelevation:

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Analysis of Superelevation:

Km/hr

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Steps for Superelevation design:

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Steps for Superelevation design:

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION
Steps for Super-elevation design:

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 Maximum super-elevation:
Super-elevation. IRC recommends the
maximum values of super-elevation as:
1. emax = 7% in plain and rolling terrain and in
snowbound areas
2. emax = 10% on hill roads not bound by
snow, bound by snow=7%
3. emax =4% on urban roads

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 Minimum super-elevation:
Design Radius (meter) of horizontal curve for camber of :
speed 4% 3%. 2.5% 2% 1.7%
(Kmph)
20 50 60 70 90 100
25 70 90 110 140 150
30 100 130 160 200 240
35 140 180 220 270 320
40 180 240 280 350 420
50 280 370 450 550 650
60 470 620 750 950 1100
80 700 950 1100 1400 1700
100
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1100 1500Y K S 1800 2200 260077
3.6 SUPERELEVATION NUMERICALS
1. A two lane highway with design speed 80kmph has horizontal
curve of radius 480m. Design the rate of super elevation for
mixed traffic condition. By how much should the pavement be
raised w.r.t. center line, if the pavement is rotated w.r.t. the center
line and the width of the pavement at horizontal curve is 7.5m.
Soln:
For mixed traffic condition: e= v2/225R = 802/(225*480)
= 0.059< 0.07 OK
Raising the outer edge w.r.t. center line,
= B.e/2 = 7.5*0.059/2 = 0.22m.

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3.6 SUPERELEVATION NUMERICALS
2. Design the rate of super elevation for a horizontal highway curve
of radius 500m and speed 100 KmPh.
Soln: Hints:
1. Check e < 0.07 or not
2. If e> 0.07, adopt e = 0.07 and calculate f, e+f= v2/127R
3. Check if f< 0.15 or not. If f< 0.15 designed super elevation is 0.07.
3. Calculate super elevation and maximum allowable speed for
design speed of 80 Kmph and radius 200 m.
Soln: Hints
I. Check e < 0.07 or not
II. If e> 0.07, adopt e= 0.07 and calculate f, e+f= v2/127R
III. Check if f< 0.15 or not. If f>0.15 adopt f = 0.15
IV. Calculate safe allowable speed from the formula of super elevation.
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 Numerical Example :
4. The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100
m. The design speed is 50 Kmph and the design
coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.
a. Calculate the super-elevation required if full
lateral friction is assumed to develop
b. Calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no
super-elevation is provided
c. Calculate the equilibrium super-elevation

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Example 5: Super elevation provided to the
road surface at a horizontal curve is 5%. How
much should be the outer edge of pavement is
raised against the inner one if the width is 7 m
and is rotated about the inner edge?

81
82
83
Example 6: The design speed of a road is
80kmph. There is a horizontal curve of radius
R = 100m on a certain locality. Calculate the
super elevation needed to maintain this
speed. If the maximum super elevation is 1:15
should not exceed. Calculate the maximum
comfortable speed.

84
85
Example 8: The design speed of a highway is
75 kmph. There is a horizontal curve of radius
190m on a certain locality. Calculate the super
elevation needed to maintain this speed for
mixed traffic. If the maximum Superelevation
of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, Calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal
curve as it is not possible to increase the
radius. Safe limit of transverse coefficient of
friction is 0.15.

86
 Numerical Examples:
9. A two lane road with design speed 80 Kmph has
horizontal curve of radius 400 m. Design the rate of super-
elevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer
edge of the pavement be raises with respect to the
centerline. Assume the width of the pavement at the
horizontal curve is 7 m.
10. The design speed of a highway is 80Kmph. There is a
horizontal curve of radius 200m. Calculate the super-
elevation needed to maintain this speed. If the maximum
super-elevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the
maximum allowable speed on this horizontal curve. Safe
limit of coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.

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 •Elimination of
Crown of the
cambered section
3.6 METHODS OF •Rotation of
PROVIDING pavement to attain
SUPERELEVATION full super elevation

6/13/2025 YKS 88
 Methods of introducing super-elevation:
[Link] of crown of the camber: This
may be done by two methods.

In the first method, the outer half of the cross

slope is rotated about the crown at a desired
rate such that the surface falls on the same
plane as the inner half and the elevation of
the center line is not altered.

YKS 89
This method has a drawback that the surface drainage will
not be proper at the outer half during a short stretch of the
road with cross slope less than the camber.

5
4
3
2
1
0

6/13/2025 YKS 90
  In the second method of
eliminating the crown known as
diagonal crown method the
crown is progressively shifted
outwards thus increasing the
width of the inner half of the
cross section progressively

This method is not usually adopted as a portion of the outer half of the
pavement has increasing values of negative super elevation before the
crown is eliminated.

6/13/2025 YKS 91
2. Super-elevation is gradually attained to its full value
at the start of the circular curve:

When the crown of the camber is eliminated, the Super-

elevation available at this section is equal to the
camber. But the Super-elevation to be provided at the
beginning of circular curve may be greater than the
camber (in many cases when the design Super-
elevation is more than the minimum). Hence the
pavement section will have to be rotated further till
the desired super-elevation is obtained.

6/13/2025 YKS 92
a. Center line rotation: By rotating the pavement cross section
about the Centre line, depressing the inner edge and raising
the outer edge each by half the total amount of Super-
elevation, i.e. by E/2 with respect to the Centre.

b. Inner edge rotation: By rotating the pavement cross section

about the inner edge of the pavement section raising both
the Centre as well as the outer edge of the pavement such
that the outer edge is raised by the full amount of super-
elevation, E with respect to the inner edge.
6/13/2025 YKS 93
6/13/2025 YKS 94
 C. Revolving Pavement About The Outer Edge
In this method, the surface of the road is rotated about the
outer edge depressing the center and inner edge.

Radius of Horizontal Curve

• Horizontal curve of highways are designed for the
specified design speed (Ruling & Min).
• However if this is not possible due to site restriction, the
horizontal curve may be redesigned.
• On the basic of speed Radius of Horizontal Curve is
classified into following:

6/13/2025 YKS 95
6/13/2025 YKS 96
6/13/2025 YKS 97
98
3.7 EXTRAWIDENING
On horizontal curves, increased carriageway width is provided
than the normal width on straight reaches. The increased width
is called the extra widening of the pavement. Its value depends
upon the sharpness of the curve. For sharper curve extra width
to be provided shall be more.

6/13/2025 YKS 99
Reasons for providing extra widening

• Due to rigidity of wheel base only front wheels can be turned so the
near wheels do not follow the same path taken by front wheels.
• Drivers have a tendency to keep away the edge of carriageway while
driving on curves.
• The clearance between the vehicles, crossing or passing each other
over horizontal curves is kept more than that on a straight road due
to psychological effect.
• While negotiating a horizontal curve the front steering wheels are
turned and thus more space is occupied.
• At more than the design speed, outward slipping of rear wheels may
occur and thus more width of road is covered.
• At the beginning of the curve, drivers have a tendency to follow
outer edge of the pavement to have better visibility and large radius
curved path.
• Trailer
6/13/2025
units require even larger Yextra
KS
width at curves. 100
101
3.7 EXTRAWIDENING
Analysis of Extra Widening
The amount of extra width to be provided depends on
the following factors:
Length of wheel base of the vehicle, l
Radius of the curve negotiated, R
Psychological factor
The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is
divided into two parts:
1. Mechanical Widening
2. Psychological Widening
1. Mechanical Widening
The widening required to account for the off tracking due
to the rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical
widening.
6/13/2025 YKS 102
Mechanical widening (Wm) is provided to account the off
tracking due to the rigidity of wheels.
Where,
 R1 – Radius of the path traversed by the outer rear wheel, m
 R2 - Radius of the path traversed by the outer front wheel, m
 Wm – Mechanical widening, m
 l – Length of the wheelbase, m

103
 Wm=OC-OA=OB-OA=R2-R1
From Triangle ΔOAB,
OA2=OB2-BA2
R12=R22-l2

(R2-Wm)2=R22-l2 (since R1=R2-Wm)

R22-2R2Wm+Wm2= R22-l2
or, l2= 2R2Wm-Wm2
or, l2= Wm(2R2-Wm )

or, Wm=
2R2−Wm

Since Wm<<<< R2, 2R2-Wm = 2R2

𝒍𝟐
Therefore, Wm=
2R

6/13/2025 104
 Here, R is the mean radius of the curve.
Mechanical widening calculated above is
required for one vehicle negotiating a
horizontal curve having n traffic lanes. The
total mechanical widening required is given
by:
2
nl
Wm 
2R

6/13/2025 YKS 105

2. Psychological Widening
Extra width of pavement is also provided for psychological
reasons such as to provide
• Greater maneuverability of steering at high speed.
• To allow for extra space requirements for the overhang of
vehicles.
• To provide greater space for crossing & passing vehicles
An empirical formula has been developed by IRC for finding
psychological widening (Wps), which is dependent on design
speed ‘v’ and radius ‘R’ of the curve:
Wps=

YKS 106
3.7 EXTRAWIDENING
Therefore total extra widening, We = Wm + Wps
i.e. We = +
2R
Where,
n = no. of lanes
R = radius of the curve in ‘m’
v = design speed in Kmph
l = length of wheel base of largest vehicle in ‘m’. The
value of ‘l’ may be taken as ‘6.1’, if not given.

6/13/2025 YKS 107

According to NRS 2071:
Only mechanical widening is required for single
lane low traffic volume road.
The minimum recommended value of widening on
single lane road is tabulated as below:
Curve radius (m) Up to 20 21-60 Above 60

Increase in width ( for 3 m 1.5 0.6 Nil

carriageway)

Increase in width ( for 3.75 m 0.9 0.6 Nil

carriageway)

108
3.7 METHODS OF PROVIDING EXTRAWIDENING

6/13/2025 YKS 109

a. Introduction of widening on curve without spiral
• In this case, the total extra width should be provided to the inside
of the carriageway, while the outside edge and centerline are both
kept as a circular arc. the result is much the same as providing a
transition curve on the centerline.
• The main drawback is that the full width of the carriageway may
not always be in use. since a fast-moving vehicle will tend to curve
in from the outer edge at the beginning and end of the curved
section as it makes its own transition.

6/13/2025 YKS 110

a. Curves without transition curve

111
 Methods on introducing extra widening:

b. Lager radius with transition curve (R = 60 – 900m)

112
b. Introduction of widening on curve with spiral. i.e
Transition Curve
The widening is introduced gradually, starting from the beginning of
the transition and progressively increasing at a uniform rate, till the
full value of deigned additional width is reached at the beginning of
the circular curve.

The rate of introducing extra width will be the same as the rate of
introducing superelevation or radial acceleration. here again, three
cases may arise.

6/13/2025 YKS 113

1. For a reasonably large radius (900>R>60 m), extra width is
introduced equally to the outer and inner lane at the
expanse of the inner and outer shoulder, keeping the width
of roadways changed. So, far as the remaining width of the
shoulder is as wide as 1 m. In cases, the shoulder width may
be obtained less than 1 meter as a result of increased
carriageway width.
2. At curves with a radius in the range of 30 m to 60 m and
for single-lane roads radius less than 150 m, the pavement
is widened only on the inside of the curve. However, the
centerline marking shall be placed halfway between the
edges of the widened carriageway.
3. On mountainous roads where the curve radius is
sometimes 20 m to 30 m. vehicles with long wheelbase can
not keep within the inner half of the carriageway. In this
case, extra width should preferably be applied fully on the
outer side.

6/13/2025 YKS 114

3.7 NUMERICALS ON EXTRAWIDENING
1. Find the total pavement width required for a four-
lane highway on a horizontal radius of 250 m. The
design speed is 60 kmph. The length of the longest
wheelbase is 6.1 m.
• Solution:-

6/13/2025 YKS 115

3.7 NUMERICALS ON EXTRAWIDENING

Numerical 2: Find the total width of pavement on a

horizontal curve for a new national highway to be
aligned along a Mountainous terrain with a rulling
minimum radius. Assume necessary data.

6/13/2025 YKS 116

117
Numerical 3: Calculate the amount of extra
widening to be done in a horizontal curve of radius
150m for the road with design speed of 100kmph.
The road has 6 lanes and length of wheel base is
8m

118
3. Calculate the amount of extra width
required on a horizontal curve of radius 300m
on a two lane highway. The design speed is 80
Kmph. Assume the length of wheel base is
6.2m.

119
[Link] the extra widening required for a
pavement of within 7m on a horizontal curve
of radius 250m, if the longest wheel base of
vehicle expected on the road is 7m. Design
speed is 70 Kmph.
Soln: Hints:
• Use formula for total extra widening with
given parameters.
• Single lane width= 3.75m, double lane
width=7m.

120
5. Find the total width of the pavement on a horizontal
curve for a new National Highway to be aligned along
a rolling terrain with a ruling minimum radius.
Assume necessary data.
Soln Hints:i)

ii) Minimum no. of lanes for NH=2

iii) Ruling radius calculated from max ‘e’ and max ‘f’
iv) Calculate total extrawidening
v) Calculate total width of pavement on curve.
6/13/2025 YKS 121
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
• Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance
along the road surface which a driver from a specified
height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary or
moving object.
• In other words, sight distance is the length of road visible
ahead to the driver at any instance.
Road conditions with restrictions in sight distance
1. Horizontal Curves

6/13/2025 YKS 122

3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Road conditions with restrictions in sight distance
2. At vertical summit curve

6/13/2025 YKS 123

3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Road conditions with restrictions in sight distance
3. At Intersections

6/13/2025 YKS 124

125
 Types of sight distance

Sight distance that are required by drivers to be

considered in geometric design are:
• Stopping sight distance
• Intermediate sight distance
• Head light sight distance
• Overtaking sight distance

126
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
• The minimum SD available on a highway at any spot should be
of sufficient length to stop a vehicle travelling at design speed,
safely without collision with any other obstruction. This distance
is called SSD or Non Passing SD.
• The SD available on the road to a driver at any instant depends
on:
 Feature of road ahead
 Height of drivers eye above road surface
 Height of object above the road surface
Factors affecting Sight Distance
1. Total reaction time of a driver
2. Speed of the vehicles
3. Efficiency of the brakes
4. Frictional resistance between the road and the tyres
5. Gradient of the road
6/13/2025 YKS 127
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
1. Total reaction time of a driver:
The total reaction time refers to the interval between the
moment a driver first perceives an object or hazard and the
moment the brakes are effectively applied. The SSD increases
with increase in reaction time of driver.
Total reaction time= perception time+ brake reaction time
a. Perception Time:
The perception time is the time required for the driver to realize
that brakes must be applied. The perception time varies from driver
to driver and also depends upon several other factors such as speed
of vehicles, distance of object, age of driver etc.

6/13/2025 YKS 128

3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
b. Brake Reaction Time:
It is the time that elapses between the moment the foot is
removed from the accelerator paddle and placed on the brakes
and time to actuate the brakes.
PIEV Theory:
According to ‘PIEV’ theory, the total reaction time of the
driver is split into four parts, viz., time taking by the driver
for:
 Perception,
 Intellection
 Emotion
 Volition
6/13/2025 YKS 129
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
PIEV Theory:
 Perception time
‘Perception time’ is the time required for the sensations
receiving by the eyes or ears of the driver to be transmitting to
the brain through the nervous system and spinal cord. In other
words, it is the time requires to perceive an object or situation.
 Intellection time
Intellection time is the time requires for the driver to
understand the situation. It is also the time requires for
comparing the different thoughts. Regrouping and registering
new sensations.
6/13/2025 YKS 130
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
PIEV Theory:
 Emotion time
Emotion time is the time elapse during emotional sensations.
As well as other mental disturbance such as fear, anger or any
other emotional feelings like superstition etc. with reference
to the situation. The emotion time varies for different drivers,
but even for a particular driver the emotion time is likely to
vary considerably depending upon the situation or the actual
problem involve.
 Volition time
‘Volition time’ is the time taking by the driver for the final
action,
6/13/2025such as brake application.
YKS 131
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
PIEV Theory:
It is possible that the driver may apply brakes. To take any other
avoiding action like turning, by the ‘reflex action’, without the normal
thinking process,’ which is probably the minimum time for taking a
preventive action like brake application.

6/13/2025 YKS 132

3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
2. Speed of the vehicles:
Higher the speed higher will be the SD.
3. Efficiency of the brakes
The braking efficiency is said to be 100% if the wheels are
fully locked preventing them from rotating on application of
the brakes. This will result in 100 percent skidding which is
normally undesirable, except in utmost emergency. Also
skidding is considering to be dangerous. As it is not possible
for the driver to easily control a vehicle after it starts skidding.
Hence to avoid skid, the braking forces should not exceed the
frictional force between the wheels and tyres.
6/13/2025 YKS 133
3.8 SIGHT DISTANCE
Factors affecting Sight Distance
4. Frictional resistance between road and tyres:
The frictional resistance developed between road and tyres or
the skid resistance depends on type of tyres and condition of
road surface. The braking distance increases with decrease in
skid resistance.
5. Gradient of the road:
In upgrade SD is less than down gradient.
Analysis of SSD
The SSD of the vehicle is the sum of:
a. Lag Distance: distance travelled by the vehicle during the
total reaction time of the driver.
b. Braking Distance: distance travelled by the vehicle after
the application of the brakes.
6/13/2025 YKS 134
Expression for Stopping Sight Distance/Analysis of
stopping sight distance:

The stopping sight distance of a vehicle is the

sum of:
a. The distance travelled by the vehicle
during the total reaction time known as lag
distance.
b. The distance travelled by the vehicle after
the application of the brakes, to a dead
stop position which is known as braking
distance.
135
 a. Lag distance:
• If the design speed in m/sec and is the total reaction
time of the driver in sec, then the lag distance will be
meters.
• If the design speed is V kmph, then the
• lag distance= t= 0.278Vt meters.
• The total reaction time is considered 2.5 secs for the
calculation of stopping sight distance.

b. Braking distance:
• The braking distance may be obtained by equating the
work done in stopping the vehicle and kinetic energy.
136
If F is the maximum frictional force developed and the
braking distance is L,
The work done against frictional force in stopping vehicle is
F*L=f*W*L
Where W=total weight of vehicle
The kinetic energy at the design speed of v m/sec will be

This will be zero if the vehicle is stopped.

Equating work done and change in kinetic energy.

137
Therefore, the SSD=lag distance+ braking distance given
by,

In kmph,

Note: In ascending gradient (+n%) the component of

gravity parallel to road surface is added which increases
the breaking distance.
Here,
added component=

138
 Now balancing equation;

Similar for descending grade –n%

Breaking distance=

SSD at slope
± .

139
if v in kmph,

If break efficiency is considered;

140
141
 Intermediate Sight Distance
Intermediate sight distance is twice the safe stopping
sight distance. It is experienced that intermediate sight
distance permits reasonably safe overtaking. Single lane
roads should be designed for intermediate sight distance
standard because opposing vehicles occupy the same
lane. In mountainous and steep terrain, it. might be
difficult to design the horizontal alignment with
intermediate sight distance values.

142
1. Calculate the safe stopping distance for
design speed of 60 kmph for
(a) two way traffic in two lane road
(b) two way traffic in a single lane road.

143
Given,
Design speed V = 60 kmph
Let reaction time of driver t = 2.5 secs
Assume coefficient of friction f = 0.35

144
2. Compute the minimum sight distance required to
avoid a head on Collision of two busses approaching
from the opposite directions. The speed of both the
buses is 70 kmph. Assume a total perception and
brake reaction time of 2.5 seconds. Coefficient of
friction is 0.4 and brake efficiency is 50%.

145
146
 Numerical

3. Calculate the minimum sight distance

required to avoid head on collision with a car
approaching from the opposite direction if
both the case are speeding at 60kmph. Use a
total perception and brake reaction time of 2
sec, coefficient of longitudinal friction 0.4 and
brake efficiency 50%. The section of the road
under consideration has a grade 10%.

147
Solution:

148
4. Calculate the safe stopping distance for
design speed of 90 kmph for
(a) two way traffic in two lane road (b) two way
traffic in a single lane road.

149
5. The driver of a vehicle traveling at 80 kmph
up a grade required 9 m less to stop after he
applies the brakes than the driver traveling at
the same initial speed down the same grade. If
the coefficient of friction between tire and
pavement is 0.5, what is the percent grade and
what is braking distance down the grade?

150
151
6. Calculate the values of (i) head light sight
distance and (ii) intermediate distance for a
highway with a design speed of 80kmph,
assume suitable data if necessary. Take
coefficient friction=0.34

152
153
3.8 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
The minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a
vehicle intending to overtake slow vehicle ahead with safety
against the traffic of opposite direction is known as
Overtaking Sight Distance(OSD) or the safe passing sight
distance.
Factors affecting OSD
• Speed of the vehicles
– Overtaking vehicles
– Overtaken vehicles
– Vehicle from the opposite direction
• Distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicle
• Skill and reaction time of the driver
• Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
• Gradient of the road
6/13/2025 YKS 155
3.8 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
Analysis of OSD

Let, A= vehicle intending to overtake. A1, A2 and A3 are its position at

different intervals
B= vehicle to be overtaken and B1,B2 are its various position
C= vehicle coming from opposite direction and C1&C2 are its position at
various intervals
Vb=speed of overtaken vehicle
YKS 156
v= design speed
3.8 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
Analysis of OSD
Complete overtaking process may be splited into three parts:
i. d1= distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the
reaction time ‘t’ sec from A1 to A2.
ii. d2= distance travelled by the overtaking vehicle ‘A’ during
the overtaking process from A2 to A3 in time ‘T’ sec.
iii. d3= distance travelled by an oncoming vehicle during
overtaking operation from C1 to C2 in time ‘T’ sec.
Therefore, OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
i. Calculation of d1: it is assumed that vehicle ‘A’ is forced
to reduce its speed to vb of the slow vehicle B and moves
behind it allowing space ‘s’.
6/13/2025 i.e. d1= vb * t 157
3.8 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
ii. Calculation of d2: from position A2 the vehicle A starts
accelerating and shifts to the adjoining lane, overtakes vehicle
B and shifts back to the original lane ahead of B in position A3
in time T sec.
The minimum spacing of the vehicle A & B depends upon the
speed and is given by empirical formula:
S= (0.7 vb + 6), m
 Distance travelled by B in time T sec, b= vb * T
 Distance travelled by A in time T sec, = vbT + aT2
Therefore, d2 = (b+2s) = vbT + aT2
Equating corresponding terms,
2s= aT2

6/13/2025
i.e. T= , sec 158
3.8 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
iii. Calculation of d3:
d3 = v * T
Therefore OSD= d1+d2+d3= vbt+ (vbT + 2s)+ vT
In Kmph Units,
OSD= 0.28vbt+ 0.28vbT + 2s+ 0.28vT
Where,
vb = speed of overtaken vehicle, Kmph
t = reaction time of a driver (2 sec)
v= speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, Kmph

T= , s= (0.7vb + 6), vb in m/s

a= acceleration in m/s2

Or T= , s= (0.2vb + 6), vb in Kmph

A= acceleration in Kmph/sec
Note: if v is not given , take v = (v-16) , kmph
b b
6/13/2025 or v = (v-4.5) , m/s 159
b
3.8 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE
Overtaking Zones:
Overtaking zones are provided when OSD cannot be provided
throughout the length of the highway. These are zones dedicated for
overtaking operation, marked with wide roads. The desirable length of
overtaking zones is 5 time OSD and the minimum is three times
OSD.

6/13/2025 YKS 160

 Numerical
1. A vehicle moving at a speed of 90kmph
decided to overtake another slow moving
vehicle. Calculate safe overtaking sight
distance consider
a. Two lane with two way traffic
b. Two lane with one way traffic.
Assume all data suitably (acceleration = 2.5
kmph/sec)
Total reaction time= 2.5 sec
161
162
2. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken
vehicles are 60kmph and 30kmph respectively
on a two way traffic road. If the acceleration of
the overtaking vehicle is 3.6kmph sec.
a) Calculate the sate overtaking sight distance.
b) Determent the minimum length of
overtaking zone.
b) c) Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking
zone and show the positions of the sign
posts.

163
164
3. The speed of overtaking vehicle and overtaken
vehicles are 70 and 40 kmph respectively on a two
way traffic road. If the acceleration of overtaking
vehicle is 0.99 m/s2 , calculate:
3. Calculate safe OSD
4. Mention the minimum length of overtaking zone
5. Draw a neat sketch of the overtaking zone and
show the positions of sign post.

6/13/2025 YKS 165

Tutorials:
1. A vehicle is moving at a speed of 100 Kmph decided to
overtake another slow moving vehicle. Calculate the safe
overtaking sight distance. Considering the following:
a. Two Lane road with two way traffic.
b. One lane road with one way traffic. Assume all necessary
data. Take a=3.6 Kmph/sec.
2. The speed of the overtaking and overtaken vehicles are
70Kmph and 40 Kmph respectively on a two way traffic road. If
the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 1m/sec2. Calculate the
following:
a. Safe overtaking sight distance
b. Minimum and desirable length of overtaking zone

166
 Transition curve
A curve of varying radius introduces between a
straight and circular curve is called transition
curve. The radius varies from infinity at its
beginning point and decreases gradually and
tends to radius of circular curve at point of
junction.

167
Function or objectives providing transition curves:-

• To gradually introduce centrifugal force, to

avoid sudden jerk causing uncomforted to
passenger.
• To introduce gradually design super elevation
and extra widening of pavement at the start
of the circular curve.
• To enable the driver to turn the steering
gradually for his own comfort and safety.
• It improves aesthetic appearance of the road.

168
 Types of transition curve

A. Spiral or clothoid
• This is a curve at which radius
is inversely proportional to its
length.

169
 B. Bernoulli lemniscates

• This is the curve at which radius

is inversely proportional to the
length of chord

C. Cubic parabola
• This is the curve at which
radius of which varies
inversely as its abscissa.

170
171
The spiral as transition curve in the horizontal
alignment of highway is recommended
because:-
a. Spiral curve satisfies the requirement of an
ideal transition curve.
b. Calculation and setting out the curve in the
field is simple and easy.

172
 Design of transition curve
The length of transition curve should be determined as
the maximum of the following three criteria:
i. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
ii. Rate of introduction of Superelevation
iii. By empirical formula
a. Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration:-

Centrifugal acceleration should be developed at such low rate that

it will not cause discomfort to the passenger. If be the length of
transition curve, t is the time to travel through the length of the
transition curve. v is the design speed, m/sec
173
Where C is the rate of
change of centrifugal
acceleration given by an
empirical formula
suggested by IRC as
below:

Subjected to 0.5<C<0.8
174
b. Rate of introduction of super-
elevation: In the open areas with
sufficient space for roadway clearance is
not desirable to raise the out edge of
road at a larger rate than 1 in 150. In
case of built up and hilly areas, rate of
rise of outer edge may be taken as 1 in
100 and 1 in 60 respectively.

175
176
177
If the rate of introducing the super-elevation
is 1 in N, then the length of transition curve is
given by at Centre line rotation:

Similarly, if the pavement is rotated about the

inner edge, the length of the transition curve
is given by:

178
 C. Using empirical formula: According to the IRC recommendation
the length of transition curve Ls should be not less than the value
given by the following equation for the terrain classification.
a. For plain and rolling terrain:

b. For hilly and steep terrain:

`
`V=Kmph
The length of transition curve should be higher of the three above values
mentioned above. Shift(s)= Ls2/24R

179
 As per NRS 2070:
Length of transition curve for different radii of horizontal curve is tabulated
below:

Radius, m 20 30 50 60 80 100 150 200 250 300 400 500 1000

Length of 20 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
transition
curve, m

180
 Calculation of Lateral Shift
The transition curves are provided on a both
ends of the circular curve. After providing the
transition curve, the circular curve gets shifted
towards inner side and shift (S) of curve can be
calculated by:
Shift (S)=
Where R- Radius of the circular curve.
When the shift value (S) of transition curve is
less than 0.25 m no transition curve need to be
provided.
181
182
 Elements of the combined curve
After providing the transition curve on the
horizontal curve, the elements of combined
curve will be:

183
184
 Numerical
1. A two lane pavement in plane terrain with an extra
widening of 0.2 m is provided on a horizontal curve of
radius 200 m. The allowable rate or change of
centrifugal acceleration is 0.6 m/sec3, allowable rate
of change of super elevation is 1 in 100, design speed
is 60 kmph.
1. The pavement is rotated about inner edge to
achieve super elevation.
2. The length of transition curve in meter is
3. The value of shift in meter is
 Numerical

2. The radius of circular curve of the two lane

highway with a design speed of 70 kmph is
220m. Assume extra widening is not necessary.
Calculate the length of the transition curve and
shift of the curve. Assume other necessary data
approximately if require.

187
188
3. transition curve is provided to connect a circular
curve with a straight section of road. If the design
speeds on the circular curve 100 kmph is 250.
Determine the length of transition curve for
comfort and for introducing super elevation at your
suitably and Selected desirable rate. The width of
the pavement at straight section is 7 m and length
of wheel base of the design vehicle is 6 m.(Assume
pavement is rotated about center)

189
190
4. A national highway curve of 525 m radius is to be
set out to connect two straight. The maximum
speed of the moving vehicles on this curve is
restricted to 90 kmph. Transition curve are to be
introduced at each of the curve. Calculate:
a. A suitable length of transition curve
b. The necessary shift of the circular curve
c. The chainage at the beginning and end of the
curve.
Given that angle of intersection=
Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration=

Chainage at the point of intersection= 1092.5 m

191
192
193
Numerical example:
1. A highway with 2 lanes, each 3.5m wide has 0.6m
of extra-widening at a horizontal curve of radius 150
m. Design the length of transition curve if design
speed is 65 Kmph. Desired rate of introducing super-
elevation is 1 in 80. Assume pavement is rotated
about the inner edge.
2. Design the transition curve for national highway
constructed in plain terrain of the country. The radius
of curve is 220m. Assume suitable data if necessary.

194
 Set back distance on horizontal curve
• Design of horizontal alignment, the sight distance along
the inner side of the curves in order to provide
adequate sight distance.
• The clearance distance or set back distance required
from the center line of a horizontal curve to an
obstruction on the inner side of the curve to provide
adequate sight distance depends upon the following
factors:-
a. Required sight distance, S
b. Radius of horizontal curves, R
c. Length of the curve, which may be greater or less
than S.
195
196
Case (a): Lc>S
Let the length of curve Lc be greater than the sight distances S.
The angle subtended by the arc length S at the center be α. On a
single lane roads, the sight distance is measured along the center
line of the road and the angle subtended at the center.

197
For single lane roads,

= s/R radians

Therefore half center angle is given by radians= degrees

The distance from the obstruction to the center of the curve is

Therefore, setback distance m required from the center line is given by:

m=R-
For multi lane roads,

Where, d is the distance between centerline of the road and the centerline
of the inside lane in meter.

199
Case (b): Lc<S
If the sight distance required is greater than the length of
curve Lc, then the angle subtended at the center is
determined with reference to the length of circular curve Lc
and set back distance is worked out as given below:

200
For single lane roads,

The setback is the sum of m1 and m2 given by:

where
For multiple road and m is given by:

The clearance of obstruction up to the setback distance is important

when there is cut slope on the inner side of horizontal curve.
202
 Numerical
1. A four lane divided highway has a curve 1000
m long and a radius of 550m. the safe stopping
sight distance of 250 m. Calculate the minimum
set back distance from the inner edge of curve
to a building to ensure safe visibility. The
pavement width per lane is 3.5 m

203
204
205
2. The radius of centre line of circular curve is
650m and the sight distance required is 400m.
The length of curve is 300m. Find out the set
back from an obstruction to the centre line if
the pavement width is two lane.

206
207
208
3. A six lane divided carriageway has a curve
length 1000m and a radius of 500m. The safe
stopping sight distance is 200m. Calculate the
minimum set back distance from the inner
edge of the road to the edge of building to
ensure visibility. The pavement width per lane
is 3.5.

209
210
4. There is a horizontal highway curve of radius
400m and length 200m on this highway.
Compute the set back distance required from
the centre line on the inner side of the curve
so as to provide for.
a) Stopping sight distance of 90m
b) Safe overtaking sight distance of 300m
The distance between the centre line of the
road and the inner lane is 1.9m
L = 200m, R = 400m, d = 1.9m
211
212
 Elements of Vertical Alignment
Vertical Alignment:
The vertical alignment is the elevation or profile
of the center line of the road. In order to have
smooth vehicle movement on the roads, the
change in the grade should be smoothened out
by setting vertical alignment. It consists of grade
and vertical curves and it influences the vehicle
speed, acceleration, stopping distance, sight
distance and comfort in vehicle movements at
high speed.
213
3.9 GRADIENT
Definition and types of gradient:
• It is defined as the rate of rise or fall along the
length of the road with respect to the horizontal is
known as Gradient of Road.
• In another word, it is the longitudinal slope
provided to the formation level of the road along
its alignment.
• It is generally expressed in 1 in n ( where 1 is a
vertical unit to n is a horizontal unit)
• It is also expressed in percentage.
Gradient = (Vertical distance / Horizontal distance) x 100

214
Purpose of Providing Gradient to the Roads
• To connect the two stations or points with each other,
which are located at different levels.
• To provide effective drainage of rainwater.
• To provide uniform rate of rise or fall as far as
practicable.
• To make the earthwork required for the road
construction economic by balancing cutting and filling.

215
Factors Affecting Gradient

– Nature of the ground

– Safety required
– Drainage required
– Total height to be covered
– Hauling capacity of railway engines.

216
NRS guidelines for gradient

217
Types of gradient:
1. Ruling gradient: The gradient, which is usually adopted while making
the alignment of the road, is known as the ruling gradient. The ruling
gradient is used for designing the road because it gives maximum safety
at minimum cost.
2. Limiting gradient: The gradient, which is steeper than the ruling
gradient, is known as the limiting gradient. In some situations, we
cannot adopt the ruling gradient, where we have to use a limiting
gradient. It is usually used in hilly terrain and rolling terrain. The
topographical condition of a place compels adopting the steeper
gradient. It is also known as the maximum gradient.
3. Exceptional gradient: The gradient, which is steeper than the limiting
gradient, is known as the exceptional gradient. This type of gradient is
generally used in an extraordinary situation where shorter lengths of the
roads are available.
4. Minimum gradient: The minimum desirable slope which is essential
for the effective drainage of rainwater from the surface of the road is
known as a minimum gradient. It is usually adapt where surface
drainage is important.
218
Grade compensation on horizontal curves:
When a horizontal curve is introduced on a road in addition to the
gradient, there will be increasing resistance to friction due to both gradient
and curve. In such cases then the gradient should be decreased to
compensate for the loss of tractive effort due to curve. This reduction in
gradient at the horizontal curve on road is called grade compensation.
Grade Compensation Formula
Grade compensation at curve is calculated from the following
formula or say relation:
• Grade compensation=

• Maximum limit of grade compensation is

Where R is the radius of the curve in m.
Note: According to NRS the grade compensation is not necessary for
gradient flatter than 4%.

219
 Numerical
1. The ruling gradient is 5% or 1 in 20 and the
radius of the horizontal curve is 100 m.
Determine the compensated on the curve.

220
Solution:
Radius (R)= 100 m
Amount of grade compensation=

But maximum amount of grade compensation

Therefore compensated gradient at the curve

= 5%-0.75%=4.75%
221
VERTICAL CURVES
Vertical Curves:
• Due to change in vertical alignment of highways, it is necessary to
introduce vertical curve at the intersection of different grades to
smoothen out the vertical profile and thus ease off the changes in
gradients for the fast moving vehicles.
• Vertical curves are applied:
 At an intersection of two slopes on highway or a roadway.
 To provide a safe and comfort ride for vehicles on a roadway.
Requirements of vertical curve:
• Important requirement of vertical curve is that it should provide
uniform change of gradient. i.e. change of gradient is constant.
• If y=f(x) be the general equation of curve for a vertical curve then

222
 This requirement is fulfilled by parabolic curve. Moreover
parabolic curve is mostly used due to following reason:
• It is flatter at the top and hence provides larger sight
distance reducing probability of accidents.
• Rate of change of gradient is uniform throughout
producing best riding experience.
• It is simple in calculating offset for setting out vertical
curve.
Types of vertical curve
The vertical curves used in highways may be classified into
two categories:
a. Summit curve or crest curve
b. Valley curve or Sag curve
223
 Summit curve
Summit curve are vertical curves with convexity upward.
They are formed when two gradients meet as illustrated
in figure below in any of the following four ways:

1. When an ascending gradient meets another ascending

gradient.
2. When an ascending gradient meets a horizontal road.
3. When ascending road meets a descending road.
4. When descending gradient meets another descending
gradient.

224
225
 Length of Summit Curves
• The length of summit curve can be derived
from the simple geometry as shown below:
Case a: Length of summit curve greater than
sight distance (L>S)
The situation when the sight distance is less than
the length of the curve is shown in the figure
below:

226
Where,
L= length of summit curve, m.
S= Sight distance, m.
N= deviation angle, equal to algebraic
difference in grades.
H= height of eye level of driver above
roadway surface, m.
h= height of object above pavement
surface, m.

227
Case b: Length of summit curve less than
sight distance (L<S)
The second case is illustrated in figure below:

228
 𝟐

Where,
L= length of summit curve, m.
S= stopping sight distance(SSD), m.
N= deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference
in grades.
H= height of eye level of driver above roadway
surface, m.
h= height of object above pavement surface, m.

229
While designing length of the parabolic curve it is
necessary to consider the SSD and OSD or ISD
separately.
1. Length of summit curve for stopping sight
distance (SSD)
a. When L>SSD

Where,
L= length of summit curve, m.
S= stopping sight distance(SSD), m.
N= deviation angle, equal to algebraic difference in grades.
H= height of eye level of driver above roadway surface, m. (Take H= 1.2 m if not given)
h= height of object above pavement surface, m. (Take h= 0.15 m if not given).
L=NS2/4.4
230
b. When L<SSD:

putting 𝟏 =1.2m and 𝟐 =0.15m

2. Length of summit curve for safe overtaking distance (OSD)

or intermediate sight distance:
Two cases are to be considered in deciding the length of summit
curve
a. L>OSD/ISD

231
In this case value of and both are taken equal to
1.20 m. Substituting the value of =

b. When L<OSD/ISD:

In this case value of and both are taken equal to

1.20 m. Substituting the value of =

232
By using any of the two conditions the required
length of the summit curve is then calculated. The
minimum radius of the curve R is calculated from
the relation

It is emphasized that these are minimum lengths

and that greater sight distance up to the passing
sight distance should be provided where this is
economically and technically feasible.

233
 Valley Curve

• When two grades meet at the valley and the curve

will have convexity downwards, the curve is simply
referred as the valley curve.

• This curve is provided to secure safety and adequate

visibility together with comfort to the passengers.

• Valley curve are also called sag curve.

• Valley curve or sag curves are vertical curves with

convexity downward.
234
• Valley curve are formed when two gradients meet in
any of the following four ways:

i. When a descending gradient meets another

descending gradient.

ii. When a descending gradient meets a level gradient.

iii. When a descending gradient meets an ascending

gradient.

iv. When an ascending gradient meets another

ascending gradient.
235
236
Design consideration of Valley Curve:
There is no restriction to sight distance at valley curves during day time.
But visibility is reduced during night. In the absence or inadequacy of
street light, the only source for visibility is with the help of headlights.
Hence valley curves are designed taking into account of headlight
distance. In valley curves, the centrifugal force will be acting downwards
along with the weight of the vehicle, and hence impact to the vehicle will
be more. This will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause discomfort to
the passengers. Thus the most important design factors considered in
valley curves are:
• Impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and
• Availability of stopping sight distance under headlight of vehicles for
night driving.
237
Length of Valley Curve:

• The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two

similar transition curves of equal length. The transition curve is
set out by a cubic parabola y = bx3 where b = 2N/3L2. The
length of the valley transition curve is designed based on two
criteria:

i. Comfort criteria: The allowable rate of change of centrifugal

acceleration is limited to a comfortable level of about 0.6 m/sec3.

ii. Safety criteria: The driver should have adequate headlight sight
distance at any part of the curve.

238
239
Comfort criteria :The length of the valley curve is
based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
that will ensure comfort. Let c is the rate of change of
acceleration, R the minimum radius of the curve, v is
the design speed and t is the time, then c is given as:
We know the length of transition curve: 3
v
Ls 
CR
Minimum radius (R) at any point on the curve is:

Ls L  L
R   ;  L s  
N 2N  2
v3 v3N Nv 3
Ls   L2s 
CR CL s C
Total length of the Valley curve is Nv 3
L  2 Ls  2
C 240
Where,
L= total length of valley curve, m.
N= deviation angle, algebraic difference in grades
V= design speed , Kmph
C= allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration, m/s3,can be taken as 0.6m/s3 for
design)
Therefore ,
L = 0.38 (NV3)^

241
Safety criteria (head light sight distance): Length of the valley
curve for headlight distance may be determined for following
conditions:

Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight

distance (L > S) :The total length of valley curve L is greater
than the stopping sight distance SSD. The sight distance
available will be minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest
point in the valley. This is because the beginning of the curve
will have infinite radius and the bottom of the curve will have
minimum radius which is a property of the transition curve.

242
 

243
Where N is the deviation angle in radians, h is the
height of headlight beam, is the head light beam
inclination in degrees and S is the sight distance. The
inclination is approximately 1 degree.
NS 2
L
2h  2S tan

If the average height of the headlight is taken as h =

0.75 m and the beam angle is one degree then the
length of Valley curve is given by:

NS 2
L
1 .5  0 .035 S
244
Case 2: Length of valley curve smaller than stopping sight
distance (L < S) : In this case the minimum sight distance is
from the beginning of the curve. The important points are
the beginning of the curve and the bottom most part of
the curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then
its headlight beam will reach far beyond the endpoint of
the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at the beginning of the
curve, then the headlight beam will hit just outside the
curve. Therefore, the length of the curve is derived by
assuming the vehicle at the beginning of the curve.
245



246
Where N is the deviation angle in radians, h is the
height of headlight beam, is the head light beam
inclination in degrees and S is the sight distance. The
inclination is approximately 1 degree.
2h  2 S tan 
L  2S 
N
If the average height of the headlight is taken as h1
= 0.75 m and the beam angle is one degree then the
length of Valley curve is given by:

1.5  0.035S
L  2S 
N
247
Elements of vertical curves:
1. Tangent length
2. Length of the curve L=2T
3. Apex distance

248
249
250
Numerical on vertical Curve:
1. A vertical curve connects a -3% grade with
+4.5% grade on a highway at an elevation of
320.8m above mean sea level. The curve
should be designed at least to provide the
visibility of the road surface to a distance of
250m at night time. Calculate the elevation of
beginning, lowest and end point of vertical
curve and at a distance of 60m left and 60m
right from the point of vertical intersection.
The head light beam angle and height of the
head light from the road surface is 1.5 ^0 and
0.6m respectively.
251
252
253
254
255
1. A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection
of two gradients, +3.0% and -5.0%. Design the
length of summit curve to provide a SSD for a design
speed of 80 Kmph. Assume other data.
2. An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 meets a
descending gradient of 1 in 120. A summit curve is to
be designed for a speed of 80 Kmph so as to have an
overtaking sight distance of 470m.
3. A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of
1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of 1 in 30.
Design the length of valley curve to fulfill both
comfort condition and headlight sight distance
requirement for a design speed of 80 Kmph. Assume
C= 0.6 m/s3.
256
4. A valley curve is formed with a descending
grade of 3% meeting with ascending grade of
2.5%. Design the length of valley curve to
fulfill both comfort and headlight sight
distance requirements for a design speed of 80
Kmph. Assume allowable rate of change of
centrifugal acceleration C=0.6m/s3.

257